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THE 



BIBLE HAND-BOOK: 



AH INTRODUCTION 



TO 



C|e Stabg of Buxth $m$wt:l 



BY 



JOSEPH AJS T &US, D.D., 

MEME-EE OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, 



PHILADELPHIA : 

WILLIAM S. & ALFRED MABTIEN, 
No. 144, CHESTNUT STREET. 

1856. 






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By Transfer 

D« C. Pubiic Library 

MAY 1 1 1937 



w ■ .( Hi ) 

CO 

in 
^ PREFACE. 

UA 

> 

The following pages are intended as an introduction to 
the study of Scripture, and are written with the view of 
being used by all classes of intelligent readers. On a 
first perusal by younger readers, it is suggested that the 
sections marked ( a ) in the table of Contents, be omitted, 
together with such paragraphs as may be thought too 
abstruse. The attempt to adapt the work to both young 
and advanced students, renders such a selection at the 
outset desirable ; and the whole has been written so as 
to make the portions read in the first instance, easily 
intelligible and complete in themselves. On the other 
hand, any who wish to consult the book on particular 
subjects — as on the study of the Greek Testament, or on 
the proof of particular doctrines — can easily do so by the 
help of the index. 

If any wish to connect the study of these pages with 
the study of Theological Science generally, he will find 
the following classification important. 

Theology is Exegetical, Historical, Systematic, and 
Pastoral : 

Under the head of Exegetical Theology are placed— 

Philology, or the study of the languages of Scripture, with 
their cognate dialects, see ch. i. sees. 2, 4: ch. iv. sec. 5. 

Criticism, which aims first to establish a correct text, and 
secondly, to explain the peculiarities of the style, etc., of 
the several books, see ch. i. sees. 1, 3, 5, 6: ch. vi. sec. 1, and 
Introductions to Pent., Gospels, Epistles, etc. 

Hermeneutics, or the theory and practice of interpretation, 
ch. i. sec. 6 : ch. iv., and ch. vi. 



iV PREFACE. 

Under the head of Historical Theology are placed — 

Archeology, with its two divisions; Biblical Archaeology, 
which treats of ancient customs, etc., see ch. iv. sec. 6; and 
Ecclesiastical j which treats of the opinions of early Jewish 
and Christian sects and writers, see ch. iv. sec. 6: Part ii. 
ch. iv. sec. 2 : ch. vi. sec. 1: ch. vii. sec. 1. 

History of Doctrine, of which this volume does not treat. 

Under the head of Systematic Theology are placed — 

Dogmatic Theology, which treats of matters of faith, etc. 
Practical Theology, which treats of practice. 

See chaps, iii., v., vii., and Introduction to Cor., Romans, etc. 

Under the head of Pastoral Theology are placed — 

Homiletics, of which this volume treats but indirectly, see 

ch. vii. 
The Pastoral Care and Ecclesiastical Law, of which 

nothing is said here. 

The Evidence of Christianity and the External 
History of the church of Christ are distinct branches 
of inquiry. Of the first, the following pages treat at 
some length, chap. i. sec. 1 ; chap. ii. sees. 1-4, etc. 

To some of the subjects enumerated in this list, this 
volume is only an introduction intended to guide the 
advanced reader to larger works ; but on most, it will be 
found sufficiently full to enable earnest-minded inquirers 
to study and master the evidences, facts, and doctrines of 
Scripture for themselves. 3 Its aim is to teach men to 
understand and appreciate The Bible, and, at the same 
time, to give such information on ancient literature and 
history, as may aid the work of general education among 
all classes. 

a With the view of adapting the work more completely for use, 
a set of questions have been prepared, which give a full epitome 
of the whole, and may be had at 5 6, Paternoster Row. 



( v ) 



CONTENTS. 

Preface . . . iii 

PAET I. 

Introductory p. i 

CHAPTER I. 

On the Genuineness of Scripture : or the Bible as Inspired 
Men wrote it p. 4 

Sec. i. Genuineness defined and proved, § 6-24. 

Sec. 2. a The original languages of Scripture: Hebrew and the 

Shemitish languages generally; Hellenistic or Hebrew 

Greek of the New Testament and LXX, § 25-41. 
Sec. 3- a The manuscripts of Scripture, § 42-64. 
Sec. 4. a The ancient versions of Scripture, § 65-74. 
Sec. 5. a The various readings of Scripture: rules for determining 

the text, § 75-112. 
Sec. 6. The English version oh the whole identical with the 

original text, § 1 13-134. 

CHAPTER II. 

On the Authenticity and Authority of Scripture . . p. 65 

Sec. 1. Scripture claims to be regarded as an inspired teacher, 

and as the only inspired teacher, § 135-145. 
Sec. 2. Inspiration, § 146-150. 
Sec. 3. The canon, § 151-166. 
Sec. 4. Scripture evidences, § 167-213. 

CHAPTER III. 

Peculiarities of the Bible as a Revelation from God p. 116 

Sec. 1. A revelation of God, of Christ, and of human nature, 

§ 214-218. 
Sec. 2. A revelation of spiritual religious truth, § 219-227. 
Sec. 3. A gradual and progressive revelation, § 228-238. 
Sec. 4. The unity of the Bible, § 239-245. 
Sec. 5. Not a revelation of systematic truth or specific rules, 

§246-253. 



VI CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER IV. 



On the Interpretation of Scripture . . . p. 139 

Sec. 1. Of the necessity for care in the study of Scripture, 

§ 254-269. 
Sec. 2. Of the spirit in which the Bible should be studied, 

§270-273. 
Sec. 3. Of rules of interpretation, § 274-309. 
Sec. 4. Of the utility and application of rules in interpretation, 

§310, 311. 
Sec. 5« a Of the application of these rules to the study of the 

original Scriptures, § 312-338. 
Sec. 6. Of the use of external helps in interpretation; Jewish and 

heathen opinions; history, profane and ecclesiastical; 

chronology; natural history; manners and customs; 

geography, historical and physical, § 339-404. 
Sec. 7. Of the application of these rules to the interpretation of 

allegories, parables, types, and symbols, § 405-433. 
Sec. 8. a Of the interpretation of prophecy, § 434-454. 

CHAPTER V. 

On the Systematic and Inferential Study of the Scrip- 
tures p. 309 

Sec. 1. Of the study of the doctrines of Scripture, § 455-464. 
Sec. 2. Of the study of the precepts of Scripture, § 465-472. 
Sec. 3. Of the study of the promises of Scripture, § 473-480. 
Sec. 4. Of the study of the examples of Scripture, § 481-487. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Principles and Rules illustrated in the Quotations of the 

New Testament from the Old, and applied to the 

Solution of Scripture Difficulties . . . p. 332 

Sec. i. a Quotations classified and examined with reference to the 

state of the text, the truths and evidences of Scripture, 

and principles of interpretation, § 489-500. 

Sec. 2. Scripture difficulties, § 501-523. 



CHAPTER VII. 
On the Inferential and Practical Reading of the Bible, p. 360 



CONTENTS. Vii 

PAET II. 

THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. 

Introductory . „ P- 3 73 

CHAPTER I. 

The Pentateuch and the Book of Job . . . P- 373 

Sec. i. Genuineness and authenticity of the Pentateuch, § 7-13. 

Sec. 2. The Book of Job, § 14-17. 

Sec. 3. Of Hebrew poetry and the Poetical Books, § 18. 

Sec. 4. The Books of the Pentateuch arranged and epitomized 
with occasional helps, § 19-24. 

Sec. 5 . The design of the Law ; summary of its religious insti- 
tutions, § 25-31. 

CHAPTER II. 

Historical and Poetical Books to the Death of Solomon, 

p. 419 
Sec. 1. The Historical Books of Scripture generally, § 32-35. 
Sec. 2. Brief outline of these Historical Books, § 36. 
Sec. 3. The Books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, § 37-42. 
Sec. 4. The Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, § 43-51. 
Sec. 5. The Poetical Books — Psalms, Song of Solomon, Proverbs, 

and Ecclesiastes, § 52*62. 
Sec. 6. The whole arranged and epitomized, with occasional helps, 

§ 63-68. 

CHAPTER III. 

Historical Books from the Death of Solomon to the Close 01 
the Old Testament Canon . . , . p. 466 

Sec. 1. Brief historical view of this period ; the Prophets in con- 
nection with history, § 69-73. 

Sec. 2. The nature of Prophecy during this period ; Predictions 
arranged according to time and according to subjects, 

§ 74-76. 
Sec. 3 . The Books of Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, 

Nahum, § 77-87. 
Sec. 4. The Books of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Daniel, 

Ezekiel, and Obadiah. The Captivity, § 88-94. 
Sec. 5. The Books of Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Esther, Nehemiah, 

and Malachi, § 95-102. 
Sec. 6. The whole arranged and epitomized, § 103-106. 
Sec. 7.- Chronology of Scripture and early profane history from 

the Deluge to the close of the Canon, § 107. 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Civil and Moral History of the Jews from Malachi to John 
the Baptist . . . . . . . P* 53 7 

Sec. i. Sketch of the Civil History of the Jews between the two 

Testaments, § 1 08-1 15. 
Sec. 2. Sketch of the Moral and Religious History of the Jews 
between the two Testaments, § 1 16-128. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Gospels P- 55 1 

Introductory, § 129-134. 

Sec. 1. The Gospels in their mutual relations, § 135, 136. 

Sec. 2. The genuineness of the Gospels, § 137. 

Sec. 3. Introduction to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, § 138-141. 

Sec. 4. The Chronology of the Gospels, § 142. 

Sec. 5. The Gospels Harmonized, § 143-150. 

Sec. 6. Topics to be noticed in reading the Gospels. Lessons to 
be gathered from a comparison of passages, § 151, 152. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Book of Acts p. 572 

Sec. 1. The Gospel and the Gentiles, § 1 53-161. 

Sec. 2. Introduction to the Book of Acts, § 162, 163. 

Sec. 3. Chronology of the Acts and Epistles arranged, § 164-166. 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Epistles and the Book of Revelation . . . p. 583 

Sec. 1. On the study of the Epistles, § 167-169. 

Sec. 2. On the genuineness of the Epistles, § 170. 

Sec. 3. Helps to study of 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 and 
2 Corinthians, Romans, James, Ephesians, Colossians, 
Philemon, Philippians, Hebrews, 1 Peter, 1 Timothy, 
Titus, 2 Peter, 2 Timothy, Jude, and precepts given 
in each, with epitome of Doctrines, § 1 71-195. 

Sec. 4. Helps to the Study of 1, 2, and 3 John, and to the Book 
of Revelation, § 196-204. 

Index . p. 651 



THE 



BIBLE HAND-BOOK 



PART I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

" I use the Scriptures not as an arsenal to be resorted to only for arms and wea- 

*:ons . . . but as a matchless temple, where I delight to contemplate the beauty, the 
symmetry, and the magnificence of the structure ; and to increase my awe and 
excite my devotion to the Deity there preached and adored.'"— Boyle ■ On the Style of 
Scripture, 3d obj. 8. 

" Scarcely can vre fix our eyes upon a single passage in this wonderful book ^vhioh 
has not afforded comfort or instruction to thousands, and been met with tears of 
penitential sorrow or grateful joy drawn from eyes that will weep no more.'' — ■ 
Paysox: The Bible above all Price. 

u This lamp, from off the everlasting throne, 
Mercy took down, and in the night of time 
Stood, casting on the dark her gracious bow, 
And evermore beseeching men with tears 
And earnest sighs, to hear, believe, and five.'" — Pollok. 

i. Even as a literary composition, the sacred Scriptures 
The Bible: form the most remarkable hock the world has ever 
its claims. seen. They are of ah writings the most ancient. 
They contain a record of events of the deepest interest. The 
history of their influence is the history of civilization and 
happiness. The wisest and best of mankind have borne wit- 
ness to their power as an instrument of enlightenment and of 
holiness ; and having been prepared by " men of God who 
spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost/' a to reveal u the 
only true God and Jesus Christ whom he has sent/' b they 
have on this ground the strongest claims upon our attentive 
and reverential regard. 

The use of a hand-book of Scripture requires one or two 
cautions, which both writer and readers need to keep before 
them. 



a ^ 



2 Pet. 1. 2r. b John 17. 3: Ps. 19. 



2 THE BIBLE — HOW TO BE STUDIED. 

2. First, we are not to contemplate this glorious fabric of 
To be Divine truth as spectators only. It is not our 
fSlnd business to stand before Scripture and admire it ; 
obedience. but to stand within, that we may believe and obey 
it. In the way of inward communion and obedience only shall 
we see the beauty of its treasures. It yields them to none 
but the loving and the humble. We must enter and unite 
ourselves with that which we would know, before we can 
know it more than in name. a 

3. Secondly, nor must the study of a help to Scripture be 
All helps of confounded with the study of Scripture itself, 
value only as Such helps may teach us to look at truth so as to 

tliev lcid to 

the Bible see its position and proportions, but it is the en- 
ltse ' trance of truth alone which gives light. The road 

we are about to travel may prove attractive and pleasing, but 
its great attraction is its end. It leads to the "wells of salva- 
tion." To suppose that the journey, or the sight of the living 
water — perhaps, even of the place whence it springs — will 
quench our thirst, is to betray most mournful self-deceit or 
the profoundest ignorance. Our aim — " the sabbath and port 
of our labours " — is to make more clear and impressive the 
Book of God, "the god of books," b as one calls it, the Bible 
itself. 

4. The names by which this volume is distinguished are 
its names, not wanting in significance. It is called the Bible, 
The Bible. or ^ e j 00 ^ from the Greek word fiiGXog, book, a 
name given originally (like liber in Latin) to the inner bark of 
the linden, or teil-tree, and afterwards to the bark of the 
papyrus, the materials of which early books were sometimes 
made. 

It is called the Old and New Testament (that is, covenant 
Old and New or appointment), the term by which God was 
Testament, pleased to indicate the relation or settled arrange- 
ment between himself and his people. The term was first 
applied to the relation itself, e and afterwards to the books in 
which the records of the relation are contained. 

Among the Jews, the Old Testament was called " The Law, 

a Prov. 2. 2-5: John 7. 17. b The Synagogue, No. xiv. 

c Ex. 24. 7 k 2 Kings 23. 2: 2 Cor. 3. 6-14. hapten, in classic 
Greek is disposition, or a will ; in Hellenistic Greek, it is often 
equivalent to o-uvGyiw, a covenant. Gen. 21. 27, 32: 26. 28: 31. 44. 



THE BIBLE — ITS TITLES. 3 

The Law, the Prophets, and the Writings." Sometimes the 
foe Prophets, wr itings, or (as the Greek name is) the Hagiographa, 
\\ri tings. were called, from the first book under the division, 

the Psalms. a 

What books were included in these divisions we gather 
from ancient Jewish authorities. Josephus reckons two-and- 
twenty canonical books of the Old Testament, and the whole 
may be thus divided : — 

The five books of Moses pnta}. Torah. The Law. 
The Prophets [OW3J]. Nebiim. 

The historical division D^WO DW13, Nebiim Eishonim, 
namely — 
i. Joshua. 6. Daniel. 

2. Judges and Euth. 7. Ezra and Nehemiah. 

3. Samuel, 1 and 2. 8. Esther. 

4. Kings, 1 and 2. 9. Job. 

5. Chronicles, 1 and 2. 

The Prophets, properly so called, D'OVITO DW?J. Nebiim 
Acharonim. 
10. Isaiah. 11. Jeremiah and Lamentations. 

12. Ezekiel. 13. The twelve minor Prophets. 

And the Hagiographa, D^HS, Cethubim, namely — 
The Psalms, the Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and 
Ecclesiastes. 
In modern copies the following are also placed among the 
Hagiographa : — 

Job, Euth, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehe- 
miah, and Chronicles. 
And this is the arrangement now in use in the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures. 

The terms, "the Scripture," b "the Scriptures," and "the 
Other word of God," d are also applied in the Bible itself to 

names. j-he sacred books ; as is the expression, " the oracles 

of God ;" e though this last is sometimes used to indicate 
the place where, under the old dispensation, the will of God 
was revealed. f "The Law g " and "the Prophets " h are each 

a Luke 24. 44. b John 10. 35 : Jas. 4. 5. c Luke 24. 27. 
d Luke 11. 28: Prov. 30. 5. e Acts 7. 38: Rom. 3. 2: Heb. 5. 12, 
f 1 Kings 8. 6: 2 Chron. 4. 20: Ps. 28. 2. 
g Mat. 5. 18: John 10. 34: 1 Cor. 14. 21. 
b Mat. 26. 56: Acts 3. 18, 21: 28. 23. 

B 2 



4 THE BIBLE— ITS GENUINENESS. 

employed, and sometimes unitedly a by a common figure of 
speech, to designate the whole of the Old Testament. 

The sacred writings were sometimes called the canon of 

9 

Canon of Scripture from a Greek word signifying a straight 
Scripture. Y0 ^ anc [ hence a rule or law, Gal. 6. 16 : PhiL 3. 16. 
This term was employed in the early age of Christianity with 
some indenniteness, though generally denoting a standard of 
opinion and practice. From the time of Origen, however, it 
has been applied to the books which are regarded by Chris- 
tians as of Divine authority. The Bible therefore is the canon, 
that is, the authoritative standard of religion and moralitv. 

5. Of all these titles, the "word of God" is perhaps the most 
The word of impressive and complete. It is sufficient to justify 
God - the faith of the feeblest Christian, and it gathers up 

ail that the most earnest search can unfold. We may say 
more at large what this title involves, but more than this we 
cannot say. It teaches us to regard the Bible as the utterance 
of Divine wisdom and love. 



CHAPTER I. 

On the Genuineness of Scripture : or the Bible, as 

Inspired Men wrote it. 

" The integrity of the records of the Christian faith is substantiated by evidence, 
in a tenfold proportion, more various, copious, and conclusive than that which can 
be adduced in support of any other ancient writings." — Isaac Taylor. 

Sec. i. Genuineness defined and proved. 

6. If a MS. of each book of the Bible in the author's hand- 
A genuine writing were still extant, and if the fact of its being 
MS. what. such could be proved, every copy that agreed with 
the MS. would be perfectly genuine. There are now, however, 
no such autographs of any ancient books ; and yet there are cir- 
cumstances attending the preservation and transmission of 
the MSS. of the Scriptures, which prove their genuineness 
with nearly as much certainty as if the first copies were still 
in existence. 

7. A book is said to be genuine if it be as it was written by 
Genuineness the author whose name it bears : if the present text 
denned. f ^h a t book varies from the text he wrote, it is said 

a Matt. 11. 13: 22. 40. 



genuineness: printed copd.is. 5 

to be a /, and if the book was not written by the pre- 
tended author, it is said to be forged or spurious. 

8. The question of the genuineness of Scripture is much sim- 

plified by the invention of printing. That art fixes 
shortens an the dates of books, and by multiplying copies and 
inquiry. editions secures the text from corruption. As 

printed books cannot be altered by the pen, any material 

ange of the text becomes impossible or nugatory. The 
HS& of printed books are now committed therefore without 

r of falsification " to the immortal custody of the press." 

9. There are still extant, for example, printed copies of the 

Old Testament in Hebrew, dated Soncino, a.d. 

Printed ; 7 

iesofthe 1488, and Brixiae, a.d. 1494. A copy 01 the year 
a^t> 1P i433-' 1488 is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford, and 
,;i6, in the Eoyal Library at Berlin is the identical copy 

(dated 1494), from which Luther made his German translation. 
There are extant also copies of the New Testament in Greek 
dated Basil, 15 16, edited by Erasmus, and in Greek and Latin, 
dated Alcala or Complutum (in Spain), 15 14. On being com- 
pared with each other, and with modern editions, these copies 
are found to agree in the main. They, therefore, prove by a 
single step, the existence of the Scriptures in the 13th century. 
They prove, also, that the text of modern editions has not 
been materially impaired during the last 350 years. 

10. These two editions of the I\ew Testament w r hich are 
Testes founded upon a very partial examination of MSS. 
recepms. f orm the basis of the Eeceived Text. The first 
edition of that text was printed in 1624, by Elzevir. Besides 
the two editions just named, he had the advantage of con- 
sulting the editions of Stephens (Paris, 1546), and of Beza 
(Gen. 1565;, but did not introduce from them many important 
readings. 

1 1 . At the time these volumes were printed, there were MS. 
MSS of the c °pi- es of the Scriptures in most of the public 
Scriptures, libraries of Europe. They form, with the writings 
1457 to the of the Fathers, or of other ecclesiastical authors of 
4'.h century. ^ Q middle ages, the bulk of most library catalogues 
of the 15th century. Dr. Kennicott collated 630 of these MSS. 
for his critical edition of the Hebrew Bible. De Rossi collated 
734 more. And upwards of 600 MSS. have been examined for 
recent editions of the Greek Testament. 



6 GENUINENESS : MANUSCRIPTS. 

12. In the case of the Greek and Roman classics, twenty, or 
Compared ten MSS. are deemed amply sufficient to form an 
as to numbers accurate text : fifteen MSS. of Herodotus are known 
of Classics, to critics, of which the most ancient belongs to the 
10th century : and this is a fair average of the ancient MSS. 
of classic authors. It is obvious, therefore, that the advantage 
in this respect, is greatly on the side of the Scriptures. The 
number of MSS. has afforded ample provision for restoring 
the text to its original purity, and at the same time gives 
absolute security against extensive corruptions. 

13. The MSS. of the Hebrew Scriptures, now extant, were 

most of them written between the years a.d. iooo, 
mss. and of and a.d. 1 45 7. Some, however, belong to the 8th and 
Greek. ^th centuries, among which are two of the MSS. 

(Nos. 634, 503), lately in the possession of M. de Rossi, by 
whom the various readings they contain were published. 
The MSS. of the New Testament, and of the Septuagint or 
Greek translation of the Old, are earlier still. The Alexan- 
drian MS. (Codex Alexandrinus, called A by Wetstein, 
Griesbach, and other critics), now in the British Museum, com- 
prising in four volumes, small folio, both Old and New Testa- 
ments, must have been written before the close of the 5th 
century. The Vatican MS. (called B), preserved in the library 
of the Vatican at Rome, belongs to the 4th, as does probably 
the Codex Cottonianus (I), the remains of which are now in 
the British Museum, the various readings of the whole being 
preserved in the works of Archbishop Usher. The Codex Re- 
gius, or Ephremi (C), so called from the author whose works 
were written over it, the parchment being what is called a 
rescript (or "twice-written," in Greek palimpsest, or "rubbed 
again,") belongs to the 6th century. The Codex Bezse (D), 
given by the reformer Beza to the University of Cambridge, 
belongs (in the opinion of Wetstein) to the 5th century ; 
critics who give it least antiquity, assigning it to the 6th or 7th. 

14. A Virgil in the Vatican, claims an antiquity as high as the 

4th century ; but generally, the MSS. of the classics 
withMSS.of belong to periods between the 10th and the 15th 
Classics. centuries. In antiquity, therefore, as in numbers, 
they are greatly inferior to the MSS. of the Scriptures. 

15. As we reach the time of the earliest MSS. of the Scrip- 
quotations tures, another kind of evidence presents itself no less 



GENUINENESS \ QUOTATIONS. 7 

are to*^" impressive : namely, the quotations of Scripture, 
ecclesiastical and references to it, which are found in the writings 
Their & °^ ^ ne earr J Fathers, and in the Rabbinical para- 

nature, phrases. The references of classic authors one to 

another, though sufficient to establish the antiquity of the 
works quoted from, form a very inadequate provision for cor- 
recting the text of each. They are generally in the way of 
allusion only to some fact or passage. Even when the re- 
ferences are more pointed, they are generally so loosely made 
as to be of little critical value. In quotations from the Scrip- 
tures the case is entirely different. They are generally made 
with the utmost care, the very words of the sacred writers 
being introduced, and forming the subject of lengthened dis- 
cussion, or of important practical teaching. 

1 6. Looking first at quotations from the Xew Testament, we 
Quotations in have in the 5th century the writings of Theodoret 
Cent, v.— ii. £ Qyp ruSj j_ n Syria, on the Epistles of Paul, and on 

most of the Old Testament. Still earlier, Cyril of Alexan- 
dria wrote on the Prophets, and on John. In the 4th 
century, Chrysostom wrote commentaries on the whole of 
the Xew Testament. To the same century, belongs also 
the writings of Gregorv of Xvssa. In the 2nd and 3rd cen- 
turies, we have the writings of Origen and Theophilus, of 
Antioch : fragments of each remain (though of the second, in 
Latin only), and are often quoted by later writers. In the 
2nd century, we have the writings also of Irenaeus, and of 
Clement of Alexandria, Not less important are the writings 
of Jerome, who wrote commentaries on Scripture in the 4th 
century. To the same century belong also the voluminous 
writings of Augustine. For a complete list, see page 86. 

These are a few only of the authors of the early age of the 
Number of Christian Church. In not less than one hundred 
quotations. an( j eighty ecclesiastical writers (whose works are 
still extant), are quotations from the Xew Testament intro- 
duced ; and so numerous are they, that from the works of those 
who flourished before the 7th century, the whole text of the 
Xew Testament (it has been justly said), might have been 
recovered, even if the originals had since perished. The ex- 
periment was tried by Dr. Bentley, and he confirms this state- 
ment. 

1 7. A similar process of investigation into the Hebrew text 



8 GENUINENESS : VERSIONS. 

carries us to the era of our Lord. The Targum ? 

or interpretation of Onkelos, translates the Penta- 
teuch into Chaldaic Hebrew (though of the purest order), and 
was written about sixty years before Christ. The Targum of 
Jonathan on the Prophets and historical books, was written 
about the commencement of the Christian era. In the 4th 
century, Joseph the Blind wrote a Targum on the Hagiographa ; 
and a little later, various similar versions of other parts of 
Scripture were published. These Targums, ten in all, are of 
great value in determining the text of Scripture, being, for the 
most part, very literal paraphrases of the original Hebrew. 

18. To corroborate this evidence of the correctness of the 
New Testament, and to carry still further back the evidence 
011 the Old, we have the ancient versions of the Scriptures. 
Versions I n ^ ne 9th century, a version of the Bible into the 
from the 9th Slavonic, or old Bussian language (of great critical 

century to ' .. . n _ ° ,., , 

the 1st, value), was published. In the oth century, was 

completed a version of the whole Bible into Georgian. In the 
5th, a version into Armenian, under the care of Miesrob, the 
inventor of the Armenian alphabet : and also into Gothic, 
under Ulphilas. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, all the New 
Testament and parts of the Old were translated into Coptic 
(or Memphitic), the language of Lower Egypt, the Copts being- 
Egyptian Christians : and also into Sahidic (or Thebaic), the 
language of Upper Egypt. In the 4th century a translation 
was made into Ethiopic, the language spoken in Ethiopia, the 
country of Candace and the modern Abyssinia. Several of 
these versions were made from the Septuagint, some from 
the Syriac, and a few from the Latin Vulgate. 

The Peshito (or literal) Syriac version of the Hebrew and 
Greek Scriptures belongs probably to the 1st cen- 
Peshito. turj. It was in general use among the Syrian 
churches in the year 378, and is then quoted by Ephrem the 
Syrian as the version generally received, and so ancient as to 
require frequent explanation. The true Philoxenian or New 
Syrian belongs to the 6th century, and the Haraclean (com- 
monly called the Philoxenian) to the 7th. Both versions take 
their name from the persons under whose sanction they were 
made. The Peshito being, as its name implies, very literal, is 
of great value in determining the original text. 

Nor for this purpose is the Vulgate itself of small im- 



GENUINENESS : VERSIONS. i) 

1 )ortance. The text it contains was made by Jerome 

about the year 385. Part of it, including the New 

Testament, lie took from an older Latin "version called the old 

Italic, which is quoted by Tertullian in the year 220 ; but the 

eater part he himself translated from the original of the 
Old Testament. This version was gradually adopted by the 
Latin Church, and was the first book ever printed. The 
present text is very corrupt. 

Still more ancient than most of these are the versions of 

, ek the Old Testament by Symmachus, Aquila, Theo- 

versiuus. dotion, and the Seventy. The whole were in the 
hands of Origen in the year 228 a.d., and were used by him 
in revising the text of the Septuagint. He afterwards pub- 
lished them all with the Hebrew text in Hebrew and Greek 
letters in what was hence called his Hexapla or Six- columned 
Bible. The version of Aquila was made about the year 160 
for the use of Hellenistic Jews, and is quoted by Justin Martyr 
(a.d. 160), and Irenseus (a.d. 176). It is extremely literal, and 
was read by the Jews in their synagogues. The version of 
Theodotion appeared about the same time, and is quoted by 
the same authors. The version of Symmachus is of later 
date, and is expressed in plain elegant language without being 
a literal translation. These three texts are now lost, but their 
important variations are preserved in the Hexaplarian text of 
the Seventy, published by Montfaucon at Paris, 1713. 

The version of the Seventy (so called perhaps from the 
number of translators supposed to have been en- 
gaged in making it) is the most ancient of all. It 
has generally been received by both Jews and Christians, is 
more frequently quoted in the New Testament than the 
Hebrew, and was in common use both in the synagogues and 
in the early Christian churches. The first reference to it is 
by Aristobulus who lived in the 2nd century before Christ. 
The most probable date of the completion of the translation 
is about the year 285 b. c, when Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy 
Philadelphus were kings of Egypt. a 

Hody (on the authority of Clement and Eusebius), Usher, 
AValtom Eichhorn, and others, do not materially differ in the date they 
assign to it. Some (De "Wette and others) suppose that it was written 
by different authors and at different times ; though it is agreed that 
the whole was extant in the time of the son of Sirach, b. c. 130. 

B 3 



10 GENUINENESS : SUMMARY. 

19. Such is a sample of the evidence by which it is 

proved that in the 1st century of the Christian 
era (and in the case of the Old Testament two 
centuries earlier), there existed and were known throughout 
the Roman world books called the Sacred Scriptures, written 
by inspired men, and that the present text of the Bible is 
identical with the text which these books contained. 

20. These remarks apply without exception to the books of 
Homoiogou- the Old Testament, and to twenty out of the 
niena. twenty-seven of the New. These twenty are the 
Antiiego- four Gospels, the Acts, the Epistles of Paul (ex- 
cept that to the Hebrews), and the first Epistles 

of John and Peter. These twenty books were universally 
received as genuine, and were therefore called Homologou- 
mena (i. e. acknowledged). . The other seven books were dis- 
puted for a time by particular churches, and were therefore 
styled Antilegomena (or disputed). After a deliberate exami- 
nation, however, they were at last received as genuine, the 
very delay proving the closeness of the scrutiny which their 
claims had undergone. 

21. Decisive as these facts are, they give a very inadequate 
Facts more idea of the amount of proof of which the genuine- 
decisive still. ness f t he Scriptures is susceptible. The MSS. 

are innumerable. They belong to all ages : and many of them 
are very ancient. They have been kept for centuries in dis- 
tant parts of the world, under the custody of opposing sects, 
and in circumstances that made extensive or important altera- 
tions impossible. The possessors of these MSS. deemed them 
of the highest value, and professed to live under the influence 
of the truths contained in them. Copyists preserved them 
with the utmost reverence, counting every letter of every book, 
and registering the very tittles of the law. How remarkable, 
how decisive as an evidence of Divine care, that while all the 
libraries of Europe and of the world containing copies of the 
Sacred Scriptures have been examined, all ancient versions 
extant compared, the MSS. of all countries from the 3rd to 
the 1 6th century collated, the commentaries of all the Fathers 
again and again investigated, nothing has been discovered, 
not even a single general reading which can set aside any im- 
portant passage hitherto received as genuine. This negative 
conclusion, that our Bible does not essentially differ from the 



GENUINENESS : VARIOUS READINGS. 11 

Bible of the Primitive Church is indeed an ample recompense 
for all the labour and time which have been devoted to these 
pursuits. 

22. To give the reader a just conception of the expression 

Eff of ^at our Bible does not differ essentially from the 

various Bible of the Primitive Church, we may notice what 

the various readings of the New Testament involve. 

In the Epistle to the Romans, for example, which contains 
Epistle to 433 verses, there are at most four passages, the 
Romans. meaning of which is modified by readings which 
Griesbach deems of weight : — 

In ch. 7. 6, for "that being dead in which we were held/' he 
reads " We being dead to that in which we were held:" a difference in 
the original between and e. So some editions of the tex. rec. 

Inch. 11. 6, he omits the latter half of the verse. 

In ch. 12. 11, he reads " time " for " Lord;" cup for vpt. 

In ch. 16. 5, he reads the first fruits of Asia for Achaia. 

These are the only corrections that affect the sense, and they 
are all unimportant. To make them he examined all the 
principal MSS. already named, no others, and 30 from Mount 
Athos collated by Matthsei, who travelled over a great part of 
Eussia and Asia for this purpose. 
Epistle to In Galatians the important corrections are three 

Galatians. onlv ' 

In ch. 4. 17, for you in the second clause he reads us : a change in 
the original of one letter. 

In ch. 4. 26, he omits the word "all" 

In ch. 5. 19, he omits the word "adultery." 

Corrections which make no difference in the sense. 

In the 7959 verses of the New Testament there are not more 
sj ew than ten or twelve various readings of great im- 

restament. portance, and these affect not the doctrines of 
Scripture, but only the number of proof passages in which the 
doctrines are revealed. 

The important various readings sanctioned by Griesbach 
are the following : — 

In Acts 8. 37, he omits the verse. 
In Acts 9. 6, he omits the first part of the verse. 
In Acts 20. 28, for " the church of God" he reads " the church of 
the Lord," a change depending on. one letter K for ©. 



12 GENUINENESS : VARIOUS READINGS. 

In Phil. 4. 13, for "through Christ" he reads "through Him." 

In 1 Tim. 3.16, for " God manifest/' he reads " who was:" a dif- 
ference arising from the supposed omission of a mark in one of the 
two letters of the word — O for 0. 

In Jas. 2. 18, for " by thy works/' he reads " without thy works/' 
as do many copies of the English version. 

In 1 John 5. 7, 8, he omits from "in heaven/' to "in earth." 

In Jude 4, he omits " God." 

In Rev. 8. 13, for "angel/' he reads "eagle." 

These corrections are all sanctioned, except Acts 20. 28, and 
1 Tim. 3. 16, by Scholz and Halm. In these two passages both 
writers agree with the common text, as they do much more 
frequently than Griesbach in other unimportant readings. 

Several of the readings of Griesbach, though not theologically 
important, remove difficulties from the present text. 

23. Of the Old Testament, a careful examiner has noted 
OM I 3 I 4 various readings of value. Of these, 566 are 
Testament, adopted in the English version ; 147 of the whole 
affect the sense, but none can be regarded as theologically im- 
portant : generally they correct a date or complete the sense. 
See Hamilton's Codex Criticus, Lond. 1821. 

24. The writings of Terence (six pieces only) contain 30,000 

variations, and they have been copied many times 
less frequently than the New Testament. We may 
well acquiesce, therefore, in the language of Bengel, who, after 
laborious research into these topics, wrote to his scholar 
Eeuss, " Eat the Scripture bread in simplicity, just as you have 
it, and do not be disturbed if here and there you find a grain 
of sand which the mill-stone may have suffered to pass. If 
the Holy Scriptures, which have been so often copied, were 
absolutely without variations, this would be so great a miracle 
that faith in them would be no longer faith. I am astonished, 
on the contrary, that from all these transcriptions there has 
not resulted a greater number of various readings." 



na 



But many expressions have already been employed which 
need to be explained. If their meaning be clear, yet is there 
much to be said in relation to them before the reader is tho- 
roughly prepared to understand all they involve. The general 

* Quoted by Gaussen in his " Theopneustia." 



] ANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE , HEBREW. 1 



o 



conclusion that our Bible is, on the whole, as inspired writers 
left it, is undoubted ; but the Bible-student often requires 
materials for closer inquiry. We proceed, therefore, to give 
a brief account of the original languages of the sacred volume 
—Hebrew and Hellenistic Greek — of the manuscripts, versions, 
and various readings of the sacred text. 

; Sec. 2. The Original Languages of Scripture. — Hebrew and 
the Shemitish Languages generally. 

2^. The Hebrew language, in which nearly all the Old Testa- 
ment is written, was the language of the Hebrews 
or Israelites during their independence. The people 
themselves were known among other nations by the name of 
Hebrews and Jews, not by the name of Israelites. 
The epithet of Hebrew, however, was not applied 
to their language till the days of the son of Sirach (b.c. 130). 
It occurs first in the Apocrypha, where it means, not the old 
Hebrew, but the Aramaean, or Syro-Aramsean. This is also 
the meaning of the term in the New Testament. Josephus 
seems to have been the first w T ho applied the name Hebrew 
language (FXiocraa ruv r Ej3pcuW) to the old Hebrew, and this 
is the uniform meaning of the phrase in his writings. The 
Targums call the Hebrew " the holy tongue," and in the Old 
Testament it is called the language of Canaan, or the Jews' 
language. Isa. 19. 18 : 36. 13. 

26. That the Hebrew language was the common tongue of 
Really Canaan and Phoenicia is generally admitted ; a con- 

Phoenician. elusion supported by several facts. 

( r . ) The Canaanitish names of persons and places mentioned in 
Scripture are genuine Hebrew, as Abimelech, Melchizedek, Salem, 
&c. 

(2.) Fragments of the Phoenician and Carthaginian tongues which 
still remain on coins and in inscriptions preserved in Roman and 
Greek writers, are Hebrew. Augustine and Jerome both testify, 
moreover, that the Carthaginian spoken in their time was made up 
chiefly of Hebrew words, while there is evidence that Carthage was 
founded by Phoenicians, who left Canaan before the Jews could 
have resided long in their country. 

(3.) The silence of Scripture respecting any difference between 

d See Preface. 



14 LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE : CHALDEE. 

the language of Canaanites and Hebrews is also remarkable. They 
both dwelt in the land, and yet no difference of speech is noticed, 
though the difference between the language of Hebrew and Egyptian 
(Psa. 8 1. 5: 114. 1) is noticed, and even between the Hebrew and 
cognate languages as in the case of the Aramaean used by the Assy- 
rians (Isa. 36. 11); and of the Eastern Aiamaean used by the Chaldees 
(Jer. 5. 15). It may be added that the Hebrew of Abraham's day 
was probably closely allied to the original tongue, if it were not 
itself identical with it. This conclusion is based chiefly on the 
proper names of the early chapters of Genesis. These names are 
all significant in Hebrew, and the meaning in that tongue always 
explains the reason why they were given. See Havernick's Intro- 
duction to the Old Testament, p. 134: see also Gesenius' Monum. 
Phoenicia. 

27. The Hebrew, or modern Phoenician, as we may call it, 
belongs to the Sheniitish family of languages, and is most 
closely connected with the other members of that family, both 
in matter and in form. The other members are the following, 

28. The Aramaean. Of the old Aramaean, as spoken while 

Hebrew was a living tongue, we have no remains. 

But there have been discovered, near Palmyra, 
some inscriptions in this language, which were written about 
the commencement of the Christian era. The language was 
spoken in Syria and Mesopotamia. See Gen. 31. 47, and 
Jer. 10. 11. 

29. From this common root sprang the Chaldee or Eastern 
Chaidee and Aramaean, spoken in Chaldaea and Babylon, and the 
Synac. Syriac, or Western Aramaean, spoken in Northern 
Mesopotamia and Syria, and perhaps the Hebrew itself. The 
Chaldee is known only from Jewish memorials — the Scriptures 
and the Targums. The purer style of Onkelos is called the 
Babylonian dialect, to distinguish it from the language of the 
later Targums, which has been called the Jerusalem or Pales- 
tine dialect, and which is really a mixture of Hebrew and 
Aramaean or Syriac. What is now called Syriac is new Ara- 
maean, as formed or spoken by the Christians of Emessa and 
its neighbourhood. This tongue early produced a literature 
rich in ecclesiastical history and theology, and is still the 
ecclesiastical language of Syrian Christians. Chaldee is the 
language of part of Ezra and Daniel : a as Syriac was the lan- 
guage of the Jews in the days of our Lord. 

a Ezra 4. 8: 6. i3: 7. 12-26: Dan. 2. 4: 7. 28. 



Coreitic. 



LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE : DIALECTS. 15 

30. The Samaritan is a mixture of the Hebrew and Western 

Arama3an. AU the ecclesiastical matter in this 
tongue is in the Samaritan Pentateuch, and in 

some poems edited by Gesenius (Leipsic, 1824), from MSS. 

in the British Museum. a 

31. Of all the languages yet named, the Arabic has by far 

the richest modern literature : and next to the 

AnVbic. 

Hebrew it is the most important of the Shemitish 

tongues.' It is still spoken in a large portion of Asia, and in 

part of Africa. The two chief dialects of it are the 

Hiniyaritie. TT . . „ , . 

mmyaritic, lormerly spoken in Yemen, and now 
extinct, and the Coreitic spoken in the north-west of Arabia, 
and especially at Mecca. This was a spoken lan- 
guage long before the time of Mahomet, and is still 
the popular dialect. The old Arabic differs from this lan- 
guage in its forms, w T hich are more various, and in its matter, 
which is more copious. 

32. A colony of Arabians, speaking the Himyaritic, early 

settled on the opposite side of the Red Sea in 
Ethiopia, and introduced their language into that 
country. This language, modified by time and circumstances, 
is the ancient Ethiopic, which is closely related to the Arabic. 
The district where it was spoken, is the modern Abyssinia, 
and Amharic, or Geez, is the present language of the 
people. 

33. All these languages are of value in guiding the student 
Utility of of the Old Testament, to an accurate knowledge of 
these dialects foe original tongue, and no Hebrew Lexicon can 

in interpreta- ° ° ? 

tion. be regarded as a satisfactory authority, unless com- 

piled with a constant reference to the meaning of the roots of 
Hebrew words in the cognate tongues. It is upon the know- 
ledge and use of these tongues that the superiority of modern 
lexicographers chiefly depends. 



The history of the Hebrew language may be divided into 
History of three periods, each of which has its peculiarities of 
the Hebrew. s tyle and idiom. 

a At Oxford there is a Liturgia Damascena in Samaritan : whence 
Gesenius has given a complete view of Samaritan theology. De 
Sam. Theol., Halle, 1822. 



16 HEBREW : ITS PROGRESS. 

34. (1.) The first includes the language as spoken in the 
In the days days of Moses, and as used in the Pentateuch. In 
of Moses. those books are forms of construction and phrase- 
ology not found elsewhere. "Words are introduced, which 
seem soon afterwards to have become obsolete ; or they are 
used in senses which early became unintelligible. Sometimes 
a knowledge of this peculiar usage is important only, as sup- 
plying evidence of the antiquity of the books : sometimes it 
affords access to the meaning of particular passages. 

(2.) In the post-Mosaic period there is a marked change. 
The Golden ^ ew words are introduced ; old ones seem for- 
period. gotten. New forms of expression become common, 

and some found in the Pentateuch are gradually discontinued ; 
a process which goes on till the days of David, who writes the 
language in great purity and elegance. To this period belong 
the writings of Solomon and the books of Judges, of Samuel, 
and of Buth. The older prophets, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, write 
in a style of simplicity and harshness, not found in their im- 
mediate successors : but still their language is pure. Isaiah, 
Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Obadiah, are remarkable for 
the beauty of their style ; and the Hebrew is generally pure, 
though in some of them as in Micah, and in part of Isaiah, 
there are forms of speech (chiefly Aramaean), that bespeak 
the admixture of a foreign element. All these writers belong, 
however, to the golden period of the Hebrew tongue. 

(3.) Zephaniah (the contemporary of Josiah) Jeremiah, 
The period of Daniel, and Ezekiel, belong to the third period, and 
the decline. a u_ exhibit the influence of intercourse with fo- 
reigners : as do the writings that appeared during or imme- 
diately after the exile — Ezra, Esther, and Nehemiah : all these 
writers employ words and phrases, which in the early purer 
state of the Hebrew were not known. The later prophets, 
Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, again write in purer idiom, 
chiefly in consequence of the Hebrew having become during 
the captivity, a written, rather than a spoken tongue. As 
they wrote their predictions, it was less necessary to use forms 
of expression which were familiar chiefly in conversation. 
Their predictions, it was probably the part of the prophets 
to explain. a 

a A few examples will explain these statements : 

"To be added to his people" is a phrase peculiar to the Penta- 



LEW : PR 5S. 17 



oo- 



£. Of the Hebrew of all these peri . . it may be rema 
Ar ;. v that it has s; so that words have often 

se lary or analogical meanings. Many j 
and strange to our ea: . id some are suae 
of Lnilin retations. 

3 evidence of the anti piity 3 and of the 
i mp0! e composition of different parts of Scrip- 

ire, hey also illustrate the importance of as- 
itaining the meaning attached to words at the time when 
«h writer nsed them, bei re investigating their meaning, as 
nployed in later or earlier times. 

ach, meaning "to die." -'-'To sleep with Lis fathers - ' 5 is the 

minon phi in later books. The word " people " is always 

. - the Pentateuch to the Jews, In the prophets the mean- 

aore extended. Hos. 9. 1 : Isa. 11. ic. The expression 

• -- Lord," was at first used in lifting up and carrying the 

: - t pi iyer, sohciting the Divine presence. In the Psalms ii 

sist and help. 

In :euch there are many words and forms peculiar, which 

howev re translated as oral... ry woi Is — PO for species. «2> for 

jW to curse. ^21 for property, £*&> fine linen, for * f l *2 the 1 ate r 

rd, Ex. 26. 1: 1 Chron. 15. 27. See also Gen. 15. 9: Deut. 32. u 

Hi for *2 , Ex. 2. 20, &c Of such phrases Jahn has reckoned in 
-: Pentateuch upwards of two hundred. Foreign words are 

.a. 41. 2. i« priK): 4.1. 45, where Joseph is called 
- ioui :■: the worid :; (Jerome). See Jaolonski Opera i. 4;. 374: 
- :, and Rosenmiiller's Scholia on Old Testament, i. 52-32. 
So in othei x>oks. ._" has 1 jveral grammatical and other pecu- 
hariti - 5. 2 p. pual nir,)> 4- 12: 26.14 whisper , 4. 18 (hearer), 
5. 26: 30. 2 (age), 5. 2: 17. 7 indignation). Jerome observed, and 
tmltens proved, that the language of Joh is peculiarly rich in 
riac expressions, and also in Aramaisms. a. 2 : 39. 9; 16. 19. 

rds and phrases peculiar to later writers, see 1 Chron. 21. 

mnto , 1 Chron. 2. 13 ;^tf), Esther a. ri (p*3TB?), 1 Chron. 

18. 5, r ^ : 1 Chron. 12. 12 Tjr.^ for H*1a . 2 Chron. ri. 21 (."ITX 

KIT i r np7 3 Gen. 4. 19). For Persian words see Nahum 3. 17, 

captain, or satrap. Esther 3. 9: Ezra 5. 17, treasures— gaz, hence 

rian vords, see proper names. Nebu — plan,: Mer- 
cury; Me :.ch— planet Mars. Chaidaisms need not be enu- 
merated. 

- as Introduction, §§ 31-35. 



1 8 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Hellenistic, or Hebrew- Greek of the New Testament, and LXX. 

37. The 1 6th century witnessed a singular discussion. 
New Testa- Erasmus and L. Valla, happening to affirm that 
ment-Greek: the Greek of the New Testament was corrupted 
on its true with Hebraisms, both of words and idioms, were 
character. opposed by H. Stephens with great vehemence. 
In his preface to the New Testament (a.d. 1576), he undertook 
to prove that the Greek of the inspired writers was pure and 
idiomatic. A long controversy springing out of these asser- 
tions, the respective parties were called Purists and Hel- 
lenists, or Hebraists. The topic was deemed important on 
several grounds : 

1. It involved questions of theology; for, if the writers of the 
Bible be inspired, ought they not to write, it was asked, in pure 
Greek ? Could inspired men do anything as such that was im- 
perfect. 

2. On the other side it was deemed important as a question of 
evidence ; for, if the Greek of the New Testament is Hebraistic, 
this fact is a proof that it was written by Jews, and probably in 
Judsea. 

3. By all it is admitted to involve an important canon of inter- 
pretation ; for if the dialect of the New Testament is peculiar, the 
study of the common tongue (h xoivv!) is not sufficient for the inter- 
pretation of Scripture. The Greek of the New Testament and of 
the LXX is likely, it was held, to have rules and principles of 
its own. 

38. Both parties seem to have forgotten in the heat of con- 
troversy, that the question was purely one of facts, and was 
not to be settled in the first instance, by any such considera- 
tions. The truth is, that the Greek of the New Testament is 
Really Hei- Hellenistic: a truth, which once ascertained, sug- 
lenistic. gests important lessons. The perfection of in- 
spired composition is clearly not so much classic purity, as 
intelligibleness and adaptation to its proper end. The Greek 
of Scripture was evidently written by Hellenists, i.e., by Jews 
who spoke Greek, and whose modes of thought were formed 
on Hebrew originals. Hence, important evidence of the 
truth of their record. Hence, also, an instructive rule of in- 
terpretation. The prime source of biblical interpretation, is 
clearly the Bible itself : and we must gather thence, as far as 



GREEK : ITS DIALECTS. 19 

possible, the meaning and illustrations of its terms. These 
are all important lessons, but the fact on which they are 
founded must first be established, before we can safely apply 
them ; least of all can they be taken as proof of the fact itself. 
39. The Greek tongue is itself a mixture of dialects. The 
Hellenians or Greeks, consisted originally of several 
Greek: its tribes, of whom two, the Dorians and ionians, were 

elements. ^^ 

. The Doric dialect is first in time and in influence : it is 
rough and broad-sounding. Among its chief writers 

Doric. ^ . . 

are Pindar, Sappho, Theocritus, and Bion. 
The Ionic is second in time. It is soft and smooth, was 
spoken at first in Attica, and then, as the Ionians 
migrated to Asia Minor, in that district. Among 
its authors are Herodotus and Anacreon. 

The Attic was formed after the Ionians left Attica, and oc- 
cupies in quality, a middle place between the Ionic 
and Doric. The chief Greek authors wrote in this 
dialect : Thucidydes, Plato, Xenophon, Demosthenes, iEschy- 
lus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. 

After the freedom of Greece was destroyed by Philip of 
Hellenic, Macedon, these dialects were blended, and the Hel- 
or 17 KOLvrj. lenic or common dialect was formed, of which the 
base was Attic. 

On the death of Alexander, the people of Macedon and 
Alexandria occupied the first place in literature, as in power, 
and from their influence, Macedonian and Alexan- 
drian idioms became common in Greece, and es- 
pecially in Egypt and the East. 

At Alexandria, many Jews resided. There the Septuagint 

was written, and as the writers were Jews, the Alexandrian 

Greek which they spoke, was modified so as to embody the 

thoughts and idioms of the Hebrew. And this is 

Hebrew. 

the language of the Xew Testament. It is Hel- 
lenistic, or more properly, Hebrew-Greek : the later Greek, 
Elements th.&t is, chiefly Attic, with a mixture of other 
enumerated, dialects, and the whole modified by Jews who had 
resided in Alexandria, and in Palestine. Hence words and 
phrases from foreign sources, Aramaean, Latin, Persian, 
Egyptian : hence words peculiar in their orthography, or 
form, in their inflexion or gender : . hence words common tc 



20 HELLENISTIC GREEK. 

the ancient dialects, but not usual in the Hellenic, and hence 
also words and phrases in senses peculiarly Jewish or Christian. 

Aramaean expressions maybe seen, Mark 14. 36 (abba), Acts 1. 19 
(field of blood), Mark 3. 17 (sons of thunder), Matt. 5. 22 (vain, 
foolish). Latin words, Matt. 10. 29 : 18. 28: 5. 26: 17. 25: 27.27, 
65: 26. 53: Mark 15. 39: Luke 19. 20: John 2. 15 : Acts 19. 12 : 
and phrases, Matt. 12. 14: Mark 15. 15 : Luke 12. 58 : Acts 17. 9: 
Persian expressions, Matt. 27. 32 : Acts 8. 27: Matt. 2. 1: Mark 
6. ri : Luke 23. 43 (paradise, a garden of beautiful trees) : Egyotian 
expressions, Matt. 27, 59: Luke 24. 12. 

For a full account of grammatical and other peculiarities, see 
Planck's Treatise on the nature and character of the Greek style 
of the New Testament, Bib. Repository, 183 1, p. 638. See also a 
brief account in M. Stuart's Syntax of the New Testament. 

40. The grand lesson taught by these facts, is that while 

we need a knowledge of Greek generally, in order 
to read the New Testament, we need, in order to 
understand it, a knowledge of New Testament Greek, and of 
the Old Testament version. So essential is this knowledge, 
that a merely English reader, with only his English Bible, 
may understand the New Testament better than the scholar 
who brings to the investigation of a particular passage, only 
classical acquisitions. 

41. For aid in studying Hebrew, see the ordinary grammars 
Aids to the and dictionaries of that language. In studying 
study of the Hellenistic Greek, see Winer's Idioms : any good 

JNevv Testa- ' J & 

ment. grammar of the New Testament, and Thiersch de 

Pentateuchi Versione Alexandrina. The " Englishmen's He- 
brew and English," and " Greek and English " Concordances, 
are of great value to a mere English student. The careful 
study of the LXX, compared with the Hebrew and the New 
Testament, is of course the best aid. 

a Sec. 3. TJw Manuscripts of Scripture. 

42. In speaking of the MSS. of Scripture, we have mentioned 

their age, and their comparative value, it is now 
the age of necessary to state the facts on which these dis- 
MSS. tinctions rest. How, it may be asked, is it pos- 

sible to ascertain the age of a MS., often fragmentary, and 

H See Preface. 



CRITICISM: ancient MANUSCRIPTS. 21 

How ascor- generally exposed to influences, which cannot have 
Uioed. failed to obscure or modify the evidence of its 

date and character. 

43. In answering this question, it may be observed, that in 

some MSS. the date is inscribed upon them ; and 
from dates on when this inscription is by the first hand, and 
theMS-itself. ^j^, ev id ence i s confirmatory, it is regarded as 

pretty decisive. Such inscriptions, however, are never found 
on MSS. earlier than the 10th century. 

44. Sometimes the traditional or known history of a MS. 

affords important aid. The Cod. Alex. (A), for 
known Ms- example, was given by the patriarch of Constanti- 
tory ' nople (Cyril Lucar), to Charles L, with the tradition 

inscribed upon it in Arabic, that it was written by Thecla, an 
Egyptian princess, who lived not long after the first council 
of Xice, a.d. 325 : a tradition supported by internal evidence. 

45. In most cases, however, the question of date is more 
Generally by intricate, and can be settled only after a careful 
e ^ i \ im , nat 1 i t on investigation of somewhat abstruse evidence, sup- 
evidence, plied by the material on which the MS. is written? 
the form of the letters, and the general style of the writing. . 

46. Some parts of the ancient Scriptures were written on 

skins tanned, or dved red or yellow. In use, these 
material on skins were generally connected, so as to contain on 
which mami- one ^ or vo i ume a an eu tire portion of the Bible, 

scripts are ; x ' 

written. as the Pentateuch, or the Prophets. Some of the 
Skins. most ancient MSS. in the world are copies of the 

Pentateuch in this form. 

Next in durability was the parchment of the ancients, so 
called from Pergamos, the town where it was first 
made. Most MSS. which have come down to us, 
earlier than the 6th centurv, are on this material. 

Sometimes tables of wood b or of stone, called caudices or 
codices, were employed : hence the term codex 

Caudices. . , . , . 

came to be applied to a MS. on any material. For 

legal purposes, where durability was important, the use of 

such tables was very frequent, and from this cir- 

Uode. „ 

cumstance a system of laws was called a code. 

a Isa. 3. 1 : Jer. 36. 2: Zeoh. 5. 1. 

b Ex. 32. 15: Deut. 6. 9: Isa. 10. 8: Hab. 2. 2: Luke 1. 63: 
2 Cor. 3. 3. 



22 ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS : AGE. 

These tables were written on in* their natural state (or when 
used for temporary purposes covered with wax), with an iron 
needle called a stylus. From the name of this 
instrument our term style is taken. 
For many ages the article most in use was made from the 
papyrus, or flag of Egypt. By the Eomans espe- 
cially this manufacture was carried to great per- 
fection. Towards the end of the 9th century, however, the 
papyrus was ver;y much superseded by paper made from the 
cotton plant (not unlike the present paper of India and China) ; 
and a little later, in the 10th and nth centuries, 

Paper. . 

old linen was substituted in the manufacture for 
the raw material. 

Notices of these different materials occur occasionally in 
These ancient profane writers. Herodotus mentions the 

materials skins of goats and sheep roughly dressed as being 

mentioned & r t» ■ 1 

by ancient used by the lonians (v. 58). Pausamas says that 
aut ors. ke saw i n Bceotia the works of Hesiod engraved on 
lead (ix. 31). Roman laws were often written on tables of 
brass, and Pliny states that papyrus was in use long before 
the Trojan war (b.c. 1184), Nat. His. xii. 21-29. "Libros 
linteos," books of cotton cloth, are also mentioned by Livy. 
The material 47. MSS. on all these materials are known to the 
ascertain the antiquarians, and from the material an inquirer is 
a s e - aided in ascertaining their age and origin. 

48. The earliest specimens of Greek writing, the dates of 
which are known, are books found among the ruins of Her- 
culaneum and Pompeii. These cities were destroyed a.d. 79. 
The books recently found there are, at latest, of 
writing and that date, and consist of sheets of the papyrus, 
letter? connected together with gum and rolled. The 

MSS. of writing runs across the volume, is in capital or 

uncial letters, without any division of words or 
sentences, without accents or ornaments, and with but very 
few pause marks. These books give evidence of the most 
ancient style of writing, and are older than any MS. of the 
New Testament Scriptures. 

In the Imperial library of Vienna there is a copy of an 
MS. of ancient work by Dioscorides, the copy written for 

Dioscondes. ^q daughter of one of the early emperors of Con- 
stantinople, and certainly belonging to the 5th century, It 



ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS '. AGE. 23 

agrees in the shape of its letters, and in the absence 
Test of age. ^ ^ ornaments anc [ mar k S) with the AlSS. of Her- 

culaneum. These peculiarities suggest important tests of 

age. 

49. In the earliest times the Xew Testament was divided 

Division of m ^° three parts : the Gospels (to evayyiXtoy), the 
books and Epistles and Acts (to 'AttocttoXikov), and the Eeve- 

cbapters a *■ ' 

test of age. lation (// u.7roKaXvJ;Lc). In the 3rd century the 
Gosnels were divided into two kinds of chapters, the longer 
called TtTXot, or breves ; the shorter K£(paXaia, or capitula. 
The latter were originally introduced by Aninionius, and were 
thence called Ammonian sections. In the 4th century they 
were in common use in the Gospels, and to these sections 
Eusebius adapted his tables of references, called from him the 
Eusebian Canons (a.d. 315-340). 

50. In the latter part of the same century (360), Chrysostom 
niumination speaks of the practice of writing biblical MSS. on 
a ten of age. -j-}^ finest parchment and in letters of gold and 
silver, as already introduced. 

Various 5 1 - ^ n ^^ e 7 ear 45^ Euthalius published an edi- 

other tests, tion of the Epistles of Paul, in which he gave, for 
Euthaiian, the first time, the contents of the chapters. In 
?omS£ - n ° f 49° he di^ded the Acts and the Epistles into sec- 
tions. He himself states also that he introduced 
accents; accents into MSS. copied under his supervision, — ■ 
a custom, however, which did not become common till the 

subscri tion- ^^ cen ^ ur 7- ^ e a ^ so added to the books of the 
to various New Testament the subscriptions which are still 
found in the English version. To make MSS. more 
legible, Euthalius further divided them into lines, called Griyoi, 
sticbometric consisting in some instances of as many letters as 
divisions; could be placed in the width of a page, and in 
others of as many words as could be read uninterruptedly. 
This style of writing soon became common. In the 8th cen- 
tury, however, the lines ceased to be written sepa- 
rately, and were indicated only by dots. In the 
same century other marks of punctuation were introduced, 
and later still the stichometrical dots were omitted, 
form of In the 7th century lectionaries, that is, MSS. of 

letters; Scripture lessons for use in public service, were 



24 ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS : AGE. 

lectioriaiy multiplied, and about the same time the letters in 
gospels ; which MSS. were written began to be compressed 
and slightly inclined. In the 8th century these changes were 
stops : still more marked ; in the 9th the note of interro- 

gation and the comma were introduced ; in the 

cursive 

letter; 10th the cursive style of writing had nearly super- 
chapter and seded the uncial; and in the 12th the present 
attests of division of chapters was introduced by Hugo de 
«« e - Sancto. 

52. From these facts various rules are deduced : — 
Negative A- MS. with the present division of chapters and 
results: verses, is not earlier than the 12th century : 

A MS. on cotton is not earlier than the nth century : 

A MS. in cursive character than the 10th century : 

A MS. with compressed or inclined uncials, or with notes 

of interrogation or commas, than the 9th century : 

A MS. systematically punctuated, or marking the ariyoi, 

with points or with ornamented initials, than the 8th century : 
A MS. in uncial letters, divided into lines or accented, or 

with the Euthalian divisions or titles or subscriptions, than 

the 5th century : 

A MS. with Eusebian canons, than the 4th century. 

53. These rules lead (it will be observed) to negative 

conclusions only. When the facts are applied to 

Positive. , . ... -i, i • j. • • ' i 

ascertain positive results, much minute inquiry ana 
skilful criticism is necessary. Full information may be ob- 
tained in the books mentioned below. 

On the whole subj ect see Montfaucon's Palaeographia Grgeca. Hug's 
Introduction to the New Testament, ch. vi. Scott Porter's Lectures 
on Bib. Crit., and Micliaeiis' Introduction (4th edit.), vol. ii. 

54. These results and the facts on which they are founded 

were reached at a comparatively recent period, and 
these tests after protracted inquiry. In the mean time pro- 
tev>M gress was made in other processes of investigation, 



criticism which led to results no less important. These 
iT As to New results will be best understood if our remarks be 
Testament, thrown into the narrative form. 

55. The received texts of the Greuk Testament is founded, 
The textus as we nave seen (par. 10), on the texts of Erasmus 
receptus. anc [ f the Complutensian editors. Both these 



CRITICISM : HISTORY OF TSE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 25 

texts were printed from modern MSS., and therefore, com- 
paratively speaking, the authority of the " received text" is 
not high. 

The examination of early MSS. was the work of many years. 
London I* began with the London Polyglot (1657), which 

Polyglot. added to previous editions the readings of sixteen 
MSS., and supplied the renderings of ancient version.-. 
Curceikeus. . Curcellseus also examined several MSS. for an 

edition of the New Testament which Elzevir printed 
Dr. Fell. j n 1658. In 1675 Dr. Fell published an edition 
with the readings of forty more, and selected Dr. Mill to com- 
plete a more thorough revision of MSS. and versions. To 

this work Dr. Mill devoted thirty years, and gave in 

his edition the readings of a large number of MSS. 
not previously examined, and also the readings of the early 
Fathers. In 1734 these readings were further augmented by 
BengeL the labours of Bengel. Forty years after Mill, the 

edition of Wetstein was published (17&1), in 2 vols. 

Wets rein. ■ / <J n 

fol. His text is the Received ; but he applies the 
results of his inquiry to the correction in notes of the text 
wherever he deemed it faulty. Upwards of forty years later 
■■ still, Griesbach applied the rules and investigations 

of Wetstein to a correction of the text itself 
(1 796-1806), and added many various readings which his 
own inquiries had discovered. 

In the meantime other important additions to our know- 
ledge had been made. In 1782-8 Matthsd, of 
Moscow, published an edition, remarkable chiefly 
for containing the readings sanctioned bv what was after- 
wards called the Constantinopolitan recension : 
while Alter, at Vienna (1786, 7), Birch and Adler, 
in Italy, Moldenhauer and Tychsen, in Spain, and others else- 
where, were busy completing inquiries which were to supply 
Griesbach with the materials of his critical apparatus. The 
results were embodied in the edition of the Xew Testament, 
published by Birch, at Copenhagen. 

56. On comparing the evidence which these investigations 
Gnesbach's disclosed, Griesbach found (as his predecessors had 
ttese 011 ° f intimated) that characteristic readings distin- 
readings. guished certain MS. Fathers and versions, and that 
they were all divisible into three classes : MSS. &c, having one 

c 



26 CRITICISM : HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 

set of readings, being said by him to belong to the Alexandrian 
family or recension ; those with another set to the Constants 
nopolitan ; and those with another set to the "Western. 

This conclusion, supposing it well founded, was a most 
its important discovery. It changed the whole science, 

importance. Hitherto the reading favoured by most MSS. had 
been regarded as having the best evidence on its side ; but 
from this time not the number of individual MSS. in favour of a 
reading, but the number of families, became the great question. 

In later times Scholz, who devoted many years to this 
Schoiz's work, divided Greek MSS. of the Xew Testament 

division. ft rg {j j n ^ fi ve? anc [ then finally into tw r o families,- — - 

the Alexandrian, which includes the Western of Griesbach, 
and the Constantinopolitan. Of the three classes, Griesbach 
himself attached most importance to the Alexandrian and 
Western families ; Scholz, on the contrary, preferred the read- 
ings of the Constantinopolitan ; Halm and Lachmann, it may 
be added, agree in substance with Scholz, but attach import- 
ance, the first to internal evidence, and the second to the 
antiquity of MSS. 

57. It must be added that though later inquiries have not 
set aside this principle of classification, they have thrown 
doubt upon it. It is now a question w T hether Griesbach's 
conclusions be not an instance of those hasty generalizations 
which impede almost as much as they aid the progress of 
true science. This suspicion is strengthened by the inquiries 
of Dr. Lawrence, of Dublin. Proposals have been for some 
time before the world for the publication of a text founded 
not on families of MSS., but on the readings sanctioned by 
the most ancient authorities. Dr. Bentley first suggested this 
principle. Lachmann has practically acted upon it to a large 
extent ; and Dr. Tregelles now proposes to adhere to it strictly 
in his intended edition of the New Testament. Whether 
antiquity alone, however, is a satisfactory test, may be gravely 
questioned. The earliest transcribers w r ere subject to local 
influences as well as the later. Cursive manuscripts, of late 
date, may be accurate copies of very early ones, which are now 
lost, and their testimony is not to be disregarded ; and. more- 
over, if there be any ground for the division of MSS. into 
families, mere antiquity may be like mere numbers, a delusion 
and snare. 



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MANUSCRIPTS '. NEW AND OLD TESTAMENT TEXTS. 29 

59. Iii addition to these uncial MSS. Griesbach has given 
T t ;l i the numbers, contents, and dates of 236 cursive 

tfMSS MSS.j 1 to 236 ; Matthsei of 23 more, 237 to 259 ; 

examined. Scholz of 270, which he for the first time collated 
either in whole or in part, 260 to 469. Particulars may be 
seen in the introductory explanations of the editions of the 
New Testament by Griesbach, Matthaei, Scholz, and Teschen- 
dorf : also, in Home ii., part i, ch. in, § 2, and partly in Scott 
Porter's Criticism, p. 304. 

Of Lectionaries, Scholz enumerates 176 Gospels, and 48 from 
the Acts and Epistles (Praxapostoli). Of the former, one 
(No. 135) is referred by him to the 6th century, and most 
to periods between the 10th and 15th. 

Scholz enumerates in all, — 





Uncial MSS. 


Cui 


•sive MSS. 


Of Gospels 


27 




469 


Acts and Catholic Epistles 


8 




J 92 


Paul's Epistles . 


9 




246 


Eevelation 


3 




88 



Many other codices have never been collated, of which 31 
Others still are enumerated by Home as existing in libraries in 
unexamined, ^g CO untry, and others are known to be preserved 
in libraries on the Continent. 

60. The history of the Hebrew text is much briefer. The 
R - hl r • process of inquiry which was undertaken in the 
2. Applied case of the Greek text within the last two centuries 
Hebrew text was undertaken for the Old Testament a thousand 
of the Old years earlier at Tiberias. There, existing MSS. 

Testament. , , , , ° 

were revised and compared, and a text was formed, 
on the whole very fair and accurate. This text is called the 
Masoretic Masoretic, and nearly all recent investigations have 
text, its ended in sustaining generally its readings. On the 
accuracy. dispersion of the Jews through the influence of 
Mahommedanism, their learned men moved westward into 
Spain, Italy, and Central Europe, carrying with them the Ma- 
soretic text of Scripture, and in process of time multiplying 
the editions (as they may be called) to meet the wants of their 
nation. The value of these editions differed, according to the 
care with which they were written. As a matter of fact, the 
Spanish MSS. are generally most accurate ; next in accuracy 
are the Italian, and last, the Uerman, 



SO HISTORY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 

61. It is an instance of the slow progress of truth, that 

Buxtorf, one of the greatest Hebrew scholars, main- 
accuracy tained, in the 17th century, the absolute uniformity 
questioned. of all Mgg> of tbe Hebrew text. Cappellus (1650) 

was among the first to combat this view, and Bishop Walton, 
Critical the editor of the London Polyglot, having sided with 

apparatus CappeUus, commenced the work of forming a critical 

commenced. rr * , ° 

London apparatus. From this time, the collation of Hebrew 

Polyglot. MSS. was made with vigour, and the results soon 
appeared in the publication of an improved text. In 1667, 
Athias, a rabbi and printer of Amsterdam, pub- 
lished a Hebrew Bible, the text of which was founded 
on MSS. and printed editions. In 1690, Jablonski published, 
Jabionski. at Berlin, a critical edition, and in 1705 the very 
Van der accurate edition of Yan der Hooght was printed at 
Amsterdam. His text is formed on that of Athias, 
with Masoretic readings in the margin, and a collection of 
various readings at the end. In 1709 Opitz, at Kiel, and in 
1720 I. H. Michaelis, at Halle, also published editions of critical 
. value; and in 1746-53 Houbigant published, at 

Paris, a splendid edition in 4 vols, folio, though its 
value is much diminished by the number of conjectural 
emendations embodied in the notes and translation. In the 
same year Kennicott published his first Dissertation 
on the state of the printed Hebrew text, and in 
1776-80 his Hebrew Bible was printed at Oxford. The text 
is that of Van der Hooght, with the various readings of 692 
different authorities, including MSS., printed editions, and rab- 
binical writings. In 1784-8, De Rossi, of Parma, 
published 5 vols, of extracts from Hebrew MSS. : 
and in 1793 the most important readings of Kennicott and 
De Rossi were published in an edition issued at Leipzig 1793, 
by Doederlein and Meisner, and at Vienna by Jahn, 
1806, as they were also in the English edition of 
the Hebrew Scriptures published in 1 810-16 by 

Boothroyd. i 

JBoothroyd. 

62. The result of all these inquiries is, that we have but one 
Result : but class of MSS., the Masoretic, and that the variations 
°Ji££ l ^ y . of reading in them do not exceed those of one 

01 MSS. and to , 

readings. familv of MSS. of the Greek Testament. An edition 

t/ 

of the Hebrew Bible which shall give the readings sanctioned 



HISTORY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 31 

by ancient versions is still needed ; but so far as ihe accuracy 
of the present text is concerned, such a work is rather curious 
than important. 

63. The general uniformity of Hebrew MSS. makes a classi- 
Nranber of fication of them less important than in the case of 
Heb. mss. Greek MSS. Kennicott mentions 630, of which 
258 were collated by him throughout, the remainder only in 
part. De Rossi collated 751, of which all but 17 were collated 
lor the first time. Many others remain uncollated. (See Jahn's 
Hebrew Bible, vol. iv. App.) 

Though, as already stated, there is but one recension, the 
Masoretic, it seems that in the 10th century the Jews at 
Babylon had one set of readings, and those at Tiberias another. 

Hence arose the distinction of Eastern and Western 
and Western families. Bishop Walton, in his Polyglot, has given 

the differences on which this distinction is founded. 
They are differences in the letters, and are about 220 in all, 
none of which, however, materially affects the sense ; and in 
the vowel points, these amounting to about 860. In reference 
to the hrst, our printed editions vary from the Eastern read- 
ings in 55 places ; in reference to the second, they follow the 
Masoretic text as fixed at Tiberias. Particular copies were 
long celebrated for accuracy, but only their traditional fame 
has descended to our times. 

64. It is a summary proof of the general accuracy of the 

present text, that the Jew agrees with the Christian 
in the letter of the Old Testament, and the Eo- 
manisfc with the Protestant in the letter of the New. 

On this subject see Home, vol. ii. part i. ch. ii. § 1 : Scott Porter, 
p. 75 : Bishop Marsh's Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation 
of the Bible : and Davidson's Bib. Cr., vol. i. 

a Sec. 4. The Ancient Versions of Scripture. 

65. The origin and history of the LXX were long matters 

of controversy, though n o w the questions connected 

with it may be regarded as settled. The story of 

Aristeas, a writer who pretends to be a Gentile and favourite 

at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, is, that this version was 

a See Preface. 



32 CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. 

• 

made by seventy-two Jews (six from each tribe) sent to Alex- 
andria by Eleazar at the request of Demetreus Phalareus, and 
that the whole was completed in seventy-two days. To this 
story various additions were made, claiming miraculous inter- 
position for the work, and infallibility for the translators. 
Dr. Hody first proved that the narrative could not be authentic : 
though nothing has been discovered that materially affects 
either the value or the date of the version. Eegarding the 
work critically, it may be observed that it contains many 
Graeco-Egyptian words, and that the Pentateuch is translated 
with much more accuracy than the other books. The Book 
of Job, the Psalms, and the prophets, are all inferior, and 
especially Isaiah and Daniel. The historical books are often 
inaccurately translated. 

In the early Christian church the version was deemed of 
great value, though writers often appealed against it to the 
Origen's Hebrew. With the view of correcting it, Origen 
Hexapla, formed his Hexapla. This work, which made alto- 
gether fifty volumes, perished probably at the sacking of 
Cassarea by the Saracens, 653 a.d. ; but happily the text of 
the LXX (which formed one of the columns) had been copied 
by Eusebius, together with the corrections or additions which 
Origen had inserted from the other translators. This Hexa- 
plarian text, as it is called, was published by Montfaucon at 
Paris, in 17 14. Of the two celebrated MSS. of the LXX, the 
Vatican (B) follows the original version, while the Alexandrian 
(A) exhibits many of the readings embodied in the Hexapla, 
and conforms more generally to the present Hebrew. 

The four chief printed editions of the LXX are — the Aldine, 
exhibiting many of the readings of B ; the Complutensian, 
which often follows the Masoretic Hebrew and Origen's 
Hexapla ; the Boman or Vatican ; and the Grabian, which is 
taken chiefly from A. 

The version is rather free than literal, and frequently misses 
the sense of the original. It is often valuable in interpretation, 
though less so in settling the text. 

66. Among the earliest versions founded on the LXX was the 
Versions Italic. In the days of Augustine (died 430) there 
from the were several Latin versions of the Bible, of which 

L/X.A.. 

1. The italic, the old Italic was the best. Jerome bears the same 
testimony to its general excellence. It was made, as may be 



CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. 33 

gathered from fragments which still remain, a from the Alex- 
andrian MS., and is ascribed by Eichhorn to the ist century. 

67. The diversities and imperfections of this version induced 
Jerome (a.d. 382) to revise the text, as Origen had previously 
revised the version of the LXX. He employed for this purpose 
the Hexapla of Origen, and carefully corrected the whole of 
the Old Testament, though portions only of his revision remain. 
As these labours of Jerome w T ere drawing to a close, the LXX, 
though long favourably received by the Jews, began to fall 
into disrepute, on the ground, probably, that it was appealed 
to by Christians. To meet this feeling, Jerome undertook to 
prepare a translation into Latin direct from the Hebrew. He 
devoted the larger portion of twenty years to this w r ork, and 
it was completed in 405. A superstitious reverence for the 
LXX led many to oppose this version, but it gradually gained 
influence, and in the time of Gregory the Great (604) it had 
at least a co-ordinate authority, and was dignified with the 

name of the Vulgate. The text was made up in 
Vulgate in part from the old Italic, in part from Jerome's im- 
proved edition of that version, and is in part a new 
version formed immediately from the Hebrew. Jerome was 
acquainted with Hebrew expositors, and many of their inter- 
pretations are embodied in the Vulgate, but generally it follows 
the LXX, even when that version differs from the Hebrew. 
It is more useful for interpretation than for criticism, though 
for both it is of value. The version of the Psalms was made 
from Origen's Hexapla, and is called the Psalterium Gallicanum. 
The text was early corrupted, and various learned men have 
undertaken to revise it, among w T hom are Alcuin and Lanfranc. 
The two chief editions are those of Sixtus v. and Clement 
viii., which, however, though both sanctioned by papal autho- 
rity, contain some most remarkable errors. b (See par. 76.) 

68. Ecclesiastical history places the conversion of Ethiopia 
Other about a.d. 330, and to the same century belongs 
theLXX. rCm the translation of the Scriptures into Gheez, the 
continued. sacred language of Ethiopia. Its author is not 
Ethiopic. known. Perfect copies of the Old Testament are 
not common, though Bruce states that he found several ; and 

a Job, Psalms, some of the Apocrypha, and parts of other books. 

b Of the Vulgate, as prepared by Jerome, the most important MS. 

is the C. Amiatinus, now at Florence, and written about the year 54.1.- 

c 3 



34 CHITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. 

there are MSS. of this version in some of the libraries of 
Europe. Only fragments have been printed. The text follows 
the readings of A, and is founded entirely on the LXX. The 
New Testament has all been printed. The text seems to be 
founded on the Peshito and the old Italic. — See Ludolf, Gieseler, 
and the Travels of Bruce. 

The greater part of the Old Testament is also extant in the 
4, 5. Coptic, Coptic and Thebaic, dialects of Egypt, though only 
Thebaic. a portion has been printed. The most probable 
date of their origin is the 3rd and 4th century, though some 
suppose them to have been made as early as the 1st and 2nd. 
Both are founded on the LXX, and generally follow the 
readings of A. The translators are not known. 

The Gothic version of the Bible was made by Ulphilas, a 

bishop of the Mceso-Goths, who assisted at the 

Council of Constantinople in 359. The version was 

made from the Greek, and is of considerable critical value, 

though unhappily only fragments of it remain. The most 

celebrated MS. is the Codex Argenteus, written in silver letters, 

which is now preserved in the library of Upsal in Sweden. 

This MS. contains only the four Gospels, and is imperfect. 

Of the Armenian version little more is known than is stated 

in another paragraph. The elate is 410, and the 

translator Miesrob, who seems to have used the 

LXX and the Alexandrian recension as the basis of his version. 

The Georgian version was made in the following century, from 

copies of the Armenian translation. The Armenian version has 

been repeatedly printed (Bible, Amst. 1666, New Testament, 

1 668- 1 698), and the whole Bible, in Georgian, was printed 

at Moscow in 1743, parts of it having been previously printed 

at Tiflis. 

To the 9th century belongs the Slavic or Slavonic version, 
supposed to have been made by the sons of Leo, a 
Greek nobleman, who first preached the gospel to 



the Slavonians. It is generally regarded as a descendant of 
the LXX, though ancient testimony states that it was made, 
in great part, from the Italic, a statement which recent collation 
has confirmed. The text was early corrected from Greek 
MSS., and it is hence deemed of considerable critical value. 
The whole was printed in 1576, and several editions have since 
been issued from Moscow. 



CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSION!*. 35 

69. From the Vulgate were formed the various Anglo-Saxon 
^ versions of parts of Scripture. About the year 706, 

from the Adhelm, the first bishop of Sherborn, translated 
the Psalms into Saxon, as did Egbert, the bishop 
of Holy Island, the four Gospels. About the same time Bede 
(a.d. 735) translated parts of the Bible. King Alfred undertook 
to translate the Psalms, but died (900) when his work was 
about half finished. JElfric of Canterbury translated the Pen- 
tateuch and some of the historical books. To the same version 
we may ascribe the various translations of the Old Testament 
into French, Italian, and Spanish, executed before the 16th 
century, and even Luther availed himself largely of its render- 
ings in making his German translation of the Bible. 

70. The Samaritan Pentateuch is rather a recension than a 
Samaritan translation of the Hebrew text. Copies are referred 
Pentateuch. ^o by Eusebius and Cyril, but it was long thought 
that the whole had perished. In the early part of the 1 7th cen- 
tury, however, a copy was transmitted from Constantinople to 
Paris. Usher afterwards procured six copies, and Kennicott, 
collated sixteen. The most probable account of this recension 
is, that it was taken from the copies of the Pentateuch which 
were in the hands of the Israelites in the days of Behoboam, 
when the kingdom was divided. The Psalms and the writings 
of Solomon, which were known to pious Jews of that age, 
were rejected for obvious reasons. 

The critical value of the readings of this recension was 
Critical over-estimated at first, but now they are held to 

value. kg no t a t a n; superior to the Hebrew. The LXX 

seem to have followed it more frequently than the present 
Hebrew text, from which, however, it does not materially 
differ. Gesenius deems its readings preferable to the Hebrew 
in Gen. 4. 8, where it supplies the words, " Let us go into the 
field ;" in Gen. 14. 14, where it reads u he numbered," instead 
of "he armed ;" in Gen. 22. 13, where it omits the words " be- 
hind him ;" and in Gen. 59. 14, where the difference is in expres- 
sion only and not in sense. The Samaritan is of great value 
in determining the history of the Hebrew vowels, and in con- 
firming the general accuracy of the present text, but it is not 
a source of valuable independent emendation. 

The characters in which it is written are probably the olctei 
forms of the Hebrew. 



36 CRITICISM : ANCIENT VERSIONS. 

The ancient Samaritan Pentateuch must not be con- 
founded with the more modern Samaritan version which is 
printed with the other in the Polyglots. This is a very 
literal translation into modern Samaritan. 

71. The Peshito version of the Scriptures was probably 
Syriac. made by those translators " who were sent to 

Horee Palestine by the apostle Jude and Abgarus king 

Syriacas. f Edessa." Such is the ancient tradition, and it is 
in itself sufficiently probable. From internal evidence it is 
believed that the translators were Jewish Christians, and that 
they translated the Old Testament from the original Hebrew. 
It contains all the canonical books of the Old Testament, and 
all those of the New, except 2 Pet. : 2 and 3 John : Jude and 
the Eevelation. The text differs from all the chief families of 
MSS., and each in succession has claimed it. The New Tes- 
tament was first printed at Venice in 1555, and the Old Testa- 
ment in the Paris and London Polyglots. 

Internal evidence and tradition agree in ascribing it to the 
1st century. It is of great critical value. Several ancient 
Arabic versions, and the Persian version of the Gospels (printed 
in the London Polyglot), -were made from the Peshito. 

The Philoxenian (New Testament only) version was made 

from the Greek, by the hand, or under the care, 

or in the days of Philoxenius, Bishop of Maberg, 

in Syria, about the year 508. No MS. of it remains, but 

various readings taken from it are given in a MS. in the 

Vatican (153). Early in the following century Thomas of 

Harkel, or Heraclea, the successor of Philoxenius, began to 

revise the work of his predecessor, and published 

TTsr3.clG3.il. - 

another version in 616. It contains the whole of 
the New Testament except the Apocalypse. The most com- 
plete MS. of it is one which formerly belonged to Eidley, and 
is now preserved in New College, Oxford. The style, is ex- 
tremely literal, and in consequence frequently violates the 
Syriac idiom. 

There is also a fourth Syriac version of Lessons from the 
Gospels (Vat. MS. 19). The date of the MS. is 1030, but 
the version seems to belong to the 5th or 7th century. The 
language is a mixture of Chaldee and Syriac. The readings 
generally favour the western recension ; and the MS. is some- 
times called the Palestino-Syriac or Jerusalem version. 



CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 37 

72. The Arabic vi rsions of several of the books of Scripture, 
Arabic & s given in the Paris and London Polyglots, were 
versions. made from the LXX, by different authors be- 
tween the 10th and 12th centuries ; and of Job, Chron., Judges, 
Ruth, Samuel, and parts of other books from the Peshito 
Syriac. 

73. From the same version was made the Persian version 
Persian of the Gospels, published with Le Clerc's Latin 

■version. translation in the London Polyglot ; it abounds 

with Arabic expressions, and must have been later than the 
time of Mahomet. Another version of the same part of 
Scripture was published by Wheelock in 1652, but these, with 
the more recent version made under the care of Nadir Shah 
1 740-1, are of little critical value. 

74. From these facts it is clear that the Samaritan Pen- 

tateuch, the LXX, part of the Vulgate, and the 
Peshito Syriac, are all more or less valuable for 
ascertaining the text of the original Hebrew ; but that other 
versions of the Old Testament being made from these, and not 
from the original are of little or no critical value, except for 
ascertaining the text of those versions from which they were 
made. In the case of the Xew Testament all the earlier ver- 
sions from the Greek are of value, proportioned of course to 
the general condition of their texts, and to the obvious accu- 
racy with which they have been made. 

Modern versions (and to a great extent the ancient) are of 
value only as helps to interpretation. 

Full accounts of ancient versions may be seen in Le Long's 
Bibliotheca Sacra (Masch's Edition), or in Home's Introduction, 
vol. ii. 

a Sec. 5. The various Readings of Scripture ; Rules for 

determining the Text. 

75. Of Hebrew MSS. upwards of 1300 have been collated, 
Number of an d of Greek upwards of 600. These numbers, it 
MSS. w j]] \y e observed, do not represent copies of com- 
plete Scriptures, but of parts only. Each of the three divisions 
of the Old Testament (par. 4,) forms in Hebrew one roll, and 
each of the New Testament divisions (par. 49,) generally forms 

one MS. in Greek. 

a See Preface. 



38 CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 

76. These MSS. have been exposed in transcription to many 
Oriain of errors. Nor will this fact excite surprise if it is 
various remembered that carefully printed books often 

contain numerous inaccuracies. In writing, the 
risk is of course much greater than in printing. Revision 
and correction are less practicable in the first than the second 
The slowness of the process increases the probability that 
letters, syllables, and words will be added, omitted, changed, 
or transposed. Sometimes the writer transcribed from a MS. 
before him ; sometimes from dictation. In the latter case his 
ear frequently deceived him, and in the former, his eye. Dif- 
ferent words having often the same final syllable, or different 
sentences having the same final word, made mistakes the more 
easy. A misunderstanding of the MS. from which he copied 
would sometimes lead to the same result. He might either 
misinterpret its abbreviations, or inaccurately divide the 
words, where they were written (as in most ancient MSS.) 
without pause marks ; or the MS. might be wholly or partially 
effaced. Independently, therefore, of design, these causes of 
error were always at work. The results, however, seldom 
affect the meaning of the text materially (though they do so 
in some cases), and are similar to the mistakes produced in 
an English version by such errors of the press, as escaped the 
eye of even a careful reader. Differences more serious may 
be seen in the Bibles printed " by authority " of the popes 
Sextus and Clement. Hotly has given a large number of these 
discrepancies. Compare them in Prov. 25. 24 : Matt. 27. 35 : 
Juclg 17. 2, 3 : which are left out in the Sixtine edition ; and in 
1 Sam. 24. 8 : 2 Sam. 8.8: which are left out in the Clementine 
edition. They contradict one another, moreover in Josh. 2. 18 : 
9. 19 : Exod, 32. 28 : Gen. 24. 24 : 1 Kings 2. 28. 
For example : — 

77. (1) There are many cases in which, from the similarity 
Similarity of of sound or of form, the transcriber would naturally 
fomi d ° r make a false reading. 



In Gen. 14. 5, the Heb. Sam. and LXX. read " with them" 
(DH2), Behem. The English and seven Sam. MSS. read " in Ham " 
(Dill), Becham. 

In Judges 8. 16, some Hebrew MSS. and the English read "he 
taught" (JJT), Yadah : but many MSS., the LXX, Chald., Arab., 



CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 39 

Syr., and Vulg., read "he tore" (CH'O, Yadash, which is clearly the 
true reading. So in Numb. 22. 5, where many read Ammon instead 
of "Ammo" (his people). 

In 1 Kings 1. 18, "And wow" is our English version (nnjJI), Veatta 
but 200 MSS. and the Chald. read "And thou" (HrifcO), Veatta. 
So ver. 20. 

In Jonah 1. 9, "I am a Hebrew" (^IJJ), Ivri, is the reading of 
most MSS. and of the English: but the LXX and some MSS. 
read "^ "12V, Ivdi, "the servant of Jehovah." 

N 1 ? lo (not) is put for v lo (to him) fifteen times in the Old 
Testament, and the reverse twice. Though there is this change, 
the text which the Jews use, and which our Version translates, is 
in these places the correct one, except, perhaps, in one passage, 
2 Kings 8. 10, where for "Go, say unto him, Thou mayest certainly 
recover," we ought to read, as the present Hebrew MSS., " Go, 
say Thou shalt not recover, for — " 

In Eph. 4. 19, some MSS. read "past hope" instead of "past 
feeling " (acr^XT/^orsj for u,tfnXyf)xo<r&i). 

Similar cases may be found in the Hebrew, of the following 
passages, 1 Sam. 20. 18: Psa. 59. 9. 

Under this same head may be placed the transposition of letters, 
or even of words: as " Shalmai," Nehem. 7. 48. for Shamlai, see 
Ezra 2. 46: " almug-trees " for algum-trees ; 1 Kings 10. 11; 
2 Chron. 9. 10: In 2 Sam. 6. 5: andi Chron. 13. 8, "all manner 
of fir-wood," and " with all their might and with singing" differ 
chiefly in one similar letter and in the transposition of another. 
See also Hebrew of 2 Sam. 6. 2, compared with 1 Chron. 13. 6. 

The Jews never pronounced the name Jehovah, but when it oc- 
curred in Scripture read Adonai or Elohim. These latter words are 
consequently often put in MSS. for the former. 

We have noticed elsewhere how similar letters have been con- 
founded in the case of numerals (par. 117), a confusion the more 
easy in the early stage of the Hebrew language, as the letters more 
closely resembled one another than at present. 

Similarity ot 7& (2) Similarity of ending, either of words or 
endings. f w b. l e sentences, sometimes created mistake. 

There are different readings in 1 Chron. 9. 5, from this cause. 
1 Kings 14. 25 seems to belong to this class: compare 2 Chron. 
12. 29. See also the Hebrew of Numb. 26. 3; and compare Psa. 
37. 28 with the LXX. 

In Exod. 30. 6, " before the mercy-seat that is over the testi- 
mony " is a repetition, probably, of the previous clause. 



40 CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 

In Matt. 28, 9, the expression " went to tell his disciples" 
(which is in Greek, the same as "to bring his disciples word" in the 
eighth verse) is omitted in many MSS., B, D, and also in the Vulg., 
Syr., Copt., Arm., Pers., Arab., Chrys., Jer., Aug. : but it is found in 
most MSS. On the other hand, the last clause of 1 Cor. 10. 28, is 
taken from ver. 26, and is wanting in A, B, D, in most ancient 
versions, and in many- other authorities. 

79. (3) A large class of various readings owe their origin 

to the use of synonymous expressions : as " he 
synonymous spoke" for " he said," in 2 Kings 1. 10: "they found" 
xpr for " they saw" (evpov for el<)ov), Matt. 2. 11 : "this 

verv world" for "this present world," Matt. 12. 32; "the 
messengers of John " for" the disciples of John," in Luke 7. 24 ; 
" to follow after" for " follow," Mark 8. 34. 

80. (4) Many copyists were acquainted with other Oriental 
Dialectic languages, and, in the case of the New Testament, 
changes. with other dialects ; and thence arose great diver- 
sity in the orthography even where the readings are substan- 
tially the same. 

Absence of 81. (5) Ancient MSS. are often without stops 
stops and anc [ without even the division of the words : hence 
words. occasional mistakes, though fewer than might be 

supposed. 

In Psa. 48. 14, for " unto death" some MSS. and the LXX read, 
by connecting the two words, " for ever." And Psa. 25. 17 may 
be read, through a similar mistake, "Enlarge the troubles of my 
heart, and bring/' etc.; comp. also LXX., and Heb. of Ps, 4. 3. 

82. (6) Sometimes abbreviations are wrongly interpreted, 

"\J) is the Heb. abbreviation for " Jehovah ;" and 
donsmisap- it means also Ml": hence an occasional mistake, 
prehended. In fae LXX of Jer. 6. 11, " the fury of J" is 
translated " my fury." So in 1 Pet. 2. 3, for " gracious,"- which 
is sometimes written XS (xp^oroc) some of the Fathers 
(Clem-Alex., Greg. Naz. Theoph.), read "Christ" (xpttrrog), 
which is also written XS. 

83. (7) In the Old Testament MSS. the copyists never 
Mistakes divided a word, nor did they leave, at the end of 
from i mes any vacant space ; and hence they often filled 

" Custodes *j.i xi 

lineavum." up the line with some favourite letter, or with the 



CRITICISM: VARIOUS READINGS. 41 

initial of the next word, which of course was repeated in the 
following line. " For them," in Isa. 35. I, is an example. 
And, on the other hand, ignorant copyists have mistaken final 
letters for mere custodes linear 'um, as they are called, and have 
omitted them." 

84. (8) Sometimes marginal readings have been inserted in 
Marginal the body of the MSS., corrective or explanatory of 
glosses. ^he original text. 

The repetition "Surely the people is grass" (Isa. 40. 7), is sup- 
posed to belong to this class, and is not found in the LXX. The 
number 50,000, mentioned in 1 Sam. 6. 19, is supposed by Jahn to 
be another instance. 

In Mark 1. 16, the word "his" seemed ambiguous; and many 
MSS. (54, besides all Stephens') read "this same Simon." 

In Luke 7. 16, ''•God has visited his people for good r> (sU u.ya.G'cv) 
add eleven MSS., Arm. and Pers., in explanation of a phrase which 
seemed scarcely clear. 

So in Luke 5. 7, a few MSS. add " a little" Qraoa ri). 

85. All the sonrces of various readings noticed thus far may 
Various ^e regarded as accidental. Other readings, how- 
readings ever, were intentionally made, either from good 

originating in . £ 

intentional motives or from bad.. A Greek copyist, tor ex- 
aiteranons. am pi e> accustomed to hear his own language spoken 
without an admixture of oriental idioms, and regarding a 
Hebraism as a violation of grammar, would correct it, for- 
getting that such idioms go to prove the genuineness of the 
inspired writings. He would sometimes substitute for the 
original, Greek words which he deemed more clear and easy. 
Sometimes he would correct one Evangelist by another, or 
fill up the shorter account from the longer one, or adapt the 
quotations from the Old Testament to the text of his own 
copy, whether it were Hebrew, or Greek, or Latin. 

In other instances motives less honourable may account for 
deviations from the original text. 

Mistakes 86. (9) Sometimes, for example, in particular 

re ? me ^i 1 J copies of the Scriptures, a mistake in the spelling 
injure theMS. of a word, once made, is retained throughout the 
book. 

The Hebrew for a boy is put twenty-one times in the Pentateuch 
for a girl (1>0 for my J na-ar, na-ara), which latter is found but 



42 CRITICISM: VARIOUS READINGS. 

once (Deut. 22. 19). All the versions and the Masora direct us to 
read it as a feminine noun. So, in Ezek. 40. there is a solecism in 
grammar, through the omission of the ordinary sign of the plural 
(before the suffix 1 viz. *>) in thirty-four words, though the Keri 
directs us to read it. Some critics, it may be added, ascribe these 
variations to other causes. 

Attempts to 87. ( I0 ) Sometimes attempts were made to ini- 
improve the prove MSS., by making the language more clear and 
easy. 

Many passages of the Chronicles, for example, when compared 
with Samuel, will be found to give more modern words, in place of 
the obsolete ones of the earlier writer. These passages, when com- 
pared by copyists, gave rise to various readings. See Hebrew of 

1 Sam. 31. 12 : 1 Chron. x. 12 : 2 Sam. 7. 23 : 1 Chron. 17. 21: 

2 Sam. 6. 16: 1 Chrom 15. 29. 

So, in Luke 16. 9, for "the mammon of unrighteousness," which 
is a Hebraism, some read (MS. Bezse) "the unrighteous mammon." 

In Luke 1. 64, "was loosed" is added in some MSS. (Bez. and 
Compl. text). 

In Exod. r5. 3, it is said that " The Lord is a man of war," The 
word seemed to the Sam, copyists objectionable; and they have put 
" mighty one of war." 

In Gen. 2. 2, it is said that God finished his work on the seventh 
day. The Sam. and Syr. seem to have read "on the sixth day." 

In the Pentateuch, the word for God is plural (Elohim) ; and is 
sometimes joined with a singular verb and sometimes with a plural 
verb. In all the latter cases, there is a variety of readings : most 
of them (as in the Sam.) in favour of a singular noun (as the Holy 
One), retaining, however, the plural verb: the object being, pro- 
bably, to prevent a supposition that the Scriptures favoured poly- 
theism. See Gen. 20. 13: 35. 7. 

MSS. of the Alexandrian family, it may be observed, often alter 
words to make what was deemed better grammar; as MSS. of the 
Y> T estern alter them to make the meaning more clear. 

88. (11.) Sometimes alterations were made to suit the 
Parallel parallel passage, ox to make the text agree with 
passages. the passage from which it is quoted. See Schulz's 
edition of Griesbach (Ber. 1827), for a view of the influence 
in this respect of the LXX on the text of the New Testament. 

Luke 4. 18, "to heal the broken-hearted," is wanting in several 
MSS. It is probably taken from the LXX of Isa. 61. 1. Matt. 
12. 35, "of the heart" is omitted in many MSS., and in the 



CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 43 

Vulg., Syr., Copt., Pcrs., Arab. It is probably from Luke 6. 45. 
Matt. 20. 22, 23, " the baptism I am baptized with can ye be 
baptized with ?" is wanting in several MSS., and in the Vulg., Ethiop., 
and Copt., probably from Mark 10. 38, 39. Matt. 27. 35, " That 
it might be fulfilled, " etc., is wanting in A B D E F G H K L M, etc., 
and many other MSS., the Syr., Copt., Ethiop., and Arab. It is, pro- 
bably, from John 19. 24. Acts 9: 22: 26: and Acts 10: n : have 
been peculiarly liable to various readings on this ground. 1 Cor. 
15. 5, "the twelve" being not strictly accurate (for Thomas was 
absent), some MSS. read "the eleven." So, in Mark 8. 31, some 
MSS. read "after three days," and others "on the third day." 

89. (12.) Sometimes a passage has been altered wilfully to 
Alterations serve the purposes of a party, or to favour what 
purposes. was deemed the cause of truth. 

In Deut. 27. 4, the Eeb. reads "Ebal," and the Sam. "Gerizim," 
which was in the Samaritan territory; and the passage is used as a 
reason for erecting there a Samaritan temple. In Judg. 18. 30, 
" Manasseh" is written in many MSS. for Moses, to save the honour 
of his family. So E. Solomon Jarchi acknowledges. Isa. 64. 4, 
has been altered, and is now unintelligible. It is quoted in 
1 Cor. 2. 9. Isa. 52. 14, for tc ok thee" some MSS., the Chald., 
Syr., and Vulg. read " at him." Such intentional alterations, 
however, are very rare in the Old Testament ; nor are there many 
in the New Testament Greek. In Matt. 1. 18, "before they 
came together/' and the word " first-born, " are omitted in some 
MSS. and Versions, in favour of the perpetual virginity. In Mark 
13. 32, "neither the Son" is omitted in several MSS. and Fathers, 
as seeming to favour Arianism. Luke 22. 43 is omitted in AB, 
and some other MSS., because supposed to detract from our Lord's 
Divinitv. 

90. (13.) There are also various readings, which can be ex- 

plained only on the supposition of carelessness on 
the part of transcribers, and which are not referable 
to any of the causes just enumerated. 

In 1 Chron. 6. 28, there is an omission of the name Joel (see 
ver. 33: 1 Sam. 8. 2). The verse really reads "And the sons of 
Samuel, the first-born Joel, and the second (now translated Vashni), 
Abiah." Bishop Lovcth has noticed that, in Isaiah, there are as 
many as fifty slight omissions ; none of them, however, affecting the 
sense. A singular instance may be seen in 2 Sam. 21. 19, which 
ought to be read in the same way as 1 Chron. 20. 5. Read in 



44 CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 

Samuel HK for fVl, eth, beth, and nK for HK, ach, eth. The 
word D\jT}V$ (weavers), has come up improperly from the end of 

the verse. The 430 years mentioned in Exod. J 2. 40, as the 
time of the sojourning of the children of Israel in Egypt, is not 
correct ; it was only 215 years: and the text as it stands is hardly 
consistent with Gal. 3. 17: Gen. 12. 4: 17. 1, 21: 25. 26. The 
Sam. Alex. LXX, and some MSS., read " and of their fathers who 
dwelt in the land of Egypt, and in Canaan." Perhaps, however, 
there is here a latitude of expression, easily understood by Jewish 
readers. 

91. The readings which have originated in these and similar 

causes, amount to many thousands, but in nearly 
such various all, any various reading may be adopted without 
readings. materially affecting the sense. The most inac- 
curate text ever written (it has been justly said), leaves the 
truths of Scripture substantially unchanged. 

92. It is, nevertheless, a question of much interest, how is 

the comparative value of various readings to be de- 
rative value cided? The following principles are recognised 
ascertained 13 ^J a -^ com P e tent scholars in this branch of inquiry. 

They are taken substantially from Griesbach, Wet- 
stein, and other critics. Griesbach's rules may be seen at 

J */ 

length in his Prolegomena, or abridged in Planck's Sacred 
Philology, p. 245, etc., and Wetstein's, in his introduction to 
the Greek Testament. Kules approved by Eichhorn and De 
Wette, with special reference to the Old Testament, may be 
seen in De Wette, Introduction, i. 319. 

93. (1.) When MSS., versions, and quotations agree in a 
External reading, the external evidence in its fayour is 
evWence inal com P^ e ^ e j an d, when the reading, thus fixed, agrees 
what. with the nature of the language, the sense, the 
connection of historical facts, and parallel passages, the 
internal evidence is complete. Where these concur, the 
reading is undoubtedly genuine ; and this is the evidence 
found in the case of the great bulk of the Scriptures, as 
contained in the common editions. 

94. (2.) Generally, the value of a reading is in proportion 

to the age of the MSS., because the older it is, 
as to external the less likely is it to be a transcript of many pre- 
^vidence. v ious transcripts, (ihough a recent MS. certainly 
copied from a very early one, ma} be of greater authority 



CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 45 

than one less recent) : to the number of MSS. in which it 
is found ; to the family to which it belongs, (some preferring, 
with Gi iesbach,- the Alexandrian ; and others, with Schulz, 
the Constantinopolitan) ; and to the obvious care with which 
the MS. is written. 

In the case of Hebrew MSS., we speak rather of the coun- 
tries where they were written, than of families formed on any 
other principle. Spanish, Italian, German, representing their 
origin, and the order of their critical value. 

The following rales rnr.y be laid down for guiding the 
inquirer in determining the correct reading. 

95. (i.) "When the external and internal evidence are op- 
Externai evi- posed, the former ought generally to be preferred, 
fmportnit 6 because the "genuine reading" is an expression 
than internal, that refers rather to external than to internal 
evidence. It is the sum, not of reasons, so much as of au- 
thorities. 

96. (2). Yet the internal evidence may be so strong, as to 

counterbalance a greater degree of external, (as in 

the case of most of the Masoretic readings of the 

Old Testament) : wherever, in fact, the readings are clearly 

false, or where the introduction of .a particular reading can be 

easily explained. 

97. (3.) Headings are certainly right when they are sup- 
Various ported by the most ancient MSS., by most of the 
reading ancient versions, by quotations, by parallel places, 
highly pro- an( j "by the sense, though such readings are not 
tain. found in all MSS., or in the common version. 

Isa. 60. 21, " my planting;" 1 Kings 1. 18. 

98. (4.) Readings are most probably right, when they are 
supported by a few ancient MSS., the ancient versions, quo- 
tations, parallel places, and the sense, though not found in 
most MSS. 

2 Chron. 11. iS, " Rehoboain took the son (p ben, T)2 bath), of 
Jerimoth to wife;" so most MSS. : the E. v. says rightly, " the 
daughter," E. v. Psa. 22. 16, most MSS. read " like alionmy hands 
and my feet/' CHSO Kaari). Three MSS., two printed editions, the 
LXX, Syr., and Yulg., read "they pierced;" as does the English 
version, CHSO or VUO, Kore or Kaaru). Others, however, re- 
gard the present masoretic text as defensible, (Vitringa, Stuart). 



46 CRITICISM: VARIOUS READINGS. 

Ezek. ii. 7, most MSS. read " he will bring forth" (W\n 
hotzi). A few MSS., all the versions, and the English read " / will 
bring forth/' (N^IK otzi). Eph. 5. 9, most MSS. read " of the 
Spirit:" but A, and nine others, with the Syr., Copt., Ethiop., and 
Vulg., read " of the light." 

99. (5.) Eeadings in the Pentateuch, supported by the Sam., 
a few Heb. MSS., the ancient versions, parallel places, and the 
sense, are certainly right, though not found in most MSS. 

Gen. 47. 3, " Thy servants are a shepherd," (sing.): read with 
thirty MSS. and the Sam. "shepherds." Even if the reading is 
not found in any Heb. MSS., it may be true. Gen. 2. 24, " They 
TWO shall be one flesh:" so Sam.-UX.1L, Ital., Syr., Arab., Vulg.y 
Matt. 19. 5. So Exod. 12. 40. 

100. (6.) The concurrence of the most ancient MSS., and 
the sense, is sometimes sufficient to show that a reading, 
though not general, is right. 

Isa. 57. 13, "Let thy companies deliver thee." Most MSS. have 
a singular verb : but ten read in the plural. This rule is especially 
applicable to the New Testament. 

1 01. (7.) The concurrence of the most ancient versions, and 
the sense, or a parallel passage, will sometimes show the pro- 
priety of a reading, especially in the Old Testament. 

Psa. 68. 18, " He received gifts for men." Eph. 4. 8, says " He 
gave gifts unto men." So Targ., Syr., Ethiop., Arab., and some of 
the Fathers. The present Heb. is T)V\p? lakachta: the transposi- 
tion of the letters explains the difference; np?H chalakta. Isa. 
59. 20, " unto them that turn from transgression in Jacob" is the 
present reading. But the Versions, and Rom. 11. 26, read " that 
turn transgression from Jacob." In both these passages, how- 
ever, the New Testament may be intended to give rather the general 
meaning, than the words. 

102. (8.) When a text is very corrupt, a parallel passage 
may suggest the tine reading. 

2 Kings 25. 3, for " on the ninth day of the month" read " of 
the fourth month," as in Jer. 52. 6. 1 Chron. 1. 17, for " The 
sons of Shem .... Aram and Uz," read " The sons of Sbem, and the 
sons of Aram," &c, Gen. 10. 23. Isa. 30. 17, for " At the re- 
buke of five shall ye flee," read " At the rebuke of five shall ten 
thousand flee," Lev. 26. 8. 

103. When we come to consider readings which are but 



CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 47 

rvubiful probable, being equally, or more or less nearly 
equally supported by external evidence, the rules 



**o- 



of criticism become more difficult, and the application of them 
must be made with less rigidity. 

104. (1.) Of two readings, equally supported by external 
Various evidence, that is the most probable which best 

rules. suits the sense, or which could not, so easily as the 

other, have been written by mistake. 

'2 Cor. 5. 14, "(If ) one died for all," si is omitted in many MSS., 
but the sense requires it, and it is easily omitted before 3$. Act? 
ir. 20, "unto the Grecians" is the reading of many MSS.; hut, 
probably, it ought to be, as many read, "to the Greeks;" The fact 
seems noticed because of its remarkableness, and justly so. if it be 
the second case of the success of the gospel among the heathen, see 
chap. 10. 44, 45, for the first. Grecians were Jews who resided out 
of Palestine. 2 Cor. 5.3, a If so be that being clothed" (tvhw&fttfai) : 
so very many MSS. Others read t*&ur&jjbtw 9 " If we be even un- 
clothed, yet shall we not be found naked, for we have a glorious 
bodv, etc." 

It may be noticed as a general rule, that readings no better 
than the received text, should not be placed in it ; but, if as 
good, or nearly so, they may be placed in the margin. 

105. (2.) Of two readings, equally probable, the fuller reading 
is more likely to be genuine ; unless there is reason to sus- 
pect an interpolation, or there is something in the text to 
suggest an addition ; and then the rule is reversed. 

In 1 Chron. it. 32, we have "Abiel;" but in 2 Sam. 23. 31, 
" Abi-albon." The last syllable might easily be omitted. So in 
Matt. 2. 1, "in the davs of Herod" is omitted in several MSS. ; but 
it is genuine. 

Yet, if there is reason to suppose an interpolation, or if there 
is something in the text to suggest an addition, the rule is 
reversed ; as copiers were more likely, from intention, to acid 
than to omit ; though they were more likely, from accident, 
to omit than to add. 

Acts 8. 37, is wanting in A, and sixty other MSS., also in tire 
Syr., Ethiop., and Copt, It is perhaps added from Rom. 10. 9. 

106. (3.) Of two readings, the one classical and the other 
oriental, the latter is the more probable. 

107. (4.) Of two readings, the one easy and the other diffi- 
cult, the latter is generally to be preferred. All the eminent 



48 CRITICISM : VARIOUS READINGS. 

critics, Wetstein, Griesbach, Bengel, and others, have admitted 
and maintained this rule, which they deem of essential value, 

1 08. (5.) Of two readings (equally probable), that is to be 
preferred which best agrees with the style of the writer, or 
with his design, or with the context. 

Jude 1, " sanctified by God the Father " (JiytufffAivots), is more pro- 
bable than "beloved" (jiyu&np.£vois\ because more common in the 
commencement of Epistles. Acts 17. 26, " of one blood" is 
more probable than " of one" (as in Eom. 9. 10), because it is a 
good Hebraism. John 6. 69, (< Thou art the Christ, the Son 
of the living God " (wsj), is preferable to Griesbach' s reading '' the 
Holy One of God" (JLyias), because this last is nowhere applied to 
Christ, except in the confession of the demoniac. Mark j. 2, 
"in the prophets " is preferable to " in the prophet Isaiah," which 
is the reading of Griesbach and Mill, because two prophets are quoted, 
(Isa. 40. 3: Mai. 3. 1.) 

109. (6.) Conjectural readings, supported by the sense, or 
similar texts, may be probable ; but must not be received as 
true, unless they are confirmed by evidence. 

In Gen. 1.8, " God saw that it was good " is wanting at the end 
of the second day's creation, but is found in ver. 10, in the middle 
of the third day's work. There has, therefore, probably been a 
transposition of the clause, especially as the LXX, reads the phrase 

in ver. 8. Josh. 24. 19, " Ye cannot serve the Lord" (I^IH rc?), 
seems strange at the end of an exhortation, to serve him, " Cease 
not to serve him" («vDh #?), is probably the true reading, but it 
wants confirmation. Isa. 52. 15, "So shall he sprinkle many na- 
tions " (n-T* yazze), is generally interpreted " he shall purify or make 

expiation for them;" but this sense does not agree with the parallel, 

and the verb has every where else, a preposition after it (yj/). The 
LXX reads " Many nations shall admire him." They probably 
read (1 jn* yechezu), as in Psa. 11. 7 : 27. 5 . The lexicographers give 
this meaning to the present word. Isa. 17.2, " the cities of Aroer ' : 
HjnjJ Aroer), are broken : but to say that the cities of a city are 
broken is unmeaning; and,, besides, this has nothing to do with 
Damascus. Perhaps (HJHJJ adadi), is the true reading. The LXX 
reads " for ever;" as this last reading means, and the Chald. reads 
" are laid waste." 

no. In the New Testament (as MSS. are numerous and 
Conjectural varied), conjectural emendations are not admis- 
emeudations. s ible, and but very rarely in the Old. 



CRITICISM ' VARIOUS READINGS. -49 

in. In a few cases, passages have two or more various 
readings : all of which are suitable to the sense, and arc 
supported by MSS., versions, and quotations : and in these 
cases, the probabilities vary with the evidence ; and the 
work of determining the true reading, is one that requires 
much discrimination and care. It is highly satisfactory, to 
know that, in the Bible generally, the text is clear and certain 
beyond doubt. 

112. To aid the reader to apply these rules, we take as an 
Rules applied instance, i John 5. 7. 

The passage is printed in the Clementine editions of 
the Vulgate, in the Complutensian of the Greek, in the third edition 
of Erasmus; and so thence found its way into the common texts 
of Stephens, Beza, and Elzevir. 

Against its genuineness it may be said, 

1. That no Greek MSS. of certainly earlier date than the 15th 
century contains it. It is omitted in 174 Cursive MSS., and in 
A, B, G, H. 

2. It is wanting in all the ancient versions, except the Latin, nor 
is it found in the most ancient MS. of the Yulgate, the C. Amiatinus, 
or in any earlier than the 9th century. It is wanting, for example, 
in the two Syr., Arab., Copt., Ethiop., Armen., Slavonic ; though some 
printed editions of the two latter, and of the Peshito insert it. 

3. Ancient Greek Fathers have never quoted it. Ver. 6, 8, 9, are 
quoted more than once, but ver. 7, never. 

4. The best critical editions of the Greek Testament omit it : the 
first and second of Erasmus, Aldus, Harviood, Matthosi, Griesbach, 
Eachman, Scholz, Tiscli., Hahn: Though on the other hand, Mill 
and Bengel retain it. 

In favour of its genuineness it may be said, 

1. That it is inserted in some Greek MSS., the Codex Ravianus, at 

Berlin. Cod. G-uelph, and three others.; concerning which, however, 
it is remarked, that the first is a forgery; the second has the passage 
written, not in the text, but in the margin; and that the others belong 
to the 15th century, or later, and are therefore modern authorities. 

2. It is found in the old Latin versions, except in copies made in 
Africa. This is another form of part of the statement above, No. 2. 

3 . It is supposed to be quoted by some of the Latin Fathers, as 
TertuUian, Cyprian, and Fulgentius. It is not clear, hov>ever, whether 
the quotations are from the 7th, or from the 6th and 8th verses. 

4. It is quoted in a Confession of Faith, given in the history of 

D 



50 CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 

the Vandalic persecution in Africa, and which Confession is said te 
have been presented by a body of Christians in the year 484. Thi3 
alleged fact, however, is thought not sufficient to weaken the posi- 
tive evidence ; and is, moreover, itself doubtful. 

5 . It is said to be required by the construction and connection of 
the passage : an argument of w^hich the English reader can himself 
judge.— Porter's " Biblical Criticism." 

On the whole, it is better not to rejy upon this passage, 
when we are quoting proofs of Scripture doctrine. 

Sec. 6 The English Version on the whole identical with the 

original Text. 

113. A question of much interest remains : Is the English 
English version of the Bible accurate ; and may the reader 
Opinions on regard it as, on the whole, expressive of the mind 
its accuracy. f ^q Spirit of God ? And, again, the answer is at 
hand. The English Bible is essentially the Bible of the 
Primitive Church. The Committee appointed in the days of 
the Commonwealth to inquire into the possibility of improving 
it reported, that while it contained some mistakes, it was, in 
their judgment, " the best of any translation in the world." 
A later witness, Dr. Geddes, admits " that, if accuracy, fidelity, 
and the strictest attention to the letter of the text be sup- 
posed to constitute the qualities of an excellent version, this, 
of ail versions, must in general be accounted the most excel- 
lent." " Of all the European translations," says Dr. A. Clarke, 
" this is the most accurate and faithful : nor is this its only 
praise. The translators have seized the very spirit and the 
soul of the original, and expressed it almost every where with 
pathos and energy." a Dr. Doddridge bears the same testi- 
mony ; and adds, that his " corrections affect not the funda- 
mentals of religion ; they seldom reach any further than the 
beauty of a figure, or at most the connexion of an argument." b 

114. But while this is the unanimous testimony of compe- 
May be tent authorities, there are points (it is admitted) 
improved j n wn i cn the translation might be improved : and 
these improvements, though not of vital importance as 
affecting the doctrines of Scripture, would, if made, often serve 
to remove objections which are now urged against it. 

a Preface to Commentary on Old Testament, p. 19. 
b Works, ii. p. 329. 



CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 51 

115. (1) In some cases the English version has given a 
Examples of wrong meaning to the words or expressions of the 

inaccurate • • t 

translation. Original. 

In Exod. 3. 22, the Israelites are said to rave " borrov;ed" of the 
Egyptians things which they never intended to return. The original 
says simply, that they asked for them. In 2 Sam. 12. 31, a pre- 
position is translated under, instead of to. David cruelly tortured 
his captives, is the meaning of the English version. He put them 
to ig?iomi7iious employments, is the meaning of the original. So 
Ps. 73. 4, for "no bands in their death/' read, no bands, or diffi- 
culties, till their death (?). Rosenm. 

It may be observed, generally, that the use of prepositions and 
particles is often indeterminate in our version. For sometimes 
means because, 2 Cor. 5. 1; sometimes, instead of , Isa. 60. 17; some- 
times, in order to, Rom. 4. 3. So, of means from, as in John 8. 40, 
42; and by, as in 1 Cor. 15. 5. These ambiguities are not in the 
original. In the narrative of Elisha, 2 Kings 2. 23, the word 
translated "children" is translated, elsewhere, "young men;" and 
is applied to Isaac when he was twenty-eight years old, and to Joseph 
when he was thirty. In 1 Chron. 19. 7, a word is translated 
"chariots," instead of "riders;" and the passage is made to con- 
tradict 2 Sam. 10. 6. This correction makes the passages consistent; 
32,000 men (cavalry and foot-soldiers) being the entire number. 

In 2 Kings 6. 25, the article sold for five shekels of silver was a 
kind of pulse, or vetch, as Bochart has shown; the fourth part of a 
cab being about a pint. Gen. 4. 15 ; for "set a mark upon," read, 
"gave a sign or assurance to." Lev. 7. 10; for "mingled with 
oil and dry," read, or dry (i. e., whichever it be). Deut. n. 25; 
for "shoes," iron and brass, read bars, alluding to the chain of 
mountains which protected Asher from the inroads of the Gentiles. 
Judges 15. 8, 11; for "top," read "cleft." Josh. 24. 14, 15; for 
"flood," read "river." 1 Kings 1. 45; for "in Gihon" (a river), 
read "at Gihon." 1 Kings 4. ji; for " sons of Mahol," read, 
"players on the timbrel." Compare 1 Chron. 2. 6. 1 Slings 18. 
42; for "he cast himself down upon," read, "he bowed down 
to." 1 Kings 18. 43; for " he said go again seven times," read, 
"he said seven times, go again." 2 Chron. 8. 2; for "had 
restored," read, "had given." 2 Chron. 21. 11; for "com- 
pelled," read, "sent him astray," as in Deut. 30. 17: 4. 19. Neh. 
6. it; for "to save his life," read, "and live." Not being a 
priest, Nehemiah was not allowed to enter the holy place. Psa. 
86. 2; for "I am holy," read, " I am a devout man, or the object 
of thy favour." 

d2 



52 CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 

In John io. 28, 29, for "no man, any man," read, "none, any." 
In Acts 7. 45, for "'that came after," read, "having received." 
In Acts 17. 23, for " ignorantly," read, "without knowing him." 
In Acts 22. 23, for "cast off," read, "threw up." In Acts 27, 12, 
for " lieth," read, " looketh." In verse 15, for "into the wind," 
read, "against the wind." In Acts 26. 18, for "to turn them," 
read, "that they may turn." In 2 Cor. 3. 6, for "who hath 
made us able ministers," read, " who hath fitted us to be ministers." 
In Gal. 4. 24, the history of the sons of Hagar and Sarah is said 
to be an "allegory," or a fictitious narrative. The apostle merely 
says that it represents important spiritual truth: the Jews of the 
apostles' day, "Jerusalem that now is," answering to Ishmael; 
and true believers — the Church — to Isaac, the heir of the promise. 
In 2 Pet. 1. 5, for "and beside this," read, "and for this very 
reason." Miletws (not urn), Euodia (not as), Urbane (not e), 
are the correct renderings; and Joshua is less liable to mistake 
than Jesus, in Acts 7. 45 : Heb. 4. 8. 

116. (2) In some cases, the full force, of the original is not 
Examples of expressed. 

inadequate 

translation. I n John 1. 14, the word is said "to have dwelt among 

us:" the original connects his appearance with the ancient tabernacle 
as the dwelling-place of the Divine glory. In 1 Cor. 4. 13, the 
apostles are said to have been made as "the filth of the earth :" 
literally, "the sweepings " (classical usage), or " appeasing offerings " 
(LXX and classical usage). " Rid of us, the world will deem 
itself comparatively clean ;" or " it offers us in expiation to its gods," 
John 16. 2. In Heb. 12. 2, Christians are described as "looking 
to Jesus :" the original implies, looking up to him, and away from 
every other object of trust. In 2 Tim. 2. 5, read, "if a man 
contend in the games." So in 1 Cor. 9. 25. In 1 Thess. 4. 6, 
read "in that matter." In 1 Pet. 2. 13, read, "Submit your- 
selves therefore" 

In several passages the sense of the original is weakened by a mis- 
translation of the Greek article. In 2 Thess 1. 12, e.g., we read, 
"according to the grace of our God and the Lord Jesus Christ:" 
the original reads, "according to the grace of our God and Lord, 
Jesus Christ:" and so in 2 Pet. t. i, in Titus 2. 13, the original 
reads, "the glorious appearing of our great God and Saviour Jesus 
Christ." In 1 Thess. 4. 13, read, for "even as others," "even 
as the rest of the world." In 2 Thess. 2. 15, read, "whether by 
our word." In 1 Cor. 4. 5, read, "and then shall every man 
have of God the praise that is his." In 1 Cor. 5. 9, read "in my 



CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 53 

epistle/' and for " I wrote/' read, " I have written/' referring pro- 
bably to the same epistle. 

The Hebrew article, though less definite than the Greek, is often 
important. In Exod. 17. 14, read, "in the book (viz. of the law):" 
in Psa. 89. 37, read, "as the faithful witness in heaven (the rain- 
bow)." In Isa. 7. 14, Bp. Lowth reads, following the Hebrew, 
"Behold the Virgin conceiveth, etc.'' 

117. (3) In some cases the peculiar idiom of the original 

Examples of has been overlooked. 

peculiar ^ n J Ki u o 3 2 - %> 9> where David says concerning 

idium. Shimei, ' ' Hold him not guiltless but his hoary 

head bring down -with blood to the grave," the word not ought (in 
Dr. Kennicott's opinion) to be repeated in the second clause, as it 
is in Psa. 1.5: 9.18: 38.1: 75.5: Isa. 23. 4(orig.) etc. The event 
shows that Solomon understood David's language in this sense. 
He immediately put Joab to death: but Shimei. though he held 
him not guiltless, he merely bound to remain in Jerusalem, 
as a person who might not be trusted elsewhere. Kennicott's 
Remarks, p. 131. In 1 Cor. 4. 4, "I know nothing by myself," 
is, "I am not conscious of anything" (viz., wrong). In Gal. 5. 
17, the expression is ambiguous, and should be, "So that ye do not 
the things that ye would." In Acts 17. 23, for "devotions," 
read, "objects of devotion." In 1 Cor. 1. 21, for " the foolish- 
ness oi preaching" read, "the foolishness of the preaching" i.e., 
with special reference to the doctrine preached. So Luke 11. 32 
In 2 Pet. 2. 5, read, " Noah, with seven others" In Heb. 12. 18, 
read, "the mountain that could be touched." 

Both in the Old and New Testament, again, verbs are some- 
times translated in the wrong tenses. 

Many of the imprecations in the Psalms are really predictions, 
and express the rule of the Divine government rather than the 
prayer of the author. In 2 Kings 23. 30, read "in a chariot 
dying." See 2 Chron. 35, 24. The present translation of John 
13, 2, "supper being ended," contradicts ver. 26-28. The original 
is, " supper being come." So in Acts 2. 47, for " such as should be 
saved," read, "such as were being saved." So 1 Cor. 1. 18: 2 Cor. 
2. 15, 16: 4. 3. In Luke 5. 6, read, " began to break," or "was 
breaking" (see ver. 7). So Matt. 8. 24: Luke 8. 23: Mark 4. 37: 

1 Cor. 11. 23: 2 Pet. 1. 16. 

In 2 Cor. 5 . 14, read, " then are all dead," or " have all died." In 

2 Cor. 12.2, 3, for "I knew," read, "I know." In Luke 23. 46, 
read, " And Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying." In Phileni. 



54 CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. . 

21, for "I wrote," read, "I have written/' as in ver. 19. See also 
Jas. 2. 21: 1 Thess. 1. 10: Acts 7. 36. 

In some parts of the Old Testament the numbers men- 
tioned seem enormously large, and may be corrected by the 
idiom. 

It is said, for example, that at Bethshemesh (a small town) the 
Lord smote 50,070 men, 1 Sam. 6. 19: and, in Judges 12. 6, there 
are said to have fallen of the Ephraimites 42,000: while a short time 
before the tribe contained only 32,500 persons. Both passages are 
corrected by a mode of notation still common among the Arabians. 
They say, in the year 12 and 300 for 312. Translating literally, we 
have for the first passage, " the Lord smote seventy men, fifties and 
a thousand," or 1170. And for the second, "there fell of the 
Ephraimites 40 and 2000," or 2040. — Taylor in Calmet. 

It deserves to be noticed generally that numerical state- 
ments in oriental languages are peculiarly liable to error in 
transcription. 

In the Hebrew, for example, K is 1; & is 1000; 2 is 2; D is 20; 

I stands for 7000; J for 700; and the one letter being inadvertently 
written in very early copies for the other has given rise to some 
apparent contradictions, 2 Sam. 8. 4: 1 Chron. 18. 4. There is a 
similar error in 2 Sam. 10. 18, 700 (J); see 1 Chron. 19. 18, 700O 

(jf), 1 Kings 4. 26, 40,000 (jSD^II^ probablv) ; see 2 Chron, 
9. 25, 4000 (NnynnX). 1 Kings 9. 23, 550 (J*j); see 2 Chron. 

8. 10, 250 0")). 1 Kings 9. 28, 420 HI!); see 2 Chron. 8. 18, 

it ' 

450 OH). 2 Kings 8. 26, 22 (ID): see 2 Chron. 22. 2, 42 

(2D). The numerals in Josephus are similarly corrupt. 

118. (4.) In some cases, the same word in the original is 
Same words rendered by different words in the English. 

translated by 

different In Isa. 37. 3, an accurate translation would suggest 

ones - that the insult Rabshakeh had offered to Judah was to 

recoil upon himself. He reproved Judah, and God reproved him. 
In Psa. 132. 6, " the fields of the, wood" is the translation of what is 
really a proper name, " of Jearim," as it is given in 1 Chron. 13. 5, 
"Kirjath" (or the city of) "Jearim." In Lev. 19. 5, " at your 
own will," should rather be, " that it may be accepted of you/ 5 as 
in ver. 7, and so 22. 20, 21. 

In Matt. 25. 46, the eternal life of the righteous and the ever- 
lasting punishment of the wicked are expressed by the same word. 
To " apprehend" may be translated to lay hold of or obtain in Phil. 



CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 55 

3. 12, as in 1 Cor. 9. 24. The same word is translated " impute*:/' 
** counted," and " accounted" in Rom. 4. 3: Gal. 3. 6; James 2. 23. 
" Attendance ' is everywhere translated " heed" or " attention," 
except in 1 Tim. 4. 13. " Comforter," (John 14. 16: 15. 26: 
16. 7) is the word translated " advocate " in 1 John 2, 1, and the idea 
is given in the word " consolation" in Luke 2. 25, and elsewhere. 
In 2 Cor. 3. and Heb. 8. " covenant" and " testament" represent 
the same words. In Acts 19. 2, a word is translated " if there be* 1 
a. Holy Ghost, which is rendered more accurately in John 7. 39, 
u the Holy Ghost was not yet given." 

The following should be translated uniformly: 1 Cor. 15. 24, 26 
(put down): Rom. 3. 2, 3, 11 (rejoice, glory, joy): Rom. 8. 19, 22 
(creature, creation): Matt. 20. 31: Mark 10. 48 {charged, rebuked) 
Mark 8. 35, 36 (life, soul): 1 Cor. 1. 4, 5: Eph. 1. 3 (in, by) 
1 Cor. 7. 12, 13 (leave, put away). See also Heb. 9. 23 (ver. 14) 
1.3: 10. 2: Tit. 2. 14: 1 John 1. 7: John 15. 2, 3: and Rom. 

119. (5.) On the other hand, different words in the original 
Different are °^ en rendered by the same word in English. 

translated bv ^ n ^ e ®^ Testament the word " vanity " represents 
the same three Hebrew words at least, one meaning "breath" 
or nothingness, as in Psa. 62. 9; another meaning 
wicked profitless deception, as the heathen idols, Isa. 41. 29; and a 
third, meaning falsehood, as in Psa. 41. 6: Job 31. 5. All these 
terms convey sometimes the ideas of profitlessness and of sin; but 
the first especially is used to indicate mere insignificancy. In Psa. 
89. 47, the sense is, How vain (fleeting, insignificant) are the sons 
of men, whom thou hast created. 

Lord in capitals is the translation of Jehovah, and Lord in small 
letters, of another word. See Psa. no. 1. This distinction is im- 
portant. 

The word " repentance" is used to translate a word denoting that 
change of disposition (^srava/a) to which the term is properly ap- 
plied: and this is the common meaning. But it is also used to 
translate another word, denoting merely regret or a change of plans 
{(/.iTcx,fj(.ixucc), without implying any change of disposition. This is 
the meaning in Matt. 21. 29, 32: 27. 3: 2 Cor. 7. 8, 10: Hob. 7. 21. 
Elsewhere, the former word is used. 

' ' Conversation " again is the translation of two words ; and 
means (1) citizenship, as in Phil. 1. 27: 3. 20; and (2) everywhere 
else in the New Testament, course of life, or behaviour. The Greek 
word for conversation, in the modern sense, is translated in our 
version "communication/' Matt. 5. 37: Luke 24. 17: Eph. 4. 29. 



56 CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 

In i Cor. 15. 33, however, communication is the rendering of a 
word which signifies intercourse. 

" Hell" again means (1) the invisible state, the plaoe of departed 
spirits, without reference to their condition of happiness or misery, 
as in Matt. 11. 23: 16. 18: Luke 10. 15: 16. 23: Acts 2. 27, 31: 
1 Cor. 15. 55: Rev. 1. 18: 6. 8: 20. 13, 14: and (2) the place of 
eternal punishment, as in Matt. 5. 22, 29, 30: 10. 28: 18. 9: 23. 
15, li'. Mark 9. 43, 45, 47: Luke 12. 5: James 3. 6. These two 
meanings are represented in the original by different words. 

The word " temple" is the translation of two words; and means 
either the whole consecrated precinct (hpo'v), or the portion appro- 
priated as the local abode of God's presence (vxos). In the first 
sense (including the outer or unroofed court) markets were held in 
it (Matt. 21. 12), and the rabbis met their pupils there. It is to the 
second that our Lord refers, when he said, ' ' Destroy this temple" 
(alluding to the indwelling of the Divine nature in his person). So 
is it applied to Christians in 1 Cor. 3. 16: 6. 19. 

"Ordain" is the translation of several words; and means deter- 
mined in Acts 10. 42: 17. 31; and foredetermined in 1 Cor. 2. 7. 
The word used in the following passages is different; and means 
ordained, with the idea of setting in order, Acts 13. 48: Rom. 13. 1: 
Gal. 3.19: 1 Cor. 9. 14. In Acts 16. 4, it represents a word that 
means to decide. In Eph. 2. 10, to prepare (as in Rom. 9. 23). 
In r Tim. 2. 7, to appoint (as in 2 Tim. 1. 11: Acts 13. 47: 20. 28). 
In Heb. 5. 1: 8. 3, to constitute or establish. In Jude, ver. 4, to 
write up in the face of men, or denounce, or to write concerning a thing 
before hand. In Acts 1. 22, and Rom. 7. 10, there is no correspond- 
ing word in the original. 

The word "devils" (pi.) should always be translated demons or 
evil spirits : and the word devil should be translated demon in the 
following passages: Matt. 9. 32: 11. 18: 12. 22: 15. 22: 17. 18: 
Mark; wherever found. Luke4. 33, 35: 7. 33: 11. 14: John 7.20: 
8. 48, 49, 52. In all other passages the word is rightly translated 
the devil, as in Matt. 4. 1: Rev. 20. 2. 

" Will" is sometimes the translation of the future; but some- 
times of an independent verb, as in John 5. 40: 7. 17: 8. 44: Matt. 

11. 14, 27: t6. 24, 25: 19. 17. 2.1: Luke 9. 24: 13. 31: 1 Pet. 3. 10: 
Rev. 11. 5. In two passage " I would" expresses a duty in addition 
to a wish (o(pg>.av), Gal. 5.12: Rev. 3.15. ' ' Shall" is sometimes used 
imperatively, and sometimes as a simple future. It is a simple 
future in Matt. 17. 22: Mark 10. 32: Luke 24. 21: John 6. 71: 

12. 4: Acts 23. 3: Rom. 4. 24: 8. 13. The word translated "shall" 
in some of these passages (pixXoS) is translated "will" or "would" 
in Matt. 2. 13: Luke 10. 1: John 6. 6: 7. 35: 14. 22: Acts 16. 27: 



CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 57 

25.4: 27. 10; Rev. 3. 16. Simple futurity is expressed in each. On 
the other hand, duty or necessity (2«) is found in Matt. 26. 35. 
This is the word generally translated "must" or " ought." 

" Shall " is not now used as a simple future, except where " will ' 
would be ambiguous. 

See also Acts 19. 15: Rev. 4. 6 (comp. chap. 13): 1 Cor. 2. 15 
(comp, 2. 14). 

1 20. (6) Some of the expressions of our English version are 
Obsolete obsolete in the sense in which the translators used 

terms. tliem> 

Audience means the (act of) hearing, Luke 7. 1. Carriage 
expressed what is now called baggage, 1 Sam. 17. 22: Acts 21. 15. 
Charger means a large dish, Matt. 14. 8. Charity means love, 
2 Cor. 13. 2. To comfort means to strengthen, as a helper, to 
succour; and hence, to encourage and cheer. So advocate meant 
one called in on an emergency. The first w T ord is now confined to 
consoling the aftricted; and the second is used in a restricted sense. 
In Scripture the idea is general, to strengthen, to guide, stimulate, 
aid, encourage, 1 Cor. 14. 31: 1 Thess. 5. 11, 14 (where it is rightly 
translated ' ' exhort") : Rom. 15 . 4. Convince has, in old English, 
the sense of convict, John 8. 46, as may be seen in the writings of 
Lord Bacon (Essays). Damnation would be more correctly 
rendered "condemnation" in 1 Cor. 11. 29; so in Rom. 14. 23. 
Dispensation of the gospel means "stewardship," 1 Cor. 9. 17. 
To ear the ground is, to till it, 1 Sam. 8. 12. Frankly or 
Freely means gratuitously. "Freely ye have received, freely 
give." " He frankly forgave them both." Harness in Exod. 13. 
18: 1 Kings 20. 11, denotes armour. The word in the original may 
also mean in files or rows. Heir often meant, in old English, heritor • 
or possessor. "Heir of the righteousness by faith" is possessor of 
it ; Heb. 11. 7. So Christ was appointed heir or possessor of all 
things, Heb. 1. 2. His is the old English form of its, Matt. 12. 
23: 24. 32: 26. 52: Acts 12. 10: 1 Cor. 15. 38: 1 Cor. 13. 5. 
Instant, Instantly, means urgent; closely applying oneself to a 
business, Luke 23. 23 : Acts 26. 7. Leasing means lying, Psa. 4. 2. 
To let means to hinder, Isa. 43. 13: 2 Thess. 2, 7: Eom. 1. 13. 
Lewd means ignorant, untaught, idle, bad, Acts 17. 5. Malice 
(from Malitia) always means vice or wickedness generally. It refers 
to sin in its intrinsic nature ; sin or transgression having reference 
to it as the violation of Divine law, 1 Cor, 14. 20: 1 Pet. 2. 16. So 
in James 1. 21, where the same word is translated "naughtiness." 
Mortify means to kill, to put to death, Rom. 8. 13: Col. 3.5. 
To offend means sometimes to give offence; but its ancient 

d3 



58 CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 

meaning is to cause or give occasion to stumble, as in i John 2. 10; 
Matt. 5. 29. It may often be translated "insnare." Mystery 
now means a doctrine or fact which is incomprehensible; involving 
often the idea of apparent and to us irreconcileable contradiction. 
In Scripture it means a revealed secret, a truth not previously known, 
Rom. 16. 25, 26: 1 Cor, 2. 7-10: Eph. 1. 9: 6. 19: Col. 1. 26, 27. 
Of course, Scripture doctrines often involve mystery in the common 
sense of the word. But it is not in this sense that Scripture uses it. 
The doctrine that God would receive the Gentiles into the church, 
e.g., is called by St. Paul, " a mystery," because it " was not made 
known unto the sons of men" till the gospel revealed it, Eph. 3. 

3, 5. " Mystery" is also used in Eph. 5. 32, and in Eev. for a 
symbolical representation, 1. 20: 17. 5, a meaning not materially 
different however from the above. It signifies an emblem of revealed 
truth. Nephew is an old word for descendant, 1 Tim. 5. 4. 
Penny was originally any piece of silver money. It is now confined 
to our largest copper coin. The value of the Roman penny was 
nearly M., John 6. 7. See Rev. 6. 6, where the sense is reversed 
by our present translation: "a measure of wheat for a penny," 
giving rather the idea of plenty than of want. Prevent means 
to come before or anticipate, Psa. 119. 148: Matt. 17, 25: 1 Thess. 

4. 15: or to surprise, 2 Sam. 22. 6, 19. Purge is to cleanse, to 
clear away, John 15. 2 (applied to pruning): Heb. 9. 14. Quick 
means alive, 2 Tim. 4. 1: Eph. 2. 1: Psa. 124.3. Religion is 
never used in Scripture, in the modern sense of the word, for 
godliness or piety; but for religious worship or observance. It is 
found only in Acts 26. 5: Col. 2. 18 (orig,): and James 1. 26, 27. 
It means (as in the last case) the outward expression of religious 
feeling. Room means place (as in Acts 24. 27): Matt. 23. 6: 
Mark 12. 39: Luke 14. 7; 20. 46. To take thought means to 
be distracted or anxious, Matt. 6. 25. Vain is unreal, false, 
delusive, immoral; especially as connected with a groundless and 
idolatrous creed, Rom. 1. 21; 1 Pet. 1. 18: Rom. 8. 20: Eph. 4. 17. 
So "made a road," means went for spoil, or made a "raid," in 
1 Sam. 27. 10: " in a several house" for "alone," 2 Kings 15. 
5 ; "fetched a compass," for made a circuit, in Acts. For coasts, 
read, borders or districts in Judges 18. 2: Matt. 2. 16: 15. 21. 

Strange as it may seem, most of these obsolete terms have 
furnished objections to the truth of the sacred Scriptures. 
Very many of the objections urged by Voltaire are founded on 
similar mistranslations in the Vulgate. a 

a Newcome's Historical View of English Biblical Translations, 
p. 206. 



CRITICISM : ENGLISH VERSION. 59 

121. It may be added that there are several apparent. 

discrepancies in Scripture from want of uniformity 

uniformity in of translation. 
translating 

the s;inie In Psa. 19. 4, " line" may be translated " sound/' as 

irons. j n R oni> IOf jg^ j er# 31.32, " though I was a husband 

unto them," may be rendered, " and I rejected them," as in Heb. 8. 
9. So Hos. 14. 2 (Heb. 13. 15): Isa. 28. 16 (Rom. 9. n)\ Mic, 5. 2 
(Matt. 2. 6): Psa. 104. 4 (Heb. 1. 7): Psa. 68. 18 (Eph. 4. 8). 

122. Some words are untranslated : as 

Words Amen; true, or so be it. H alleluia; praise 

untranslated. Jehoyah. Kosanna; save now. Mammon; riches. 
Maranatha; in the coming of the Lord. Sabaoth; hosts. 

123. The precise meaning of a very few words is unknown. 
Meaning " Higgaion " occurs in the Psalms seventy-one 
not known, times, and thrice in Habakkuk. It was probably a 
musical mark. " Selah " is equally uncertain ; but may have 
been used for the same purpose. 

124. The marginal readings of the English version often 
Marginal deserve attention. They express another sense, of 
readings. which the original is capable : and they sometimes 
throw light upon the meaning. They might be multiplied 
with advantage, e. g. 

Gen. 21. 14, Hagar wandered into the wilderness, as if in despair, 
or she ' lost her way,' having probably set out to return to Egypt. 
Horn. 1. 18, ' who held the truth,' or ' repress/ or l impede/ a sense 
more consistent with the scope, and with Scripture generally. 
The marginal reading in the following passages is preferable; Judges 
11. 31: Gal. 5. 24. 

125. It is to be observed, further, that words printed in the 

English version, in Italics, are not generally in the 
original. They are often necessary to express the 

sense, and they often express it happily, but they sometimes 

add a sense which is not in the sacred text. 

Of felicitous Italics, there is an instance in Psa. 109. 4 ; "I give 
myself to prayer :" and again in Psa. 133.3; "As the dew of Hermon, 
and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion." Without 
the words in Italics, the passage would be inconsistent with physical 
facts, Hermon being upwards of a hundred miles distant from Zion. 

On the other hand, the sense is obscured in Matt. 20. 23, where 
Christ is represented in the English version as having no power to 



60 ENGLISH VERSION : DIVISIONS. 

give honours in heaven. The omission of the words in Italics, 
exhibits the true meaning. " To sit upon my right hand, is not 
mine to give, except for whom it is prepared." See John 17. 2: 
Eev. 3. 21. 

In some cases the Italic words ought to be printed in Roman 
letters: as the auxiliary verbs, the word ' not/ in such passages as 
Deut. 33. 6: Psa. 75. 5: Isa. 38. 18: Job 30. 20, 25: the Hebrew 
idiom not requiring the repetition of the negative. 

126. The analysis of the chapters of the Bible, and the 
Analysis of titles and subscriptions of the books of the New 
and^ubscrip- Testament, form no part of the inspired writings, 
tions. (See § 51). 

127. The present division of the Scriptures too, into chap- 

ters and verses, and the order of the several books, 

Divisions. 1 j* t\- • • • n c 1 

are not 01 Divine origin, nor are they 01 great 
antiquity. The books are now arranged, not with reference to 
their historical connexion, but chiefly with reference to their 
contents, and the position of their authors. The Vulgate was 
the first version divided into chapters : a work undertaken 
by cardinal Hugo, in the 13th century, or as Jahn thinks, by 
Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, 1227. He introduced 
the division of chapters only. The Hebrew Scriptures were 
similarly divided by Mordecai Nathan, in 1445, and in 1661 
Athias added in his printed text, the division into verses. 
The New Testament was divided in the same way by Eobert 
Stephens, who is said to have completed it in the year 1551, 
during a journey (inter equitandum), from Paris to Lyons. 

As might be expected, these divisions are very imperfect : 
and even when not inaccurate, they tend to break the sense 
and to obscure the meaning. 

The subject of 2 Kings begins at the 24th verse of chap. 6. 
The description of the humiliation and glory of Christ, (the subject 
of Isa. 53.) begins at chap. 52. 13: and the previous verses of chap. 
52. belong to chap. 51. The 6th verse of Jer. 3. begins a dis- 
tinct prophecy, which is continued to the end of chap. 6. 

The first verse of Col. 4. belongs to chap. 3. Connect in the 
same way, Gen. 2. 1-3, and chap. 1: Rom. 15. 1-13, and chap. 
14: 1 Cor. 11. 1, and chap. 10.: 2 Cor. 4. and chaps. 5. 6. 7. 

The latter part of Matt. 9. belongs to the 10th chapter. John 
8. 1, belongs to the 7th; and the last two verses of Acts 4. belong 
to chap. 5. 



ENGLISH VERSION I DIVISIONS. 61 

As a rule, no importance is to be attached to the division of 
verses or of chapters, unless it coincide with the division of 
paragraphs. Follow the pauses of the narrative, and mark the 
change of the subjects discussed. 

128. The ancient divisions of the New Testament are 

noticed in § 49. To complete information on 
sion of Old" this point, we append a brief account of the ancient 
Testament, divisions of the Old Testament. 

Modern Jews use the present division of chapter and verse. 
But ancient MSS. were differently divided. The law had 
fifty-four greater divisions, called Parashoth, and the Prophets 
had similar divisions called Haphtaroth, or dismissions, being 
read shortlv before the close of the service. One of each of 
these divisions was read on the sabbath. Smaller divisions 
were employed especially in the law, called also Parashoth, 
sometimes "open" (nin-inSj, where there is an obvious break 
in the sense, and sometimes " shut," or leaning upon (niftlJTlD 
or ITO-IED), where the sense runs on. Of these, there are in 
the Pentateuch alone, 669. They are marked S3 and D res- 
pectively. 

129. TThen Jews referred to the Old Testament, it was their 
Scripture how custom to mention the, subject of the paragraph, 
quoted. as ft g^ jg among the Arabs, in quoting from the 
Koran. 

' In Elias/ Rom. 11. 2, (marg.) refers to 1 Kings 17-19. 
' The bow' in 2 Sam. 1. i3. refers to the poem so called, in the book 
of Jasher: So perhaps " in the bush" to Exod. 3. 

130. These corrections must not lead to a depreciation of 
our English Bible. The more we examine it, the higher will 
be our estimate of its general excellence. But zeal for any 
version, must yield to zeal for that Divine word which it seeks 
to represent. 

131. They have been given at considerable length, for se- 

veral reasons. They furnish answers to objections, 
these ' which have been brought against Sacred Scripture, 

corrections. They remove difficulties and reconcile apparent 
contradictions. They are of value moreover, because they 
illustrate very fully the nature of the differences which exist 
between the English version and the original text. It is 
obvious that very many of these differences may be rectified 



62 HISTORY OF ENGLISH VERSION. 

by a comparison of parallel passages, so that the English 
reader has in his own hands the means, to a large extent, of 
correcting them. Nor do they disturb the conclusion to 
which the most competent authorities have come, that the 
English Bible is on the whole, identical with the Bible of the 
early Church. 

132. The English version of the Scriptures now in use, is 
• . itself the result of repeated revisions. In the pre- 

English face to the Bishops' Bible, (a. d. 1568), a distinct 
version. reference is made to early Saxon versions, and 

Saxon there are still extant, parts of the Bible in Saxon, 

translated by Bede, by Alfred the Great, and by 
iElfric of Canterbury. Early Saxon MSS. of the Gospels are 
still preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, and 
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 

The first complete translation of the Bible was made by 
Wyciiffe's Wycliffe, about a.d. 1380. It existed only in MS. 
version. f or ma ny years, but the whole is now in print (New 

Testament, 1731 ; Old Testament, 1848). The work was re- 
garded with grave suspicion ; and a bill was introduced into 
the House of Lords for suppressing it ; but through the in- 
fluence of John O'Gaunt, this was rejected. In 1408, however? 
in a convocation held at Oxford, it was resolved that no one 
should translate any text of Scripture into English, as a book 
or tract, and that no book of the kind should be read. This 
resolution led to great persecution, though there is reason to 
believe, that notwithstanding, many MSS. of Scripture were 
at that time in extensive circulation throughout England. 

The first printed edition of the Bible in English, was pub- 
lished by Tyndale, the New Testament in 1K26, and 

Tvndale's. t> * 

the Bible in part, in 1532. Tonstall, Bishop of Lon- 
don, and Sir Thomas More, took great pains to buy up and 
burn the impression, but with the effect thereby, of enabling 
the translator to publish a larger and improved edition." 1 

On the death of Tyndale (who died a martyr to the truth), 
Coverdale, Miles Coverdale revised the whole, and dedicated 
etc - it to king Henry the 8th, a. d. 1535, and in 1537, 

John Rogers, who had assisted Tyndale, and was then residing 

a See Anderson's Annals of the English Bible : and li Our English 
Bible/' published by the Keligious Tract Society. 



HISTORY OF ENGLISH VERSION. 63 

at Antwerp, reprinted ■ an edition, taken from Tyndale and 
Coverdale. This edition was published under the assumed 
name of Thomas Matthews. A revision of this edition again 
was published (a.d. 1539), by Richard Taverner. 

The Great Bible appeared a.d. 1539. It was Coverdale's, 
revised by the translator, under the sanction of Cranmer. It 
was printed in large folio. For the edition of 1540, Cranmer 
wrote a preface, and it is hence called Cranmer 's Bible. It w T as 
published ' by authority.' 

During the seven years of king Edward's (VI.) reign, eleven 
editions of the Scriptures were printed : but no new version 
or revision was attempted. 

During the reign of Mary, was published the Geneva Bible, 
a. d. 1557-60. Coverdale and others who had taken refuge 
in Geneva, edited it, and added marginal annotations. 

Archbishop Parker obtained authority from Queen Eliza- 
beth, to revise the existing translations, and with the help of 
various bishops and others, published in 1568 what was 
called the Bishops' Bible. It contains short annotations, 
and in the smaller editions (from 1589,) the text is divided, 
like the Genevan, into verses. 

The same text was afterwards printed (in 1572), in a larger 
size, and with various prefaces, under the name of Matthew 
Parker s Bible. It continued in common use in the churches 
for forty years, though the Genevan Bible was perhaps more 
read in private. 

The Rhemish New Testament, and the Douay Old Testament, 
form the English Bible of the Bomanists. The former was 
printed at Rheims (a. d. 1582), and the latter at Douay (a. d. 
1609-10). 

In 1603, King James resolved on a revision of the translation, 
and for this purpose appointed fifty-four men of learning and 
piety. Forty-seven only undertook the work, and in four 
years (from 1607-11), it was completed. The text, as thus 
prepared and printed in 161 1, is the authorized version. 

133. What wisdom is seen in the fact, that we have a writ* 
* t en vrord : Scripture and not tradition : and not 

Advantage of r 

a written many Bibles, but one. A revelation more than 

this, would have multiplied the difficulties of 

inquiry. A revelation less than this, would long ago have lost- 



64 VALUE OF A WRITTEN REVELATION. 

its distinctness. Apart from any desire to vitiate a Divine 
message, merely oral tradition must have suffered from the 
condition of those to whom it was addressed. So incessant 
is the influence of man's moral state upon his judgment and 
perceptions, any unwritten revelation must have undergone 
essential, though perhaps insensible modifications. Every 
truth too, which had ceased in one age to be of present im- 
portance, would have been omitted in the number of truths 
handed down to the next. But for the Bible, we should have 
had a fearfully mutilated revelation, and of what remained 
we should have been contending, not so much for the sense 
of our Master's words, as for the words themselves. What 
grace is it, therefore, that in a world prone to deteriorate 
everything holy, and to falsify everything true, whatever may 
have grown old with age, has the means of renewing its youth : 
whatever may have been lost from the memory of the church, 
is not lost irrecoverably. We have the seeds of reformation, 
and of renewed knowledge : the very " word of the Lord, 
which liveth and abideth for ever." 

134. And yet this blessing of a written Bible will prove a 
Danger to curse, if on that account we forget the reverence 
which a that is due to it. As each truth of Scripture was 

written reve- 

lationmay made known of old, God gave sensible evidence 
expose us. w h e nce it came, and wherefore it was sent. Men 
were called to believe the report, because the arm of the Lord 
was revealed. Awe and submission, and the consciousness of 
a Divine approach were impressed upon the minds of men by 
the most instructive solemnities. Adam heard God in the 
garden, before he had to answer for his disobedience. When 
God spoke to the children of Israel, they had such sensible 
proofs of his power, that they desired to hear his voice (with- 
out a Mediator) no more. When He spoke to Moses, the 
cloud was on the tabernacle, or his thunders shook the moun- 
tain. Samuel was taught by miraculous signs to give the 
Divine message a fervent welcome. Isaiah witnessed the 
scenes which we now read with so little awe, and he cried 
out in conscious unworthiness, " Woe is me, for I am of un- 
clean lips." John was prepared to receive his visions by a 
spectacle which absorbed all his faculties, and made him fall 
down as one that was dead. A complete written revelation 
is clearly inconsistent with such miraculous evidence ; and 



SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 65 

there is danger lest the familiar tone of the Bible, and the 
every-day appearance of the volume itself, should tempt us 
to read it as a common composition. We need, therefore, to 
supply by our thoughtfulness and solemnity, the feelings which 
were produced of old by sensible images of the Creator's 
presence and authority. It is not the word of an equal ; and 
if we would have it bless us, we must study it with the col- 
lected and reverential frame of mind, which becomes an inter- 
view with Him who is its Author and our Judge. 



CHAPTER H. 

On the Authenticity and Authority of Scripture. 

" This reverence have I learnt to give to those books of Scripture only which are 
called canonical. Others I so read that I think not anything to be true because they 
so thought it, but because they were able to persuade me either by those canonical 
authors, or by some probable reason that it did not swerve from truth." — 
Augustine, Ep. 19 : died 430. 

" If any of these books were disputed at first, but on examination were admitted, 
they are confirmed by their trial." — Gambler's Moral Evidence. 

" If those facts (on the origin, nature, and progress of the Christian religion) aro 
not therefore established, nothing in the history of mankind can be believed." — 
Chief Justice Bushe. 

Sec. I. Scripture claims to he regarded as an inspired teacher, 

and as the only inspired teacher, 

135. In proving the genuineness of the books of Scripture, 
\uthority nothing has been said of their Divine authority, 
ofs.s.as They have come to us as their writers left them, 
Scripture and this is all that is proved. What they are, and 
itself. what they claim, must be first gathered from the 
books themselves. 

A little attention will easily satisfy the reader of the truth 
of the following statements : — 

136. (1.) The books of Scripture represent the mission of 
Mission of our Lord as Divine. He professes to be a teacher 
™ Lo J d + ^ sent from God, and from the first announces that 

represented t / 

as Divine. he is to give his life for the salvation of the world. 
John 8. 42: 7. 16: 17. 8: 3. 14-18. 
In proof of his mission he performed manf miraculous 



66 SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 

works and showed supernatural acquaintance with the human 
heart and with future events. 

Matt. ii. 2-6: John 5. 36: 15.24: 6.64: 16.30: Matt, 20.17-19: 
Luke 19. 42-44. 

Those who knew him best and were least favourably dis- 
posed towards him were unable to account from natural 
causes for his power and wisdom. 

Mark 6. 1-3 : Luke 4. 22: John 7. 15. 

His public life was self-denying and disinterested : his private 
life blameless and beneficent. 

1 Pet. 2. 22, 23: Matt. 27. 3, 4: Acts 10. 38: John 4. 34: 6. 15 : 
7. 18. 

He was put to death (as he foretold) for making himself " equal 
with God," — a charge he did not deny ; and after his death he 
arose from the grave. 

Luke 22. 70: John 20. 17: Acts 1. 3. 

On these grounds we conclude that his words are to be 
received as Divine. 

John 14. 10, 11: 12. 44-50: Matt. 17. 5. 

137. (2.) They represent the commission of the apostles 
as Divine. Of the eight writers of the New Testa- 

The conuniS" 

sion of five ment, five, Matthew, John, Peter, James, and Jude, 
vfriters e onhe were among the number of the apostles to whom 
New Testa- Christ gave power to perform miracles and to 

ment Divine. , ... , , .. , , ., , , 

publish his gospel to the world. 

Matt. 10. 1-4, 7, 8: Luke 9. 6. 

He promised to them in this character, on four different 
occasions, the presence of a Divine instructor, who should 
recal to their remembrance what he himself had taught, and 
impart a more complete and permanent knowledge of his 
truth. a The apostles proved their commission by miracles 
which they performed in the name and by the power of 
Christ, and they imparted supernatural gifts to others. b 

a Matt. 10. 19, 20: Luke 12. 11, 12: Mark 13. 11: (Luke 21. 14:) 
John 14-16: see also Matt. 28. 18-20: Mark 16. 20: Acts 1. 4: 
21. 4: 1 Pet. 1. 12. 

b Acts 3. 16: Heb. 2. 4: Acts 5. 12, 15: Mark 16. 17, 18: Acts 8. 

17-19. 









SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. (j7 

Their mission was attested by holy self-denial and integrity 
of purpose, and by the rapid and (humanly speaking) the 
unaccountable success of their ministrations. 

Acts 4. 16: 5. 29: 2. 41: 12. 24. 

We, therefore, conclude that the words of Matthew, John, 
Peter, James, and Jude, are Divine. 

John 14. 12-14: 20. 21: Matt. 10. 20: 1 John 4. 6. 

138. The Gospels of Mark and Luke were written by corn- 
Mark and panions of the apostles : Mark the convert of 
Luke. Peter (1 Pet. 5. 13) and Luke, the intimate friend 
of Paul. Papias (flourished no), Justin (died 164), Iremeus 
(flourished 180), and Origen, all speak of Mark's Gospel as 
commonly received, and as having been dictated or sanctioned 
by Peter. 

Luke and Paul resided in Palestine for two years, travelled 
together during a large part of the apostle's journies, and 
were together during Paul's imprisonment at Rome. 

Acts 21. 17: 24. 24: 28. 16: Col. 4. 14: 2 Tim. 4. 11. 

Luke 10. 7 is quoted as Scripture in 1 Tim. 5. 18. Irenseus, 
Tertulhan, and Origen, speak of his Gospel as universally 
received and as sanctioned by Paul. ' 

139. (3.) They represent the commission of Paul as Divine. 

He was called to the apostolic office, claimed apos- 
of Paul tolic authority, vindicated his claims by miracles, 

Divine. imparted supernatural gifts, manifested the utmost 

disinterestedness, submitted to the severest sufferings, was 
acknowledged by the rest of the apostles, and was eminently 
successful. He therefore claims to speak in Christ's name, 
and his words are Divine. 

1 Cor. 15. 8: Acts 26. 12-17: 9. 13-17: 2 Cor. 11. 5: Gal. 1.1-12: 
2. 6: 1 Cor. 2. 10-13: 1 Cor. 7. 40: Rom. 15. i8 ; 19: 2 Cor. i2 ; 12: 
Acts 19. 6: 2 Tim. 1. 13, 14: 2 Cor. 11. 7: 2 Cor. 1. 5: Gal. 2. 
7-9: 2 Cor. 11. 14-16: 2 Cor. 5. 18-20: 1 Thess. 2. 13. 

140. (4.) They represent the apostolic writings generally as 

Divine. The apostolic writings were composed by 
writings Divine command, and in fulfilment of the commis- 
Divme. s ^ on their writers had received. 

1 Thess. 4. 15 : 1 Tira. 4. 1: Rev. 1. 19: John 20. 31: 1 John 5. 13; 
1 Cor. 14. 37. 



68 SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. 

The apostles had the same object in view in their writings 
as in their preaching. 

Jude 3: Heb. 13. 22: 1 John 2. 1, 26. 

The writings of the apostles set forth their verbal instructions 
in a permanent and condensed form, and they claim for both 
the same authority. 

Eph. 3.3-5: 1 John 1. 1-5: 2. 12-14: John 20. 31:: 2 Pet. 1. 15: 
2 Pet. 3. r, 2: 2 Thess. 2. 15: 3. 14: 1 Cor. 15. 1. (2. 13). 

The writings of the apostles were received by the first Chris- 
tians as of equal authority with their preaching, and produced 
similar effects. 

Acts 15. 19-31: 16. 4: 2 Cor. 7. 8-10: 2 Thess. 2. 1. 

There is evidence that from the first the apostolic writings 
were held equally sacred with the Old Testament, and that 
they were quoted as the words of God. 

2 Pet. 3. 15, 16: James 4. 5 (conip. Gal. 5. 17-21): James 2. 8 
(comp. Matt. 22. 39). 

141. (5.) The Jewish religion and the Jewish Scripture 
Jewish are represented in the New Testament as Divine, 

religion and Christ and the writers of the New Testament uni- 

Jewish Scrip- 
ture Divine, formly assume that the religion of the Jews was 

from God. 

Christ, in John, 4. 22: Peter, in Acts 3. 13: Paul, in Rom. 9. 4. 

They acknowledge the Divine origin of the revelation given to 
Abraham and to Moses. 

Christ, in John 8. 56: Peter, in Acts 3. 25: Paul, in Gal. 3, 18. 
Christ, in Mark 12. 26: John, in John 1. 17: Paul, in 2 Cor. 3. 7. 

They acknowledge the Divine authority of the moral law and 
the Divine origin of the Jewish ritual and of the civil enact- 
ments of the Mosaic law. 

Christ, in Matt. 15. 4: Peter, in 1 Pet. 1. 15, 16: Paul, in Pom. 7. 
22 (see ver. 7. 12). Christ, in Luke 22. 15, 16: John, in John 19. 
36: Paul, in 1 Cor. 9. 8, 9. 

They represent Christianity as the completion of Judaism, 
and as foretold by the prophets. The Old Testament writers 
at the same time acknowledge that what they spoke or wrote 
was given to them from God, and published by his command. 



SCRIPTURE THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 69 

Christ, in Matt. 5. 17: 26. 54-56: Peter, in Acts 10. 43: Paul, in 
Eph. :. 20. Rom. 3. 21: 2 Cor. 3. 6-14. Ex. 4. 12. 15, i6- 
Deut. 18. 18: Jer. 1. 6: Amos 3. 7, etc. 

They maintain the Divine authority of the ancient Jewish 
Scriptures under the three-fold division of the Law, the 
Prophets, and the Psalms, and under other equally familiar 
titles, ascribing all to the Holy Ghost. 

Matt. 22. 31: Heb. 13. 5 : Acts 28. 25: Matt. 22. 43: Rom. 3. 12: 
John 10. 35: Gal. 3. 8: Heb. 3. 7 (comp. 4. 7): 1 Pet. 1. 11. 

142. Here then we have the first peculiarity of the Bible. 

It professes to be a book from God, speaks every- 
where with Divine authority and demands our 
submission. It is the one book, which claims " God for its 
author, unmixed truth for its contents, and salvation for its 
end." If we admit the authority of our Lord as a Divine 
teacher, the authority of the Bible is established. If we deny 
the authority of the Bible, we deny the truth of some of his 
most frequent teachings, and with it the Divinity of His 
mission. 

143. As Holy Scripture claims to be regarded as the book 
Scripture the of God, a Divine authority, so it claims to be the 
authority! 16 0I % authority. It is not a rule, it is the rule both 
_ , A M of practice and faith. To ascertain its meaning, 

Result of an L _ . . pi 

opposite we employ reason and tne opinions 01 good men, 
iew " and the experience of a devout heart ; but no one 

of these helps, nor all combined, can be regarded as of co- 
ordinate authority. They are not parts of the law, they only 
help to expound it. To follow reason or opinions, or inward 
experience in matters of faith, when their decisions contradict 
the Bible, is to deny it : to follow them when they add to it, 
is to admit another revelation ; and to make them our rule 
when they agree with it, is to rest our obedience on the 
wisdom of man, and not on the truth of God. Faith ceases 
to be, even in the last case, submission to Divine authority. 

144. From the following passages it will be seen that these 

conclusions are drawn from the lessons of the 
Bible itself. 
The inspired writers address themselves to men of every 
country and condition. 



70 SCRIPTURE THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 

Prov. 8. 1-4: Psa. 49. 1-3: Rom. 10. 12, 13. See Deut. 29. 29, 
Psa. 78. 5-7. 

The most important parts of the inspired books were 
addressed, in the case of the Old Testament to the Jews, in 
their assemblies ; and in the case of the New, to the people 
generally, and to the churches. 

Deut. 5. 22: 31. 24, 26: Ezek. 33. 30, 31: Josh. 23. 6: Jer. 36. 
2-6: Hab. 2. 2: Matt. 7. 28: Acta 5. 20: Rom. 1. 7 (2 Cor. 1. 1: 
Gal. 1. 2: Col. 1. 2: Philip. 1, 1): Rev. 2. 29. 

The public reading of these books in a language intelligible 
to the people, was appointed by God both among the Jews 
and in the Christian Church. 

Deut. 31. 11-13: Josh. 8. 33-35: Ezra 7. 6-10: Neh. 8. 1-8: 
1 Thess. 5.27: Col. 4. 16. 

The private reading of Scripture, which was strongly incul- 
cated in the Old Testament, is commended in the New. 

Deut. 11. 18-20: Psa. 19: Psa. 1. 2: Josh. 1. 8: Acts 8. 30-35: 
17. 11: Rom. 15. 4: 2 Tim. 3. 15: 2 Pet. 1. 19. 

Men are ultimately accountable for their religious opinions 
and practices to God. 

Eccl. 11. 9: Rom. 14. 4-12: James 4. 12. 

The Bible, on the principle of man's responsibility, ex- 
pressly appeals to his reason. 

1 Sam. 12. 7: Jer. 2. 9-11: Mark 7, 14, 16: 1 Cor. 10. 15. 

In the New Testament especially the exercise of private 
judgment — in a teachable spirit, of course — is represented as 
essential to the existence and progress of true religion. 

Matt. 6. 22, 23: 1 Cor. 14. 20: Col. 1. 9: Phil. 1. 9, 10: Acts 17. 
23. See 1 Pet. 3. 15: Rom. 12. 12. 

Men are exhorted in Scripture to bring all doctrines pro- 
posed to them and their own character, to the test of scrip- 
tural or apostolic truth. 

Isa. 8. 20: 1 John 4. 1: 1 Thess. 5. 20, 21: Eph. 5. 6, 8-10, 17: 
Col. 2. 18: Gal. 6. 4, 5: 2 Cor. 13. 5: 1 Cor. 11. 28-31. 

Our Lord and his apostles, in addressing those who had 
the Old Testament in their possession, always appealed to its 
authority. See § 141. Our Lord and his apostles condemn 



SCIUPTURK THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 71 

all spiritual usurpation, and point to their teaching as the 
ultimate standard. 

Matt. 23. 1, 8- jo: 2 Cor. 1. 24. 

The utter insufficiency of unenlightened reason to discover 
or rightly to appreciate Divine truth, makes it incompetent 
to do more than interpret the revelation ; it cannot sit in 
judgment upon it. 

Psa. 19: 1 Cor. 2. 9, 14: 1. 18-25: Gal. 1. 11, 12. 

From the earliest times God commanded that whatever 
was to become a rule of faith or practice, should be com- 
mitted to writing. 

Exod. 17. 14: Deut. 31. 19: Hos. 8. 12: Isa. 8. 19, 20. 

The inspired writers were guided to use such language as 
the Spirit of God approved. 

Dan. 12. 7-9: Matt. 10. 19, 20: 1 Pet. 1. 10-12: 2 Pet. 1.21: 
: Tim. 3. 16: Heb. 1. 1: 1 Cor. 2. 12, 13. 

Hence conclusions are drawn from particular words. 

1 Cor. 15. 45 : Heb. 3. 7-10. 

Any attempt to add to or to take away from the words of 
God is denounced. 

Deut. 4. 2: 12, 32 (Heb. 13. 1): Prov. 30. 5, 6: Rev. 22. 18, 19 
(Gal. 3. 15). 

The oral traditions of the Jews, which were censured both 
by the law and the prophets, were condemned by our Lord. 

Isa. 29. 13, 14: Matt. 15. 2-9. 

If the comparatively imperfect revelations of the Old 
Testament were sufficient for man's instruction and salva- 
tion, much more are the fuller discoveries of the New. 

Psa. 19. 7-11: 119. 130: 9. 104: Prov. 22. 19-21: John 20. 3c, 
31:1 John 1. 34: 1 Cor. 15. 1-4. 

An examination of these passages will prove that the 
Scriptures are our only rule, that we are bound to study 
them, and that according to our use of this blessing they will 
become the " savour of life unto life or of death unto death."* 

a See for these passages in detail Morren's Biblical Theology, 
part 1, On the Rule of Faith. 



72 INSPIRATION. 

145. These are among the first principles of Protestantism. 
Not the It claims for us the right, and it enforces the duty, 
knowledge £ examining the Bible for ourselves. But be it 

of these prm- ° 

tipiesbut remembered, that our safety lies not in the ac- 
tioV?f P them knowledgment of these principles, but in the 
can save. application of them ; and in the consequent belief 
of the doctrines and precepts which the Bible reveals. 

Sec. 2. Inspiration. 

146. The general truth that the books of Scripture are of 

Divine origin and authority is sometimes expressed 

Inspiration. . 1-1 <? i n • -1 ^ -1 • • i 

m another form, and they are said to be inspired. 
Holy men spoke or wrote them as they were moved by the 
Holy Ghost. 

147. Whatever refers to the explanation of this truth— 

as, how men were inspired, and whether the same 

Theories. . ... 

kind of inspiration was needed in each case — is 
theory, and is concerned with questions rather curious than 
useful. The truth itself is all that is fully revealed. 

Among the heathen and uninspired Jews it was generally 
Ancient held that while inspired men were under the 
views. Divine impulse, all voluntary action was sus- 

pended. Among the early Christians the doctrine of inspi- 
ration was held rather practically than speculatively, though 
they generally maintained that the writers of the Bible, when 
inspired, exercised their ordinary mental powers. On the 
mode or kinds of inspiration they said little. When the 
authority of the Papacy, however, began in modern times to 
be questioned, the whole doctrine of inspiration was more 
closely examined. The facts were generally admitted, but 
the theory or comprehensive statement which best embodied 
and accounted for them, was a topic regarded as open to 
discussion. See the passages from the Fathers, in Westcott's 
Gospel Harmony. 

Some held that the Holy Spirit dictated the sacred books 
Modem word for word, a as we have them in the original 
views. languages : others, however, holding that this 

theory went beyond the facts, and was inconsistent with the 
diversities of style, the varying quotations, and the very 
professions of the writers themselves. 

a Advocates of verbal dictation, are Calamy, Haldane, and others. 



INSPIRATION. 73 

A few taught that the fundamental truths of the Bible 
were given by inspiration, while the arguments and illustra- 
tions were of human origin ; a to which it is a sufficient reply, 

it unless we are told what truths are fundamental, this 
theory throws the whole of Scripture into disrepute, and is 
inconsistent with those texts which represent it as an autho- 
rity in religious matters. 

Others, again, held that those parts of the Bible whose 
moral tendency is obviously good are Divine, but not the 
rest ; a theory which strips the Bible of all authority, and 
supposes man to have right notions of what is morally good 
before he can use the Bible. b 

Another and much more rational theory is one which Dr. 
Various Doddridge and many modern theologians have 
kiads of. sanctioned. In this theory there are supposed to 
be different kinds of inspiration ; the first and highest pro- 
viding for the revelation of things not previously known to 
the sacred writers ; the second, providing for the security of 
the writers against error in exhibiting doctrines and facts 
with which they were already acquainted ; and the third, 
conferring Divine authority by the approbation of inspired. 
men, on parts of writings originally composed without inspi- 
ration. 

This theory does not materially differ in its results from 
another which many have preferred. Thev main- 

*^t<i*ement " 

without tain that holy men wrote in obedience to Divine 

command, and that in writing they were kept 
free, we know not how, from all error, whether they taught 
truths previously unknown to them, or published truths and 
facts already familiar. In this theory, which is indeed rather 
a statement of the fact than a theory in relation to it, inspi- 
ration is ascribed to the whole of Scripture, while revelation 
is confined to those acts of the Spirit by which truths pre- 
viously unknown were communicated to men. All Scripture 
is inspired, and the new truths of Scripture are revealed ; or, 
as Thomas Scott expressed it, inspiration discovers new truth 
(this we call revelation), and superintends the communication 
of the old. This distinction it is convenient to retain. 

a Priestley, and even Burnet: see on the Articles, Art. 6. 
b Kant. c Bishop D. Wilson, etc. 



74 INSPIRATION. 

148. These (except the last) are theories of inspiration. 
Scripture The fact which they have to embody and explain 
clams. -[ g that Scripture is everywhere the utterance — the 
word — of Divine wisdom, and that it expresses the very ideas 
which the Holy Spirit intended. It is this gift which the 
inspired writers profess to have received. Their writings 
are God-inspired, or, to use the words of one not prejudiced 
in favour of sound views on this question, " animated through 
and through by the Spirit."— Be Welte. 

149. Old Testament writers, for example, claim it for them- 
c . selves. 

Scripture 

proof of the Exod. 4. 15, 16: 19. 9: Lev. passim: Dent. 4. 2: 

Num. 23. 12: 2 Sam. 23. 2: Jer. 1. 7-9: Ezek. 3. 4-10: 

Mic. 3. 8, etc. 

New Testament writers claim it for the old, and also for 
themselves. 

2 Pet. 1. 20, 21: Luke 1, 20: 1 Pet. 1. 11 : Acts 1. 16: 28. 25: 
Heb. 3. 7. 

John 14. 26: 16. 13, 14: 1 Cor. 2. 13: 14.37: 1 Thes. 2, 13: 
4. 8: 2 Pet. 5. I, 2, etc. 

150. The gift, however, admitted, in the sacred writers, of 
What inspi- diligent and faithful research, 11 of the expression 
ration allows. f the same thought in different words ; b of such 
differences (not discrepancies) between the accounts of in- 
spired men as would be likely to arise from the different 
stand-points of each ; c of quotations from other inspired 
authorities ; d of the employment of uninspired documents y 

a Luke 1. 1-4. 

h Compare Matt. 26. 26, 27: Luke 22. 19, 20, and 1 Cor. 1 1. 24, 
25: and Matt. 3. 17: Mark r. 11, and Luke 3. 22. To this class 
belong quotations from the Old Testament. These are taken either 
from the LXX, without giving the exact words, and even when 
that version is not verbally accurate, or sometimes (when the original 
differs from the Greek) from the Hebrew direct. The quotations 
are rather substantially than literally accurate, see chap. 6. 

c See Introduction to the Gospels, Part ii. 

d Psa. 108. and Psa. 57. 7-1 1: 60. 5-12: Gen., chaps. 10. 11. and 
1 Chron. 1. 17, etc.: 2 Kings 18. 13-37, an d Isa. 36. 1-22: Mic. 4: 
Isa. 2 : also Chron., with Kings and Sam. Eichhorn lias given a 
list of such quotations. 

e Josh. 10. it,-. Numb. 21. 14: Jude 9, 14, 15. 



SCRIFTURE CANON. 75 

and of peculiarities of style and manner arising from diver- 
sities of intellectual structure and from educational or other 
influences, such as may be observed on a comparison of 
Ezekiel and Isaiah, of John and Paul. Add to these facts 
that the inspired writers were sometimes uncertain of the 
precise meaning or application of their message, a and that 
this message was delivered in language which the Spirit of 
God appro ved, b and we have the Scripture facts on this doc- 
trine. These facts it is the business of theory, if a theory 
must be framed, to embody and explain. 

Sec. 3. The Canon. 

151. The question of the authority of the books of Scrip- 

ture is sometimes put in another form, and it is 
scripture asked whether the whole belong to the Canon ; a 
how proved. q Ues ti n settled, if it is once proved that they are 
the production of inspired men. It is sometimes said, indeed, 
that we prove the inspiration of the books by first proving 
their canonicity ; the church has received them, and there- 
fore they are Divine. The reverse, however, is the accurate 
order. They are Divine, and therefore the church has re- 
ceived them. The books are now received as canonical 
because we have satisfactory evidence of their inspiration ; 
and if there had been other books not recognised in the 
present canon, but demonstrably of Divine origin, we should 
be bound to give them a place among the rest. 

152. The question, therefore, of the canonicity of the books 
A three-fold of Scripture is three-fold. Is each book the pro- 
question, duction of its professed author % is it authentic ? 
and was the writer in composing it under the special guidance 
of the Spirit 1 Genuineness and authenticity are both in- 
volved ; and though the present section is placed between 
the sections on those subjects, the argument needs the facts 
of both. 

a i Pet. i. 10, ii: Dan. 12. 8: so also the facts mentioned in the 
following passages are not recorded in the Old Testament Scripture, 
Acts 7. 22: 2 Tim. 3, 8: Heb. 9. 4, that the pot was golden: Heb. 
i2. 2i, the words of Moses: facts in 11. 37, etc.; so the burial of the 
patriarchs in Sychem, Acts 7. 15. 

b 1 Pet. 1. 10, 11: Dan. 12. 8: 2 Tim. 3. 16: Heb. 1.1:1 Cor. 2. 
12, 13. See § 144. 

E 2 



78 canon: new testament. 

153. We begin with the New Testament. 
In the early church many writings were extant professing 
m „ -to give an account of the life and character of our 

XllG Gospels. 

Lord ; but four only were received as authori- 
tative. It was admitted on all hands that these were the 
productions of the Evangelists whose names they bear : the 
Gospels of Mark and Luke being respectively penned under 
the care of Peter and Paul. The apostle John moreover is 
recorded to have acknowledged publicly the authority of the 
first three Gospels and added his own to complete them. 
These books, therefore, were written by apostles to whom 
our Saviour specially promised his Spirit that He might guide 
them into all truth, bring to their remembrance whatever He 
himself had told them, and qualify them to give his gospel to 
the world. 

In the same way, though less directly, John is supposed to 
The Acts have attested the book of Acts. a 
The Epistles So of the Epistles of Paul. There are thirteen 
of them which bear his name. Other disciples were 
"witnesses of his having written them. b Generally he wrote 
by an amanuensis, who also became a witness of the genuine- 
ness of his writings : c in these instances he added his sub- 
scription and salutation. d His Epistles were sent by private 
messengers. Nine of them moreover were addressed to 
public bodies. The earliest of them he commanded to be read 
in the public assembly, the second, and indeed all the rest, 
were read in public too ; f and we know from Ignatius, Poly- 
carp, and Clement, and especially from Peter, that his Epis- 
tles were regarded as inspired Scripture, and read with the 
Law and Prophets of the Old Testament and the Gospels of 
the New. s To complete this evidence it should be added that 
the language of Peter was used by him after all the Epistles 

a See the evidence in Wordsworth on the Canon, pp. 156-160. 

b 1 Thess. 1. 1 : 2 Thess. -i. 1. 

c Eom. 16. 22. d Col. 4. 18 : 1 Cor. 16. 21. 

e Rom. 16. 1 : Appendix: Col. 4. 7, 8: Appendix: Eph. 6. 21: 
Philip. 2. 25. 

f 1 Thess. 5. 27: 2 Thess. 2. 15: 3. 6, 14: 2 Cor. 1. 13: Col. 
4. 16. 

g Ign. to Eph. chap. 12 : Polyc. to Phil. 3. 1 1, 12: Clem, to Cor. 1. 
c. 47: 2 Pet. 3. 15, 16. 



CANON I NEW TESTAMENT. 77 

of Paul to the churches had been written, 11 and that he 
applies to them a name (" Scripture ") which, though occur- 
ring fifty times in the New Testament, is never applied to any 
other than the present canonical books. The conclusion, 
therefore, is, that these Epistles are Paul's, and that they 
have what Paul claimed for them (§ 139), and what the early 
church and a chief apostle ascribed to them, inspired and 
therefore canonical authority. They are not the words which 
man teaches : they are the words of the Holy Ghost. 

All the parts of the New Testament mentioned thus far 
Antiiego- were deemed, as soon as published, to be Divine, as 
mena, or we re i Peter and 1 John. The remaining books 
Canonical. of the New Testament were called, as we have 
seen (§ 20), Antilegomena, or, from their forming a part of 
the Canon, only after a second revision, the Deutero-Cano- 
nical. That position in the Canon they gained gradually ; at 
the beginning of the fourth century they were received by 
most of the churches, and at the end of that century they 
were received by all. 

The special evidence of each book it is not necessary to 
give now. The point to be noticed is that the doubts 
icity why which existed had reference not to the canonicity 
questioned. £ ^ e wr itings of James, Cephas, John, and Jude, 
but to the question whether the writings bearing their names 
w T ere really written by them. Nor can these doubts excite 
surprise. The subject was one of deep interest. Many spu- 
rious compositions were abroad under the names of these 
very apostles. b Apostolic teaching might be quoted in 
defence of caution. The internal evidence of the authorship 
of these Epistles is peculiar ; the Epistle to the Hebrews, for 
example, is without the author's name, and differs in style 
from most of the Epistles of Paul : the style of 2 Peter 
differs in the same way from the style of the first Epistle. 
In James and Jude the authors are described not as apostles 
but as " servants v of Christ, while in 2 and 3 John the 
writer describes himself as a presbyter or elder, not as an 
apostle. Jude also refers to stories which were supposed to 

a Shortly before the death of Peter, who suffered martyrdom the 
same year as Paul, 2 Pet. 1. 14. 

b Jones on the Canon, 1. 37-45. c 2 Thess. 2. 1,2: 1 John 4. 1, 



78 CANON : NEW TESTAMENT. 

be contained in apocryphal writings. All these Epistles more- 
over were addressed either to Christians generally or to 
private persons, not to particular churches. No body of 
men, therefore, were interested in preserving them, and 
external evidence in their favour was necessarily scanty. All 
these causes of doubt did operate as we know. In the end 
there was universal conviction ; and the very doubts which 
deferred the reception of a small portion of Scripture in 
certain parts of the early church now serve to confirm our 
faith in the rest. 

154. These facts sufficiently indicate the course of argu- 
Nature of ment by which the canonicity of the New Testa- 
proof, ment is proved. Let it be shown that they were 
written by the men whose names they bear, and that there is 
reason for believing that their authors wrote under the 
guidance of the Spirit, and the evidence of the canonicity of 
the books is complete. 

As part of the evidence, — in some sense a subordinate 

Evidence of P ar ^? f° r the claims and character of the books 
churches or themselves supply the chief evidence — it may be 
how im-' added, that the books which now form the Canon 
portant. were read from the first in Christian assemblies 

as of Divine authority, 8, that ecclesiastical authors quote 
largely from them, b and that they constituted the canonical 
books of the early church. 

155. Between the years 200 a. d. and 400 a. d. fifteen cata- 
Ancient logues of such books were published. Of these, 
lists. s i x — those of Athanasius, Epiphanius, Ruffin, Aus- 
tin, the third Council of Carthage, and of the anonymous 
author of the works of Dionysius the Areopagite — agree 
with the present Canon : three, those of Cyril, the Council of 
Laodicea, and Gregory Nazianzen, omit the book of Eevelation 
only ; one — that of Caius, probably 196 — omits James, 2 Peter, 
3 John, and Hebrews ; another, that of Origen, omits James 
and Jude, though he elsewhere owns them. The catalogue of 
Eusebius marks James and Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and 
Revelation, as doubted by some. Philastrius omits Hebrews 
and Revelation ; Amphilochius inserts all, but marks the 
Antilegomena, he himself deeming the Hebrews genuine, and 

a Lardner, ii. 132, 526. b Lardner, ii. 52, 72, 93, 109. 



CAXOX : OLD MESTAMENT. 79 

Jerome speaks of tlie Hebrews only as doubtful, and that 
Epistle he elsewhere receives. a 

Add to this evidence the authority of the Peshito and of 
the early Latin versions. The former contains all our present 
books, except 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation ; 
and the latter included probably all the books afterwards 
inserted in Jerome's version. 

156. Though the opinion of the early church is called sub- 
»^ es ordinate or indirect evidence, that opinion has 

canomeitY often been regarded as sufficient to decide the 
not itself ' canonicity of the books of Scripture. The recep- 
•iecisive. ^ on f these books by the churches was taken as 
proof of their inspiration ; just as the decision of a competent 
legal tribunal would be deemed conclusive evidence of any 
fact proved before it, or as the opinion of an eminent mathe- 
matician might be taken as proof of the soundness of some 
demonstration. This practice, however, must not turn our 
attention from the real nature of the proof. The question is 
not one of authority, but of evidence. To reckon a book 
canonical, because a council or a church has pronounced it 
so, is neither logical nor scriptural. Our wisdom is to use 
such a decision (according to its intrinsic worth) for the 
purpose of ascertaining the claims of the book itself. The 
canonicity of each book — its right, that is, to a place in the 
Canon — is a question as large as the question of its Divine 
authority, and involves a consideration of the same evidence. 
Of that evidence early opinion is only part ; an important part, 
doubtless, for the utmost care was taken from the first in 
discriminating the genuine from the spurious ; but it is only 
part. It may aid, it must not control our decisions. 

157. The canonicity of the Old Testament is best esta- 
Canomcitr of blished by the New. Our Lord received as Scrip- 
ment proved ture wli at ^e Jews delivered to Him as Scripture, 
from New. and the apostle speaks of the advantage of the 
Jew as consisting chiefly in his possession of the " oracles of 
God." As an evidence of the close connexion of the two dis- 
pensations, and of the sanction given in the New Testament 

a These authorities may be seen in the original in Wordsworth on 
the Canon, Appendix A. Thirteen out of the fifteen are referred to 
in Jones on the Canon, 1. 73-76. 



80 CANON: OLD TESTAMENT. 

to the Old, it may be noticed that the former has not less 
than 263 direct quotations from the latter, and that these 
quotations are taken from almost every book. The obvious 
allusions to the Old Testament are even more numerous, 
amounting to upwards of 350. See chap, vi., § 1. 

158. That at the time of our Lord the Canon was fixed as 
PMioand at present is established by decisive evidence, 
Josephus. j n addition to quotations in the New Testament 
horn, particular books, Josephus and Philo both testify to the 
books themselves, and to the reverence with which the Jews 
regarded them ; the former expressly stating that the Canon 
he was setting down was received by all Jews, that they all 
would contend for it to the death, and that none had ever 
dared to increase or diminish or change them. (Cont. Ap. i. 8.) 

159. Testimonies no less decisive will be found in the next 
• fV 1 paragraph. In examining this list it must be 

remembered that when certain books are omitted 
from professed catalogues of the Old Testament Scriptures, 
there is the greatest probability that each of those books was 
included in the preceding book ; Esther, for example, in 
Nehemiah, Euth in Judges, and Lamentations in Jeremiah. 
The fact that some books are not quoted in the New Testa- 
ment is accounted for on the simple principle that the writers 
had no occasion to quote them. That all our present books 
were included at the time of our Lord in the Old Testament 
Canon is undoubted, and as such they are quoted under the 
usual Jewish division. 

160. The authorities referred to in the preceding paragraph, 
may be classed as follows : — 

The New Testament, which is really authoritative, refers to all Scrip - 
Ancient Old ^ ure un der the threefold division of Law, Prophets, and 
Testament Writings. It also appeals to each of the books, except 
llsts ' Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and 

perhaps Lamentations. The version of the LXX, which is evidence, 
includes them all. The son of Sirach, B.C. 130, mentions the 
threefold division : as does Philo, a.c. 41, quoting from all except 
Ruth, Chronicles, Nehemiah, Esther, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, La- 
mentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. Josephus, b. a.d. 3 7, enumerates 
them according to their classes, including all the present books. 
Melito, 177, mentions all except Esther and Lamentations. Origen, 
230, mentions all without exception. Athanasius, 326, mentions 



CANONICAL BOOKS : HOW PRESERVED. 81 

all except Esther. Cyril (Jerusalem), 348, mentions all, as also 
the Council of Laodicca, 363 ; Epiphanius, 368; and Hilary of Poictiers, 

o. Gregory of Nazianzen, 370, mentions all except Esther; as 

does Amphilochius, 370. The Apostolic Canons, of uncertain date, 
but not later than the end of this century, mentions all; as also 
the Apostolic Constitutions. These are Greek authorities. 

Of Latin authorities, the chief are Jerome, 392: Rufn, 397: 3rd 
Council of Cartliage, 397: and Augustine, 395: and all agree in enu- 
merating the whole. 

161. How the books of the Old Testament were preserved, 
is a question of some difficulty, and we can but give the most 
probable solution. 

The books of the law were placed in the Tabernacle with 
the ark. of the covenant, and were kept there 
Testament during the journeyings in the wilderness, and 
ved ' afterwards in Jerusalem." 1 To the same sanctuary 
were successively consigned the various historical and pro- 
phetic books, from the time of Joshua to that of David. On 
the erection of the temple, Solomon deposited in it the 
earliest books, b and enriched the collection with the inspired 
productions of his own pen. After his days, a succession of 
prophets arose, Jonah, Amos, Isaiah, Hosea, Joel, Micah, 
Xahum, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Obadiah, and Habbakuk. They 
all flourished before the destruction of the temple, and en- 
larged the volume of inspiration by valuable additions. About 
420 years after the temple was built, it was burnt by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. What became of the MSS. of the Sacred Scrip- 
tures is not known. Id Babylon, however, Daniel speaks of the 
book of the law as familiar to him, and also of Jeremiah, and 
of other prophets. Shortly after the conquest of Babylon 
by Cyrus, the Jew r s were released from captivity, rebuilt the 
temple, and restored Divine worship, being encouraged to per- 
severe by the exhortations of Haggai and Zechariah. 

About 50 years after the temple was rebuilt, Ezra is re- 
corded by tradition to have made a collection of the sacred 
writings, as he certainly took great pains to expound and en- 
force the ancient law (see Neh. 8. i, 3, 9). To this collection 

a Deut. 31. 9, 26: Josh. 24. 26: 1 Sam. 10. 25. 
b 2 Kings 22. 8: Isa, 34. 16. 
Dan. 9. 2, 11. In these passages the word book or a book is 
more properly "the book." 

E3 



82 canon: the apocrypha. 

were added (probably by Simon the Just,) the writings of 
Ezra himself, with those of Nehemiah and Malachi, and thus 
was completed the canon of the Old Testament : for, from the 
days of Malachi, no prophet arose till John the Baptist, who 
connected the two covenants, and of whom it was foretold, 
that he should precede the great day of the Lord, Mai. 3. 1. 

The collection of the canonical books, is generally said to have 
been the work of the Great Synagogue, a body which included 
Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and afterwards, 
Simon the Just. The existence and labours of this body are 
distinctly referred to in the most ancient Jewish writings. 

After the captivity, synagogues were established in Judea, 
and throughout the world, and copies of the inspired Scrip- 
tures were so greatly multiplied, as to make the preservation of 
particular MSS. rather a question of curiosity, than of his- 
torical importance." 1 The early existence and history of the 
LXX, have been noticed in a previous chapter. 

162. If we examine by these tests the books called Apo- 
TbeApociy- cryphal, we shall be constrained to reject their 
pk a - authority as Divine. 

163. Externally the evidence is conclusive. 

External They are not found in any catalogue of canonical 

evidence. writings, made during the first four centuries after 
Christ ; nor were they regarded as part of the rule of faith, 
till the decision of the council of Trent, 1545. Philo never 
quotes them as he does the Sacred Scriptures, and Josephus 
expressly excludes them. b The Jewish church never received 
them as part of the Canon, and they are never quoted either 
by our Lord, or by his apostles, a fact the more striking, as 
Paul thrice quotes heathen poets. It is remarkable, too, that 
the last inspired prophet closes his predictions, by recom- 
mending to his countrymen the books of Moses, and intimates, 
that no other messenger is to be expected by them till the 
coming of the second Elijah. 

Against this decisive external evidence, must be placed the 
fact, that particular books have been quoted as canonical by 
one or more of the Fathers. 

Baruch alone is quoted as canonical by Origen, Athanasius, 

a See Stuart on the Canon, and Havernick's Introduction to the 
Old Testament, Edin. p. 18-22. 

b Cont. Apion. 1. 8. c Mai. 4. 4-6 



APOCRYPHA : EVIDENCE AGAINST. 83 

Cyril, and Epiphanius. Of the Latin church, Augustine 
alone quotes as canonical, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, 
Ecclesiasticus, and i and 2 Maccabees. By other writers of 
the 3rd and 4th centuries, the books are not cited, or their 
canonicity is denied. 

164. Internal evidence, moreover, is against their inspira- 
iatemai tion. Divine authority is claimed by none of the 
evidence. writers : and by some it is virtually disowned. a 
The books contain statements at variance with history, b self- 
contradictory, and opposed to the doctrines d and precepts of 
Scripture. 6 

165. For historical purposes, and for " instruction of man- 
How far ners," so far as they exemplify the spirit and pre- 
aaefal. cepts of the Gospel, the books are of value. But 
they are without authority, and form no part of the rule of 
faith. 

166". The utility and relative importance of these books 
Relative may be further explained. The whole illustrate 
the progress of knowledge among the Jews, their 
books. taste, their religious character, and their govern- 

ment : while some of the books explain ancient prophecies, 
and prove the fulfilment of them, and others exhibit the most 
exalted sentiments and principles of uninspired men. 

Of least value are 1st and 2ndEsdras, Tobit, Judith, Esther, 
Susanna, and the Idol Bel and the Dragon. These books 
contain indications of childish credulity, or of wilful disregard 
of truth. 

a 2 Mac. 2. 23: 15. 38: Prol. of Eccles. 

b Baruch 1. 2, compared with Jer. 43. 6, 7. The story of Bel 
and the Dragon contradicts the account of Daniel's being cast into 
the lions' den. • 

c Comp. 1 Mac. 6. 4-16: 2 Mac. 1. 13-16: 2 Mac. 9. 28, as to the 
place where Antiochus Epiphanes died. The writer of the Book 
of Wisdom pretends that it was composed by Solomon, and quotes 
Isa. 13. 11-18. 

d Prayers for the dead sanctioned, 2 Mac. 12. 43-45. Justifi- 
cation by works involved, Tob. 12. 8, 9: 2 Esd. 8. 33. 

Lying sanctioned, Tob. 5. 12: 12. 15. Suicide is spoken of as a 
manful act, 2 Mac. 14. 42: assassination is commended, Judith 9. 
2-9, comp. Gen. 49. 7: and magical incantations sanctioned, Tob. 
6. 16, 17. 



84 EVIDENCES. 

An intermediate place is due to the book of Baruch, the 
Song of the Three Children, and the Prayer of Manasseh, 
The authorship of these books is uncertain, and they contain 
several mistakes ; but they were probably written with sin- 
cere intentions, and they show the views which, in that age^ 
were entertained of personal religion. 

The remaining books claim a higher place. The Wisdom 
of Solomon, though not written by the Preacher, was probably 
intended as an imitation of his writings, and contains many 
striking counsels. Ecclesiasticus, avowedly uninspired, is 
often excellent. To the student it is also useful, as shew- 
ing how the Jews expounded their law, what hopes had 
originated in the Divine promises, and by what motives the 
practice of godliness was enforced. The ist book of the 
Maccabees gives the history of the deliverance of the Jews, 
under the illustrious family from whom its name is taken. It 
contains many examples of heroic faith, and may be perused 
with the same design as any other portion of authentic his- 
tory. The 2nd Book is less accurate than the ist, historically 
and morally ; but it illustrates the firm confidence of the Jews 
in a future life, and records several instances of devotedness 
to the religion and institutes of the law. 

For an account of other Apocryphal books see Fabricii Codex 
Pseudigr. V. T. 1 713-41, and Codex Ps. 1ST. T. 1713-22, with Birch's 
Auctarium, 1804, or Jones on the Canon. 

Sec. 4. Scripture Evidences. 

167. All that has been advanced thus far on the authority 
of Scripture, is taken from Scripture itself. We have only 
arranged and given expression to its claims. The evidence by 
which those claims are sustained, is among the most interesting 
subjects of inquiry. We can but touch upon it here, and 
must be content to refer to various authors for ampler in- 
formation. 

168. We have already seen that Scripture is genuine, and 
What evi- ^at from the earliest times, its various books were 
dence of received as written by the men whose names they 
^involved in bear. Ordinarily, nothing more would have been 
genuineness. p rove( j "by this process ; but in this case the evi- 
dence of genuineness is also evidence of authenticity. The 



EVIDENCES : HISTORICAL. 

truth of the general narrative, its authenticity, is involved in 
the very proofs of the genuineness of the record. The books 

3 quoted and copied as history, and were received as such, 
while witnesses of most of the transactions they describe were 
living. That Palestine was under the Roman yoke, that 
during the reign of Herod, Christ was born, that he professed 
to be a teacher sent from God. that he claimed the power of 
working miracles, that these miracles were always beneficent, 
that they sustained a morality altogether unknown to the 
Gentiles, and novel even to the Jews, that he had several fol- 
lowers, that he was put to death under Pontius Pilate, that 
many hundreds, believing him to have risen from the dead, 
became his discijDles, that in the course of a few years, his 
disciples were scattered over the whole Roman world, that 
(in short) all the main statements of the Gospel history are 
facts, is involved (whatever be thought of their spiritual 
significancy) in the very genuineness of the record. The 
whole was deemed historically true : so that, while many 
rejected the gospel, the facts, on which in one sense it was 
founded, were acknowledged by all. 

169. An explanation of previous evidence (§ 16,) will make 
this statement clear. In the first four centuries 

lencesof vre have upwards of fifty authors who testify 
genuineness. + f ac t s told or implied in the Gospel nar- 
rative. The whole or fragments of the writings of these 
authors remain. The writings of about fifty others referred 
to by Jerome (392) have perished. These authors belong to 
all parts of the world, from the Euphrates to the Pyrenees, 
from Xorthern Germany to the African Sahara. They speak 
the Syrian, the Greek, and the Latin tongues. They repre- 
sent the belief of large bodies of professed Christians, and no 
less the admissions of multitudes who were not Christians, 
They agree in quoting Scripture as genuine and true. They 
refer to it as a distinct volume, universally received. They 
comment upon it and expound it. They refer to it as Divine. 
Heretics who separated from the great body of the faithful 
received the narrative of the facts, and differed onlv on the 
doctrines which they supposed those facts to embody ; and 
even infidels who denied the faith founded their denial upon 
the very facts which our present record contains. So general 
had a belief of the facts of the Gospel become, that we find 



66 



EVIDENCES : HISTORICAL. 



J. Martyr (165) observing, that in every nation prayers and 
thanksgivings were offered to the Father by the name of 
Jesus ; while only fifty years later Tertullian states that in 
almost every city Christians formed the majority. 

Heathen and Jewish writers, without speaking of the New 
Heathen Testament, and without giving any evidence there- 
testiinomes. f ore of j^s genuineness, confirm in a general way 
the narratives of the life of our Lord and of his disciples, 
or incidentally illustrate them. Josephus in his Annals (a.d. 
37-93), Tacitus in his History (a.d. 100), Suetonius in his 
Biographical Sketches (a.d. 117), Juvenal in his Satires (a.d. 
128), and Pliny in his Letters (a.d. 103), all confirm the his- 
torical statements of the sacred story. Indeed there is no 
transaction of ancient history that can exhibit more than a frac- 
tion of the evidence by which the narrative of the Gospels is 
sustained. 

See the passages quoted in Paley, p. 1, ch. 2. 

Ecclesiastical 1 7©. The following are the principal ecclesiastical 
writers of writers who prove at once the genuineness and 

first lour * ° 

centuries. general truthf ulness of the New Testament : — 



FIEST CENTURY. 



Scriptures quoted as genu- 
ine and authentic, and as 
a distinct volume. 



Quoted as of peculiar 
authority, or as divine : 
expounded and com- 
mented upon. 



Barnabas. Epistle belongs to 

the 2nd cent. 
Hennas. Shepherd, do. 
Clement. Rome, died 100. 
Ignatius, flour. 70, died 116. 
Poly carp, died 166. 



Barnabas. 

Hennas. 
Clement. 
Ignatius. 
Poly carp. 



Appealed to by various 
sects and by adver- 
saries. 



SECOND CENTURY. 



Quadratus, 122. 
Papias, flour. 119, died 163. 
J. Martyr, flour. 148, died 165 
Dionysius (Cor.), 163. 
Ch. at Lyons, 170. 
Melito, flour. 170. 
Hegesippus, flour. 175. 
Irenaeus, flour. 176, died 202, 
Athenagoras, 176. 

Theophilus (Aut.), 178. 



J. Martyr. 

Tatian, Sou. 158, died 176. 

Dionysius. 



Irenseus. 



Theophilus. 



Basilides, Alex. 122. 
Valentinians, Rome, 140 
Sethites, Egypt, 140. 
Carpocratians, Alex. 145 
Marcion, 150. 
Montanists, 157. 
Encratites, 165. 



Celsus. 

\ Theodotus,"} 

/ Artemon, C "*' 



x 



EVIDENCES : HISTORICAL. 



87 



TITIIII^ CENTURY 



Scriptures quoted as genu- 
ine and authentic, and as 
a distinct volume. 



Ongen. flour. 185-21?. 
Tertulliau, flour. 198, d. 2: 
- Felix, died 220. 



c. 



Heme x. died 217. 

Die: . Alex, flour. 232. 

rian, Carthage, 200-258. 

1 ..... i m. flour. 
Vi torin (Germany). 
Arnobius. flour. 307. 
I- tai tins, died 325. 
Eusebius, 270-540. 



-. - - 



Quoted as of pea- 
authority, or as divine : 
expounded and com- j 
merited upon. 



Origen. 

Ter: 

Ammonius. Alex. 200-:; 5 

EBppolytus, 22o,died 250. 

Clement. 

Dionysius. 

Cyprian. 

Novation, Eome, 250, 

Victorin. 

Lutian, died 312. 



Appealed to by vari 

- an 1 by adver- 
saries. 



Hetmogenes, Carthage, 
203, 



Novations, Rome, 251. 
is, Egypt, 258. 
Porj " y, Rome, 262. 

Paul of Samosata, An- 
r ich, 265. 

ZManichaeans, Persia, 274. 



FCURTH CENTUET. 



Hilary. F^icriers, died 368. 
Apollinaris, Laodic. flou. 362. 
DamasoE I me, 566. 
jgoiy, Nyssa, 331-396. 

Theodore, iarsus. flour. 3 -5. 
ts, Ni< . flour. 335. 

Ambrose, Alilan, 374-397. 

H - Alex. 37-5-396. 
Amphilochius, Iconium, Sou. 
38c 

Jerome, 329-420. 
Chry-;;- :m, 344-407. 



Gregory Nazien. 328-359 
Athanasms, died 3 "3- ' Arians, 31Z. 
Ephraem. Syrns, died 378. Donatists, 328. 
Basil (Cassarea), died 370. Julian, Emp, died 365. 
ril (Jems.), 315-386. ^,378. 

' ApoIlinariaiiSi 378. 
Ambrose. 



Epiphamus, Cyprus, 3 52, 
d.403. 

Palladius, flour. 427. 
Jerome. 



Pelagians, 410. 



This evidence is sometimes called the historical, and it 
. ^ forms the subject of the first part of Paiey's volume, 

evidence, If its truth be acknowledged, it places an inquirer 
effect c:. j n jj^ e p OS ition of a contemporary of our Lord 
leaving the claims of his religion to be established by othei 
evidence. 

171. Admitting the existence of a Being of infinite power 
v ., and goodness, there are strong probabilities that 

E^denee 

how cias- He would not leave his creatures in ignorance 
Bfied * aad misery ; and probabilities no less strong that 

anv communication from him would contain a distinct refer- 
ence to their condition, and would present analogies to other 
works of the Creator. These probabilities form the presump- 
tive evidence of revelation, and are discussed bv such writers 
as Elks, Leland, and Butler. Evidence founded on revelation 
itself is called positive. 



88 EVIDENCES CLASSIFIED. 

In God are attributes of power and of knowledge, of holi- 
ness and love. Sometimes the evidences of Scripture are 
ranged under corresponding divisions, and we speak of the 
miraculous, the prophetic, and the moral. 

A message from another, again, is susceptible of a two-fold 
evidence of truth ; viz., credentials supplied by the messenger, 
and peculiarities or marks in the message itself. The cre- 
dentials are external, and the marks are internal. In this 
arrangement prophecy often belongs to both : the prediction 
is in the message, and the fulfilment either in the Bible or 
in profane history. 

The internal evidence, again, is twofold ; according as it is 
founded (i), on the precepts of the Bible, the character of 
inspired men, or on the influence of truth in promoting 
holiness, which is the moral evidence as it may be called; 
and (2), on its internal harmony — literary, doctrinal, and ana- 
logical, on the adaptation of the message to human wants, or 
on its consistency with all our holiest conceptions of the 
Divine character and purpose, which may be called the 
spiritual evidence ; and this is the division to which it is 
intended to adhere. 

172. It is instructive to notice that each kind of evidence 
The very abounds in directly spiritual instruction. Miracles 
Scripture° f P rove a ^' least that physical nature is not fate, nor 
instructive. a merely material constitution of things. Pro- 
phecy proves that things material and moral (both nature 
and man) are governed by a free and Almighty hand. What 
were once grave questions of natural religion, are thus settled 
in the very evidences of the revealed. The spiritual truth 
wrapped up both in prophecy and miracles, and the obviously 
holy tendency of the moral evidence of the Bible, will be 
noticed elsewhere. Contrary to what is sometimes affirmed, 
the devout study of Christian evidence may become the 
means of spiritual improvement. 

Evidence 1 13- The different evidences then of the truth of 

arranged. Scripture may be arranged as follows : — 



EXTERNAL LVIDEXCE ; MIRACLES. 



89 



— 



i. EXTERNAL Evidence : appealing to our sen? 9. 

f 1. Direct: as in the miracles of our Lord, John 3, 2: 5. 3 
10. 37: 14. 11. 
Works by Bishop Douglas; Campbell; West; Sherlock; 
Le Ba-. 
:. Retrospective: as in the connection of Christ with the 
«j miracles and prophecies of the Old Testament,. Luke : 4 . 

26, 27: John 5. 47- 
Leslie; Stilliogfleet; Faber: Kidder; Brownj Simpson; 
3. Prospective: as in the fulfilment of prophecy since the 
days of our Lord. John 14. 29. 
Davison; Xewton; Keith, 

ii. INTERNAL : which is either 

a. Moral; appealing to our conscience; consisting of the 
( 1. Moral precepts of the Bible. 

Jenvns; Gregory. 
_: 2. Character of our Lord and of the inspired writers, 
r \ Xewconie; Lyttelton. 

3. Character and lives of the early Christians. 
and the general influence of truth. 
Chalmers; Warburton: Evan: Piinv, etc. 

b. or Spiritual; appealing to our intellectual perceptions 
and to our new nature generally. It includes 

1. The Scriptural or Literary, or the wisdom and 
harmony of revealed truth., 

In its different dispensations. — Alexander. 
In the various parts of the record. — Graves on the 
Pentateuch; Paley's Horae Paulinas; Blunt, 
Birks, etc. 
With nature. — Butler's Analogy; Chalmers. 
:. The Experimental. The gospel felt to be adapted 
to our wants, 
Pascal: Fuller; Erskine; Sumner; J.J. Gurney. 
5. The Spiritual properly so called. The Bible consis- 
tent with the character and purpose of God. 

Gilb. Wardlaw; Aldis; Philosophy of Salvation, 
Pel. Tr. Soc. 



I \ 



• - 

DC 



I 



174. The success of the gospel is connected in Scripture, 
External an d "by all ancient Christian writers, with the 
evidence. possession (on the part of our Lord) of miraculous 
Miraculous power. Men believed, in the first age at least, 
power. because Divine works or miracles (facts, that is, 

"which cculd not have taken place from natural causes or 



90 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : MIRACLES. 

without superhuman aid) attested the truth of the message. To 
these works our Lord repeatedly appealed, as works which none 
other man did, and as an evidence of his mission. He healed 
the sick, he raised the dead, not once only, but in many hun- 
dreds of cases ; for it is said frequently that they brought sick 
people unto him, and that he healed them all. 

Matt. 4. 24: 12.15: 14.14: 15.30: 19. 2, etc.: Mark 1.34: 3.10: 
Luke 6. 17: 9. 11. 

He gave the same power to his disciples, first to the twelve, 
Similar and then to the seventy. After his departure his 

to his* glVGn a P 0S ^ es received the power of bestowing this 
disciples. miraculous gift on all upon whom they laid their 
hands ; so that many hundreds and perhaps thousands were 
thus endowed. It is certain that the apostles speak of it as 
a thing familiarly known, and reckon it among the signs of a 
Divinely appointed teacher. Indeed (when there was no 
New Testament) miraculous power seems the necessary 
evidence of a mission from God. 

175. The sufficiency of the evidence which our Lord exhi- 
Effect of this bited in this form was admitted by all, John 7. 
evidence. ^i . ^ 2 ^he effect on those who witnessed the 
miracles, in a teachable spirit, was a deep conviction of his 
Messiahship, John 6. 14 : 2. 11, etc., as the effect of the record 
of those miracles and of the doctrines they confirmed, ought 
to be saving faith, John 20. 30, 31. 

176. But did he not deceive the people? How? He 
Did he introduced his religion among enemies. He wrought 
deceive ? fog miracles openly. The senses of men were able 
to judge of them. His adversaries narrowly watched his 
proceedings, John 9. And why ? He foresaw and foretold 
his death. He promised his disciples persecution and suffer- 
ing, and he enforced and practised universal holiness. 

But was he not himself deceived 1 Whence, then, the 
sobriety and holiness of his precepts, the disheartening faith- 
fulness of his warnings, the dissimilarity between his teach- 
ings and the expectations of his countrymen ? No one mark 
of enthusiasm is to be found in Him. 

The predictions of our Lord in this respect were soon ful- 
filled. 

Most oi the apostles seem to have sealed their testimony 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE J MIRACLES. 9i 

with their blood, and each nobly endured the trial. The 
following facts are gathered chiefly from ecclesiastical history. 
They are not all, however, equally certain : — 

Matthew suffered martyrdom (by the sword) in Ethiopia. Mark 
died at Alexandria after being dragged through the streets of that 
city. Luke was hanged on an olive-tree in Greece. John was 
put into a cauldron of boiling oil but escaped death, and was banished 
to Patmos. Peter was crucified at Rome with his head dowm- 
wards. James was beheaded at Jerusalem. James the Less 
was thrown from a pinnacle of the temple, and beaten to death 
below. Philip was hanged against a pillar in Phrygia. Bartho- 
lomew was flayed alive. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence 
he preached to his persecutors till he died. Thomas was run 
through, the body at Coromandel in India. Jude was shot to death 
with arrows. Matthias w T as first stoned and then beheaded. 

Barnabas was stoned to death by Jews at Salonica. Paul "in 
deaths oft," was beheaded at Rome by Nero. 

Does the world furnish any such examples of sincerity and 
faithfulness 1 

177. In truth this evidence can be set aside only by sup- 
if miracles posing a miracle greater than all. If Christ were 

not from God, we have a Jewish peasant, changing 
miracle must the religion of the world; weaving into the story 
be admitted. Q £ ^ ^ ^ e fulfilment of ancient predictions, and 

a morality of the purest order, as unlike the traditional 
teaching of his countrymen as it w T as superior to the precepts 
of Gentile philosophy ; enduring with most peculiar com- 
posure intense suffering, and inducing his followers to submit 
to similar privations, and many of them to a cruel death : 
in support not of opinions but of the alleged fact of his 
miraculous resurrection. We have then these followers, 
6 unlearned men,' going forth and discoursing on the sub- 
limest themes, persuading the occupiers of Roman and 
Grecian cities to cast away their idols, to renounce the 
religion of their fathers, to reject the instructions of their 
philosophy, and to receive instead, as a teacher sent from 
heaven, a Jew of humble station who had been put to a 
shameful death. And all impostors ! To receive this ex- 
planation of the acknowledged facts, is to admit a greater 
miracle than any which the Bible contains. 

178. These remarks apply in a similar way to the miracles 



92 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : PROPHECY. 

T ,. , . , of the Old Testament; and the whole may be 

.Leslie s tests . J , ^ 

of miraculous examined by the tests laid down (in Leslie's tract) 
appearances. ag j n f a iiiki e mar ]£ S f the reality of miraculous 

appearances. I. Were they such as men's senses could judge of 1 
2. Were they public ? 3. Were public monuments kept up, 
and some outward actions performed in memory of the events 
thus publicly wrought ? and 4. Were such monuments and 
observances set up at the very time when the events took 
place, and were they afterwards continued without inter- 
mission 1 The first two tests render it impossible for men to 
be deceived at the time, and the last two as impossible for 
deception to be practised in any subsequent age. If the 
reader will apply these tests to the miracles of the Bible, and 
then to the alleged miracles of other teachers, he will see at 
once the distinction between the false aDd the true. 

179. Prophecies are miracles of knowledge, as miraculous 

Prophecy a ac ^ s are mrrac l es °f power. These last generally 
miracle of bring their own evidence with them, while the 
evidence of the former is gradual and accumu- 
lative. 

The study of prophecy and of its fulfilment is highly in- 
structive, both for the confirmation of our faith and for the 
enlightenment of the church. The want of books, which 
Lord Bacon noted in this department, has been largely sup- 
plied in later times, especially by such works as those of 
Newton and Keith. 

180. In order that predictions may form part of the evi- 
. .. f dence of Scripture, it is necessary, first, that the 

prophetic event foretold be beyond human calculation and 
foresight ; secondly, that the prediction be known 
before the event takes place ; and thirdly, that the prediction 
be fulfilled without an intentional regard to the Divine pur- 
pose on the part of the agent. If prudence could have foreseen 
the result, the prediction, may be but an instance of human 
sagacity. If the result was not foretold, there is no prophetic 
evidence. And if the prediction led men to seek its fulfilment, 
the fulfilment is the result of human contrivance. There are 
indeed predictions, to which all these marks do not apply ; 
but such predictions, though useful for other purposes, cannot 
be regarded as decisive evidence of Scripture truth. 



EXTERNAL EVIDENCE '. PROPHECY. 93 

181. Prophetic evidence, it may be noticed, runs through 
the Bible, and each dispensation has its appropriate 
Bible to the predictions. 

Immediately after the fall, we have the promise 
of a Saviour : in the days of Enoch, predictions of a coming 
judgment : in the days of Noah, of the flood. After the flood, 
prophecy gave a new charter of temporal blessing, and pro- 
mised a continuance of the seasons to the end of time. In 
Abraham, it founded the double covenant of Canaan and the 
gospel, promising to his seed a country, of which he possessed 
only his burying-place, and to all nations, that in his great 
descendant they should be blessed. a It foretold the bondage 
of Egypt, and promised deliverance. b By Jacob, it foretold 
the future history of the patriarchs and of their descendants. 
During the bondage of Egypt, the gift was withheld, but 
To the giving "^as renewed at the giving of the law. It then 
of the Law. foretold the coming of a second and mightier pro- 
phet^ the future dignity of Judah, e and the destinies of the 
Hebrew people to the end of time : f while the whole of the 
dispensation foreshadowed in types the great doctrines of the 

gospel. 

A pause of four hundred years follows the giving of the 

law-: and a pause of like duration precedes the coming of our 

Lord. 

In the days of Samuel, whose prophetic office is distinctly 
To the days noticed, g it foretold the consequences of the elec- 
of Solomon. ^ion f a temporal king, h the death of Saul, 1 the 
appointment and character of David,J the establishment of his 
kingdom, k the birth and character of Solomon ; l and after- 
wards, the division of the kingdom, 111 the overthrow of the 
idol-altar at Bethel, 11 and the dispersion of Israel. Contem- 
poraneously we find brief sketches of the nature and future 
progress of the kingdom of Christ. 

The prophecies and miracles of Elijah and Elisha, occupy 
Great pro- an important place in the narrative of the two 
pbe tic period, kingdoms, and reach in their evidence, nearly to 

a Gen. 12. 2, 3: 15. 13. b Gen. 15. 14. c Gen. 49. 

d Deut. 18. 15. e ISTumb. 23. f Deut. 4.: 28.: ^. 

g 1 Sain. 3. 20. h 1 Sam. 8. 11-18. ! 1 Sam. 28. 19. 

3 i Sam. 16.: 13. 14. k 2 Sam. 7. 12-17. 

1 1 Cliron. 22. 9; see 1 Kings 4. 25. m 1 Kings 11. 34, 40. 

n 1 Kings 13. ° 2 Kings 1-12. 



91 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : PROPHECY. 

the days of Jonah, with whom the series of Hebrew prophets 
may be said to begin. Amos foretold the destruction of 
Samaria, and the final dispersion of the Ten Tribes, a as does 
Isaiah, 1 ' who also foretells the temporary captivity of Judah 
by Babylon, a small and friendly state, and the deliverance 
of Hezekiah from Assyria, whose forces then surrounded 
Jerusalem . d The most prominent circumstances of the cap- 
tivity were all foretold, — the time of its continuance, seventy 
years, 6 the moral reasons for it, f the issues of it, the course of 
means by which it was to terminated The names of nations 
scarcely then known, and of a conqueror not yet born, are 
introduced, and the whole prediction has given to it the dis- 
tinctness of history. 

During the whole period, the prophets pre-signify an ap- 
proaching change of the Mosaic covenant, give the future 
history of the chief pagan nations, and complete the announce- 
ment of the Messiah and his work of redemption. 

In the captivity, rve have the predictions of Obadiah, of 
Daniel, and (in part,) of Ezekiel. After the captivity, the 
prophecies of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, cheered the 
builders of the temple, and point yet more earnestly to the 
advent of the gospel. 

Thus it is that prophecy makes its earliest and latest work, 
preparation for Christianity. The office and work of our 
Lord are set forth as the beginning and end of the earlier 
revelation of God. 

AUgubordi- I ^ 2, ^is subordination of prophecy to one 
nate to one great object deserves closer investigation. 

We know that in fact the religion of the Bible is 
generally acknowledged among two hundred millions of the 
human race ; and that while other systems indicate speedy 
dissolution, it continues to extend on all sides, and seems 
destined to fill the earth* Little more than eighteen hun- 
dred years ago it had not one thousand followers. This fact 
is itself significant, but becomes doubly so when connected 
with the Scripture predictions which have been handed down 
to us. 

H Amos 9. 9, etc. b Isa. 7. 6-3. c Isa. 39. 2-6. 

d Isa. 37. e Jer. 29. 10, etc. 

Ezek. 24.: Jer. 30. 1-20: Isa. 27, etc. 
6 Isa. 13. 19: 14. 3: 44.: 45.: Jer. 25. 1: Ezek. 2.1 12.: 23. etc 



EXTERNAL BTXDSNCE : PROPHECY. 93 

It was distinctly foretold that this might] should 

Thew.-; • " ie P&ee : that it should be effected hy the seed 
t 11 * I of the woman" 1 (itself an apparently contradictory 

axpression) ; that it should be in connection with the people 
who were to spring from Abraham ; b thai though in con- 
nection with them, it would be by means of a new co- 
venant ; c that not the whole nation, but one out of the 
nation, was to be author of this change ; that he was to be 
dea t and condemned by his countrymen, and though put 
to death was to establish a lasting and extensive kingdom.* 

The ancient books speak with equal clearness of his human 
and Divine nature ; = of his descent from Isaac, not Ishmael ; 
from Jacob, not Esau ; from Judah, not from Reuben/ the 
eld- - . son, or Levi, the father of the priestly tribe ; and from 
David the Youngest of the sons of Jesse.- Thev mention the 
time of his coming ;. h the place and circumstances of his 
birth ;' his c a as prophet, priest, and king ;J the scene of 
his earliest niinistrv ; k his miracles. 1 his sufferings, and his 
death ; m his resurrection and ascension f his bestowment of 

a Holy Spirit f and the final and general extension of his 
truth. p These are but specimens of upwards of one hun- 
dred predictions generally delivered in clear and explicit lan- 
guage; all referring to the work' or person of our Lord, 
and exclusive :: the typical and allusive predictions which 
in their ultimate application terminate in him. 

183. These predictions were most of them delivered at least 

■flefe- six hundred years before he appeared, were many of 
m» of these them highly improbable, and even apparently con- 
ase feiadictory, and are all so remarkable as to imply 

the exercise of miraculous wisdom and power. A loose 
general prediction (of some great conqueror, for example) 
might have been made by guess, but a series of predictions 
containing many minute and seemingly opposite particulars, 

a Gen. 3. 15. b Gen. 22. 1?. 

c Jer. 31. 31: 31. 4c: Ezek. 37. 26: Mic, 4. 1. 

d Isa. 9. 6: 11. 1 : Ezek. 34. 23. e Isa. 9. 6. r Gen. 49. 12. 

5 1 Sam. 16. 11: Jer. 23. 3. 

h Gen. 49. ic: Dan. 9. 24: 7.: Hag. 2. 6-9. 

1 Mic. 5. 2: Isa. 7. 14. J Psa. 112. : Zech. '. 13: Isa. 61. 1. 

k Isa. -). 1: Matt. 4. 14. l Isa. 33. 5. 6. ^ Psa. 22. 16: Isa. 33. 

■ Psa. 68. i3. ° Joel 2. 28, p Isa. y.\ 9. 7: Psa. 2. C: 2:. 



96 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE : PROPHECY. 

all fulfilled in the person of our Lord, could have been given 
only by Him who worketh all things after the counsel of his 
own will. 

How instructive to notice that while no man is the theme 
Thetesti- °^ an ^ series of prophetic revelations — not even 
monyof Moses — the Messiah is the theme of all. When 
spirit of pro- He came he had his signs before him as well as 
piiecy. with him. It was in the form and for the pur- 

pose which God himself had foretold "by the mouth of his holy 
prophets, who have been since the world began," Luke 2. 70. 

184. Nor are the destinies of other nations overlooked. 
Pagan God revealed to Noah the history of his descend- 

noticed in an ^ s J Canaan a servaot of servants, as his descend-* 
connection a nts have long been ; Japheth enlarged and dwell- 
gospei. ing in the tents of Shem, or Europe master of 

Asia. To Abraham he revealed the remote judgment that 
awaited Egypt and the Amorites, and the nearer judgment of 
Sodom and Gomorrah. Balaam spoke of the Hebrews, of the 
rise of Christianity, and of the visitations which were to fall 
upon the Amalekites, the Kenites, and the Assyrians. Moses 
foretold the rise of the Eoman power eight hundred years 
before its existence. 

Of Ishmael it was foretold three thousand years ago that his 
family should dwell in the presence of their enemies ; that their 
hands should be against every man, and every man's hand 
against them. And to this day they are unsubdued, though 
Sesostris, and Cyrus, and the Eomans, and the Turks have 
all attempted to conquer them. 

In the prophets the overthrow of the Persian power hy 
Alexander, 51 of Babylon, of Tyre, b and of Egypt, is sketched 
either before those states had risen into greatness or at the 
time when they were among the mightiest nations. The 
conquests of the Saracens and of the Turks, d the names of 
the kingdoms which were to escape their power or to fall 
under it, the history of Edom, e of Moab, f of Ammon, g and 
Philistia, h are all foretold with such minuteness and pecu- 
liarity as proves that each must have been present to the 
vision of the prophet. 

a Dan. 11. 2, 4. b Ezek. 28. 1-20. * Ezek. 29. 14, 15. 

d Dan. ir. 40, 41. e Jer. 49, etc. f Jer. 48. 

s Ezek, 25. 2-10: Zeph. 2. 9, etc. u Ezek. 25. 



EVIDENCES : PROPHECY : THE JEWS. 97 

These predictions were given amidst the decays of the 
oi> Vet of Jewish covenant, and were intended to rebuke the 
these pro- pride of the nations, to administer consolation and 
instruction, and above all, to lead the thoughts of 
men to that kingdom which could not be moved. In the 
midst of the captivity Daniel numbered and weighed the 
kingdoms of the earth, and pointed to the dominion of the 
Ancient of days. See Davison, p. 303. 

185. To these facts it may be added that every promise 
Fulfilled realized in this life, every answered prayer, every 
^Tof eSa act of honoured faith, every spiritual blessing 
prophecy. obtained as the result of spiritual obedience, is 
a fulfilled prediction ; while the typical persons and events 
of the previous economy still further swell the prophetic 
evidence of the faith, till we have at length a series of pro- 
phecies so full and so clear, as to defy all explanation short 
of the inspiration of the Almighty. See on this subject 
Fleming's Fulfilling of Scripture. 

186. To form a more definite idea of these predictions, and 
instances of of the completeness with which they fulfil the 
fulfilment, requisites of prophecy as an evidence of a Divine 
revelation (see § 180), the reader may compare Psa. 22. and 
Isa. 53. with the Gospels ; or he may take the predictions of 
the Pentateuch a on the history of the Jewish people, which 
are referred to by Nehemiah b and in part repeated in the 
books of Amos, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. The Pentateuch has 
been in hostile keeping for more than 2500 years, and all 
the predictions were known and quoted by other writers 
2000 years ago. The priority of the prophecy, therefore, to 
the fulfilment, is in this case undoubted. 

187. When the promise was first given to Abraham he was 
^ childless ; c and nearly 200 years afterwards, during 

which time the promise was often renewed, the 
family had increased to only seventy souls. d Their preservation 
and greatness was foretold by Balaam 6 and Moses, when such 
a result was highly improbable, when the whole nation were 
under the Divine displeasure, and nations mightier than 
themselves, and whom they were commanded to exterminate, 
had combined to destroy them. Isaiah foretold the captivity in 

a Deut. 28. 64, 65; Lev. 26. 32, 33. b Nek. 1. 8. 

c Gen. 15,2. d Gen. 46. 27. e Numb. 23. 9. 

F 



98 evidences: prophecy, 

the days of a pious king and a prosperous government. 
Jeremiah's predictions of deliverance were given when utter 
destruction threatened them in Babylon, and when ten of the 
tribes had already disappeared. 3 

After the overthrow of Jerusalem, their land became 
" trodden down of the Gentiles ;" b and they were driven 
from their country. For nearly 2000 years they have been 
without distinction of tribes, without a prince, without go- 
vernment, or temple, or priesthood, or sacrifice, dispersed 
and yet preserved, scattered and yet kept from mixture ; and 
they are a proverb and a bye-word still. These are events 
without a parallel, and opposed to all our experience. Man 
could not have foreseen them, as certainly man has not of 
his own purpose accomplished them. To make the lesson 
morally complete, the law remains, and the Jews guard the 
very prophecies which their history fulfils ; so that they have 
become not only " a reproach and a taunt," but an " instruc- 
tion " unto the nations that are round about them (Ezek. 5. 

15.) 

188. Their history becomes the more impressive when 

The Edom- compared with that of the Edomites. Both were 
ites. descended from Isaac. The latter rose earlier into 

power ; were never scattered by captivities, and when Jeru- 
salem was destroyed, they formed a flourishing community. 
Thirty ruined towns, within three days journey of the Red 
Sea, attest their former greatness. 

Utter desolation, both of the country, and of the family of 
Esau, was foretold, Jer. 49. 17, 10: Obad. 8, and utter de- 
solation is now their condition. 

They were distinguished for wisdom : now, the wanderers 
in Edom are sunk in the grossest folly, and regard the ruins 
around them as the work of spirits, Obad. 8. 

Edom lies in the directest route to India : but none " shall 
pass through it for ever and ever," and " even the Arabs," 
says Keith, " are afraid to enter it, or conduct any within its 
borders," Isa. 34. 10. The people who visit it are described 
as a most savage and treacherous race, and so the prophet 
foretold, Mai. 1. 4. 

Its desolation is said to be perpetual, Jer. 49. 7~ 22 > an ^ 

a Jer. 30. 10, n: 33. 253 26: 46. 27, 28 b Luke 2r. 24. 



EVIDENCES : TROPHECY \ BABYLON. 99 

travellers state, that the whole country is a vast expanse of 
sand, drifted up from the Red Sea. 

What human foresight could have foretold destinies so 
distinct ? 

We may add one or two examples more : — 

189. One hundred and sixty years before Babylon was over- 
Babylon; thrown, Isaiah delivered his prophecy. Judea 
prophecies. was then a powerful kingdom. Persia, the native 
country of Cyrus, was yet in barbarism, and Babylon itself 
was only rising into notice, its existence being scarcely known 
to the Hebrews. 

One hundred years later than Isaiah, Jeremiah prophesied : 
and at that time Babylon was " the glory of kingdoms," " the 
praise of the whole earth." Nebuchadnezzar had enlarged and 
beautified the city, and through all that region his authority 
was supreme. 

Isaiah begins these predictions, foretells the overthrow of 
the city, calls its conqueror Cyrus by name, a intimating that 
this was his surname, and not given him at his birth b . He 
summons people from Elam (Persia,) and Media/ tells how the 
city will be entered, the river dried up, the two-leaved gates 
left open, and the place taken by surprise during a night of 
revelry and drunkenness/ 1 Both prophets add, that the place 
is to be for ever uninhabited, a lair of wild beasts, and a place 
of stagnant waters. 6 

A century after the first of these prophecies was delivered, 
they began to be fulfilled. Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judea, 
and in two independent historians, Herodotus and Xenophon, 
(the former of whom lived 250 years after Isaiah, and the 
latter 350,) we have historical proof of the minute accuracy 
of all the predictions, Herodotus states, that Cyrus assumed 
that name on his accession to the throne, Bk. 1. 114. Xeno- 
phon notes the miscellaneous character of his army, but 
specially mentions the Persians and Medes, Cyrop. v. ciii. 38. 
Both writers have left a careful account of the siege, of the 
diversion of the river, of the capture of the city, and of the 
death of the king. 

a Isa. 44. 28: 45. 1. h Isa. 45. 4. 

c Isa. 21. 2: 13. 4, 5: Jer. 51. 27, 28. 
d Isa. 44. 27: 45, 1: Jer. 51. 39, 57: 50. 38. 
e Isa. 13. 20-22: 14. 23: Jer. 51. 37, 38. 

P 2 



100 EVIDENCES : PROPHECY : NINEVEH. 

Strabo says, that in his time the city was a vast solitude. 
Lucian affirms, that " Babylon will soon be sought for and not 
found, as is already the case with Nineveh," c. 16. Pausanias 
states, that nothing was left but the walls, c. viii. § 33 ; Jerome, 
that in his time it was a receptacle for beasts ; and modern 
travellers (including Sir E. K. Porter,) testify to the universal 
desolation. " It is little better than a swamp, and I could 
not help reflecting (says one,) how faithfully the various pro- 
phecies have been fulfilled." 

190. A still larger city, and no less signal as a monument of 

Divine power was Nineveh, a place as ancient as 

N in t; veil. 

Asshur, the son of Shem, and at one time nearly 
sixty miles round. This city abounded in wealth and pride. 
"I am," said she, " and there is none beside me," Zeph. 2, 15. 
J onah was therefore sent to foretell her ruin, and though she 
repented, yet within a few years, Nahum was commissioned 
to repeat the message ; a hundred years later still, but fifty 
years before the city fell, Zephaniah again foretold its over- 
throw, with the utmost literalness, the account of the prophet, 
when compared with the narrative of the historian (Diodorus 
Siculus), reading more like history than prediction. Lucian, 
who flourished in the second century after Christ, and was 
himself a native of that region, affirms that it had utterly 
perished, and that there was no footstep of it remaining. 
Such is " the utter end " of all its greatness. 

191. It is to such facts God appeals. " Who hath declared 
To prophecy this from ancient times 1 Have not I the Lord ? . . m 
tament ap- S " -^ook un ^o me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the 
peals. earth : for I am God, and there is none else," Isa. 
45. 20, 21, 22. 

192. The evidences of Christianity thus far considered, are 
internal external and direct, and may be divided into the 
evidence, miraculous and prophetic. A larger branch of 

moral and m r r & 

spiritual. evidence remains — the moral, the literary, and the 
spiritual, or (to apply one title to all), the internal. 

193. If the Bible is not of God, it must be a cunningly de- 
I imit of vised fable ; and the question which internal evi- 
man's ability dence has to consider is, — which is the more likely 
internal ° n supposition. Though, therefore, it seems at first 
evidence. sight, that we are hardly competent to decide what 
a revelation from God should be, yet we are competent to 



EVIDENCES : MORALITY. 101 

decide on this alternative, and to say, whether what is taught in 
Scripture, is what might be looked for from enthusiasts or 
impostors. -This is a question on which all can judge, though 
it requires some experience and knowledge of the world, as 
well as an acquaintance with Scripture, rightly to appreciate it. 
194. The first peculiarity of Scripture morality is the im- 

im it- portance, which is everywhere attached to holiness, 
anceofhoii- Judging from what we know of systems of human 
origin, a religion from man would either have 
spent its force on ritual observance, or have allowed active 
service on its behalf to make amends for the neglect of other 
duties. Mohammedanism gives the highest place to those 
who fight and fall in conflict. Hindooism rewards most the 
observance of ritual worship. Jewish tradition taught that 
all Jews were certainly saved. The Scriptures, on the con- 
trary, bring all men into the presence of a Being of infinite 
holiness, before whom the most exalted human characters 
fall condemned ; a and they declare plainly, that nothing we 
can say or do in the cause of Christ, can make up for the 
want of practical virtue. Those who have preached in the 
name of Christ are to be disowned if they be workers of 
iniquity, b and the reception of the true faith makes Christian 
holiness only the more incumbent. 

195. The kind of moral duty which the Scriptures teach, is 
2. Pecu- not such as man was likely to discover or to 
mora! pre- approve. When our Lord appeared, the Romans 
cepts. were proud of their military glory, and the Greeks 

of their superior wisdom. Among the Jews a pharisaic 
spirit prevailed, and the whole nation was divided between 
opposing sects, all hating their conquerors, however, and the 
Gentile world at large. An enthusiast w T ould certainly have 
become a partisan, and an impostor would have flattered 
each sect by exposing the faults of the rest, or the nation by 
condemning their conquerors. Our Lord came, on the con- 
trary, as an independent teacher, rebuked all error, condemned 
all the sects, and yet did nothing to court the favour of the 
people. His precepts, bidding men to return good for evil, 
to love their enemies, to be humble and forgiving, to consider 
every race and every station as on a level before God, were 

a Job 40.4: Isa. 6. 5: Dan. 9.4: 1 Tim. r. 15. 

b Matt. 7. 22, 23: Luke 6. 46. c r Cor. 5. n, T2 



102 EVIDENCES : MORALITY. 

acceptable to none, and were yet repeated and enforced with 
the utmost earnestness and consistency. 

196. It may indeed be said that men are always ready to 
Not only commend a greater degree of purity than they are 
above human prepared to practise, and that ancient philosophers 
contrary to wrote treatises describing a much nobler virtue 
**■ than was found among their countrymen. This is 
true, and if the Jewish fishermen had studied philosophy, it 
would not have been wonderful if they had taught a higher 
morality than men generally practised. But they were 
" ignorant men," and their precepts go not only beyond what 
men practised, but beyond what they approved. The gospel 
is not only better than human conduct, it is often contrary 
to it. The endurance of suffering, the forgiveness of injury, 
and the exercise of a submissive spirit were not only not 
practised, they were not admired ; and while the gospel 
teaches these duties, it exhibits them in combination with 
a spiritual heroism of which the world knows nothing, and 
which has ever been supposed inconsistent with the patient 
virtues which the Scriptures enjoin. 

197. Add to these facts another, (on which Paley has en- 

3. Regulation larged,) namely, that Scripture seeks to regulate the 
of motives, thoughts and motives of men, and is content with 
nothing less than a state of heart which refers all our actions 
to God's will ; and it must be felt that the morality of the 
gospel is not of man. Bad men could not have taught such 
truths, and good men would not have deceived the people. 

198. But there is yet another peculiarity in the morality of 

4. Peculiarity Scripture, equally true in itself and striking. Sin 
toGoofand ^ s everywhere spoken of as an evil against God, 
sin. and everywhere it is not the instrument or human 
agent who is exalted, but God alone. The first notion is 
inconsistent with all heathen philosophy, and the second with 
the natural tendency of the human heart. " This," says 
Cicero, " is the common principle of all philosophers, that 
the Deity is never displeased, nor does he inflict injury on 
mam" De Off. iii. 28. 

In Scripture, on the contrary, sin is represented as an evil 
and bitter thing, because it is dishonouring to God. Hence 
the destruction of the ^malekites, a of Sennacherib b , and 
a Exocl. 17. 16, marg. b 2 Kings 19. 22-37. 



EVIDENCES : MORALITY. 103 

Belshazzar a . Hence the abandonment of the Gentile world 
to a reprobate mind. b Hence God's controversy with the 
Jews and with Moses. d Hence EliV punishment and David's/ 
Hence the death of Nadab and Abiliu, g of Uzzah, h and Herod.' 
Hence also the calamities of Solomon, the division of his 
kingdom into Israel and Judah, and the captivity and destruc- 
tion of both. j 

God alone is honoured. The great object of all the writers 
seems to be, to lead men's thoughts to Him. The false teacher 
gives out that he himself is some great one (Acts 8. 9), 
but in the Bible it is God only who is exalted. This rule is 
illustrated in 

Moses, Deut. 1. 31: 2.33: i.^\ 4. 32-38: Exod. 18.8. Joshua. 
Josh. 23. 3. David. 1 Chron. 29. 11, 14. Daniel, Dan. 2. 20, 

23, 30. Ezra, Ezra 7. 28. Nehemiah, jSTek. 2. 12. Peter and 
John, Acts 3. 12-16. Paul, Acts 21. 19: 1 Cor. 3. 5: 2 Cor. 4. 7. 

Creation is represented in the same way as God in nature : k 
the revolutions and progress of kingdoms as God in history. 1 

199. It is in part with the view of strengthening the 

feelings which these peculiarities produce, that 
faith is made the principle of obedience and suc- 
cess. In relation to God, faith is the confession of our 
weakness, and excludes all boasting; and yet in relation to 
success, it is omnipotent ; a truth as profoundly philosophical 
as it is spiritually important. And yet it is a truth revealed 
only in the Bible. 

Eom. 3. 27: Eph. 2. 8, 9: 1 Cor. 1. 29-31: John 11.40: Isa. 7. 9, 

200. The candour and sincerity of the inspired writers are 

not less remarkable than their moral precepts, and 

Candour and ... , .-1 t ..1 -,i ,i • 

sincerity of are quite incompatible with either enthusiasm or 
Scripture. imposture. 

a Dan. 5. 23. fc Rom. 1. 21, 28. c Heb. 3. 19. 

d Numb. 20. 12. e 1 Sam. 2. 29, 30. f 2 Sam. 12. 9 (Ps. 51,4.) 
s Lev. 10. 1-3, 10. h 2 Sam. 6. 7. " Acts 12. 23. 

J 1 Kings n. 3-14: 2 Kings 17. 14-20: 2 Chron. 36. 16, 17: Luke 
19. 42-44: Rom. 11. 20. 

k Ps, 104. 10: Jer. 5. 24: Joel 2. 23, 24: Matt. 10. 29. 
1 Jer. 17. 7-10: Dan. 4. 35: Jer. 25, 9: Isa. 44. 28. 



104 EVIDENCES : MORALITY. 

They denounce the sins of the people. "Ye have been rebellions 
against the Lord from the day that I knew yon," says Moses (Dent. 
9. 24), and all later writers give the same view. Judges 2.19: 1 Sam. 
12. 12: Neh. 9. 

They speak of themselves and of those whose characters were likely 
to reflect credit upon their cause with equal plainness. Moses fore- 
told that the Jews would break his law. and that he would be super- 
seded by a greater prophet. 

Gen. 49. 10: Deut. 18. 15, 18: Acts 7. 38. 

He records with all fulness the sins of the Patriarchs, Gen. 12. 
11-13 : 20. etc.: of his grandfather Levi, Gen. 49. 5-7 : of his brother 
Aaron and of his elder sons, Exod. 32. : Lev. ic. : nor less plainly his 
own sins, Numb. 20. 12: 27. 12-14: Deut. 32. 51. 

In the same spirit the evangelists notice their own faults and the 
faults of the apostles. Matt. 26. 31-56: John 10. 6: 16. 32: Matt. 
8. 10, 26: 15. 16: 16. 7-11: 18. 3: 20. 20. Mark and Luke speak 
no less plainly, Mark 6. 52: 8. 18: 9. 32, 34: 10. 14: 14. 50, 32, 
35-45: 16. 14: Luke 8. 24, 25: 9. 40-45: 18. 34: 22. 24: 24. it. 
With equal truthfulness the Scriptures record the humiliation of 
our Lord, his sufferings, and dejection. Matt. 27. 46: Heb. 5. 7. 

The apostles record without reserve the disorders of the churches 
which they themselves had planted, and even add that their own 
apostolic authority had been questioned among them. 1 Cor. 1. 11: 
5.1:2 Cor. 2. 4: n. 5-23 : 12. 20. 

It is thus that simplicity distinguishes the Bible, and forces 
on the mind the conviction that its authors had no other 
"object in view than by manifestation of the truth to com- 
mend themselves to every man's conscience as in the sight 
of God." Lowth, on the Study of Scripture. 

201. But no analysis can give a just idea of the morality of 
No analysis ^ n ® Bible. It must be compared in the bulk with 
of it can give other teaching. Z\Ien have praised maxims of 
kf excel- a ° virtue, or appealed to the moral sentiments of our 
lencies. nature, or sought to promote holiness by systems 

of morals. But all these are- defective. The common maxims 
of virtue are mere dictates of prudence, without authority 
or influence. Our moral sentiments are retiring and evan- 
escent, easily corrupted by the strong passions in whose 
neighbourhood they dwell, and are feeblest when most 
wanted ; and systems of morals, like all processes of reasoning, 
depend on the perfection of our faculties, and are too much the 



evidences: character. 108 

- bject of disputation to become powerful motives of holy 
action. All these plans moreover are defective, in not taking 
into account our fall, and the necessity of providing for our 
recovery. Scripture, on the other hand, teaches the Christian 
to use these helps, only subordinating all to its own lessons. 
It begins its work with a recognition of our ruin, and an 
intelligent foresight of its own end ; brings the soul into 
rmony with God and with itself, enlightens and educates 
the conscience, quickens and purifies the feelings, subjects 
instincts to reason, reason to love, and all to God ; and pro- 
vides an instrumentality as effective and practical as the 
truths it reveals and on which it rests are unearthly and 
sublime. 

202. Among the most decisive moral proofs of the Divine 
The ckarac- origin of Scripture, is the character of Christ. It 
ter of Chnst. jg a p roo f however rather to be felt than to be 

described, and its force will be in proportion to the tone of 
moral sentiment in the reader. Holy and purer minds will 
feel it more than others, and such as are like Xathanael the 
,; Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile," will exclaim with him, 
" Eabbi, thou art the Son of God; thou art the King of 
Israel." 

Three things are obvious in the history of our Lord, (i.) 
The whole narrative is free from panegyric. (2,) The charac- 
ter is wholly unstudied : the story being written by unpractised 
authors, without learning or eloquence ; and moreover, (3.) the 
moral character of Christ is unimpeached even by the oppo- 
nents of the gospel. His apostles appeal to all men's tes- 
timony to his morality, as a fact admitted and notorious. 
His own moral teaching was an appeal of the same kind, for 
had he been guilty of the practices he condemns, his hearers 
would have been sure to detect and reproach his incon- 
sistency. 

That his holiness was admitted generally will appear from the 
following passages: John 7. 46-51: 8. 46: 10. 32: Matt. 26. 59: 
27. 23, 24: Luke 23. 13-15: Acts 3. 13, 14: 1 Pet. 2. 21-23. His 
benevolence and compassion are shown in John 4.: Luke 9. 55: 
10.30-37: Mark 7. 26, etc. : 10.13-21: 45-52: Luke 13. 16: 14.12: 
22. 50, 51: Matt. 9. 36, etc.: 18. 11, etc. His kindness and affec- 
tion in Matt. 14, 27-31: Luke 19. 5:. 22. 61: John 11.: 19. 25-27. 

F 3 



106 EVIDEXGES : CHARACTER. 

His meekness and humility in Matt. 9. 28: 18. 22, etc.: 5. 1-12* 
Luke 22. 24: John 13. 4. His moral courage, firmness, and re- 
signation in Matt. 26. 39-46: Mark 10. 32: Luke 4. 23, etc.: 13. 31, 
etc.: 18. 29, etc.: John 11. 7: 18. 4, etc. His sincerity and 
abhorrence of hypocrisy and courting popularity in Matt. 6. 1-18: 
10. 16-39: 22. 18, etc.: Mark 12. 38-40: Luke 11. 44, etc.: John 
t6. 1-6. His moderation and the absence of enthusiastic austerity, 
Matt. 8. 19: 23. 23: Luke 5. 29-35: John 2. i, etc.: Mark 12. 17. 

" The character of Christ (says an eminent writer), is a 
Originality wonderful proof of the Divinity of the Bible. The 
a ?^- bea i 1 : lty Hindoo cannot think of his Brahmin saint, other 

of his cha- . m ? 

racter. than as possessing the abstemiousness and austerity 

which he admires in his living models. The Socrates of Plato 
is composed of elements practically Greek, being a compound 
of the virtues deemed necessary to adorn the sage. A model 
of the Jewish teacher might easily be drawn from the writings 
of the Babbis, and he would prove to be the very reflection 
of those Scribes and Pharisees, who are reproved in the Gospel. 
But in the life of our Bedeemer, a character is represented which 
departs in every way from the national type of the writers, and 
from the character of all ancient nations, and is at variance 
with all the features which custom, education, religion, and 
patriotism, seem to have consecrated as most beautiful. Four 
different authors have recorded different facts, but they ex- 
hibit the same conception, a conception differing from all they 
had ever witnessed or heard, and necessarily copied from the 
same original. And more, this glorious character, while bor- 
rowing nothing from the Greek, or Indian, or Jew, having 
nothing in common with established laws of perfection, is yet 
to every believer a type of excellence. He is followed by the 
Greek, though a founder of none of his sects, revered by the 
Brahmin, though preached by one of the fishermen caste, and 
worshipped by the red man of Canada, though belonging to 
the hated pale-race." 

203. One point more remains on the morality of Scripture . 

The influence ^ ne en?ec ^ of its religion on the character of men. 
of Scripture Apart from particular facts in support of this 
viduaisand truth, it is generally admitted that the doctrines 
society. f the Bible agree with its precepts, and that they 

contain in their very substance, urgent motives to holiness. 
It is on this principle that Fuller proceeds in his Gospel its 



EVID] S: EFFECTS OF GOSFEL. 107 

own "Witness, and Erskine in his Treatise on the Internal 
Evidences. See also i Peter 2. 12. 

We confine ourselves, however, to a few facts in illustra- 
tion of the general truth. The effects of the gospel in the 
first age are well known, and are incidentally told us in the 
Epistles. Paul has pointed out what occurred at Corinth and 
Ephesus, a and Peter, the effects which were produced in 
Pontus and Galatia. b In a dissolute age, and under the worst 
governments, Christians (who had been no better than their 
neighbours) reached an eminence in virtue which has never 
perhaps been surpassed. 

Similar appeals may be found in the writings of the early 
apologists. Clement of Eome (a s d. 100), in his Epistle to 
the Corinthians, commends their virtues. " W 7 ho," says he, 
" did ever live among you, that did not admire your sober and 
moderate piety, and declare the greatness of your hospitality. 
You are humble and not proud, content with the daily bread 
which God supplies, hearing diligently his word, and enlarged 
in charity." Justin Martyr (a. d, 165), who had been a pla- 
tonic philosopher, says in his Apology, c; W"e who formerly 
delighted in adultery, now observe the strictest chastity : 
we who used the charms of magic ; have devoted ourselves to 
the true God, and we who valued money and gain above all 
things, now cast what we have in common, and distribute to 
every man according to his necessities." a You (says Minu- 
cius Felix to a heathen opponent) punish wickedness when 
it is committed, we think it sinful to indulge a sinful thought. 
It is with your party that the prisons are crowded, but not 
a single Christian is there, except it be as a confessor or 
apostate." TertuQian, the first Latin ecclesiastical writer 
whose works have come down to us (a. d. 220), makes a 
similar appeal, and speaks of great multitudes of the Eoman 
empire as the subjects of this change. Origenin his reply to 
Celsus (a. d. 246), Lactantius, the preceptor of Constantine 
(a. D. 325), repeat these appeals: and even the ernperor 
Julian holds up Christians to the imitation of Pagans, on 
account of their love to strangers and to enemies, and on 
account of the sanctity of their lives. 

This influence of the gospel was early seen among ancient 

u 1 Cor. 6. 11: Eph. 4. 19: 2. 1. b 1 Pet. 4. 3. 



108 EVIDENCES : EFFECTS OF GOSPEL. 

In society nations. In Greece, the grossest impurities had 
generally. been encouraged by Lycurgus and Solon. At 
Eome they were openly practised and approved. Among 
nearly all ancient nations self-murder was commended. Se- 
neca and Plutarch, the elder Pliny and Quinctilian, applaud 
it, and Gibbon admits that heathenism presented no reason 
against it. Human sacrifice, and the exposure of children 
were allowed, and even enforced. But wherever the gospel 
came, it condemned these practices, discouraged and finally 
destroyed them. That it was not civilization that suppressed 
them is certain, for they were kept up by nations far superior 
to the Christians in refinement, and the suppression of them 
was always found to keep pace, not with the progress of hu- 
man enlightenment but of Divine truth. 

The relief of distress and the care of the poor are almost 
peculiar to Christian nations. In Constantinople, there was 
not, before Christianity was introduced, a single charitable 
building : nor was there ..ever such a building in ancient Eome. 
After the introduction of Christianity, however, the former city 
had more than thirty buildings for the reception of orphans, of 
the sick, of strangers, of the aged, and of the poor. In Eome, 
there were twenty-five large houses set apart for the same 
purpose. With equal certainty, it can be established, that the 
gospel has abolished polygamy, mitigated the horrors of war, 
redeemed captives, freed slaves, checked the spirit of feudal 
oppression, and improved the laws of barbarous nations. 
u Truth and candour," says Gibbon, " must acknowledge that 
the conversion of these nations, imparted many temporal 
benefits both to the Old and New World, prevented the total 
extinction of letters, mitigated the fierceness of the times, 
sheltered the poor and defenceless, and preserved or revived 
the peace and order of civil society."* 

As therefore the providence of God is seen in the preser- 
vation of the Bible, so also is his grace in its effects : and 
those effects bear strong testimony to its Divine origin, 
I Thess. i. 4-10 : Gal. 5. 22. 

204. No work gives a better view of man's need of the 
gospel than Leland's, On the Advan iage and Necessity 
of a Christian Revelation, shown from the state of 

n Gibbon's History, chap. 55. For a large collection of similar 
facts see Ryan's Effects of Religion, i. 3, and App. 



EVIDENCES : INTERNAL AND LITERARY. 109 

religion in the ancient heathen world, with respect to the 
knowledge and worship of the one true God, a rule of moral 
duty, and the state of future rewards and punishments. He 
shows clearly that the representations of Scripture on the 
state of the Gentiles are literally true, and that idolatry 
gathered strength among the nations as they grew in refine- 
ment, that the ancient philosophers were profoundly wrong 
in the first principles of morality, that the best systems were 
lamentably defective, and that all rules wanted clearness and 
authority ; that as to a future life, most denied it, and that 
of those who professed to believe, none placed it on grounds 
satisfactory or rational. 

205. On that part of the Scriptural evidence which is called 
the harmony of revealed truth, it is not possible to 

Literary "i , x . 

evidence, enlarge : and the subject has been iuiiy discussed 
Harmonies. by Tarious writers. 

On the agreement between the two Economies, the works of 
Dr. Kidder, and of Dr. W. L. Alexander, will be found highly 
interesting. 

On the agreement between the doctrines and peculiarities 
of Scripture, and the facts of Nature^ the Analogy of Bishop 
Butler is unrivalled. 

On the coincidences between sacred and general history, the 
works of Bryant, Lardner, Gray, Prideaux, Shuckford, and 
Russell, may be consulted with satisfaction. 

On coincidences of a minute and statistical character, with 
the geography and natural history of Palestine, ample materials 
may be found in the works of Harmer, Clarke, and Keith. 

On coincidences between various parts of the record itself, 
much information may be obtained in the works of Graven 
Blunt, Paley, and Birks. a 

These coincidences are literally innumerable, and are inter- 
woven with the whole texture of Scripture. Some are ap- 
parently trifling, as when it is said that our Lord went down 
from Nazareth to Capernaum, and Dr. Clarke points out the 
graphic consistency of the phrase with the geography of that 
region. Others are deeply affecting, as when it is said that 

a See edition of Paley's Evidences, with Xotes, by Birks, also 
Paley's Horae Paulina?, with Horse Apcstolicse, by Birks, published 
by Religious Tract Society. 



110 EVIDENCES : INTERNAL AND LITERARY. 

blood and water issued from the side of Jesus, and medical 
authorities affirm, that if the heart is pierced or broken, blood 
and water flow from the wound. Some are critical, as when 
it is remarked, that at no time after the destruction of Jeru- 
salem, could any known writers have written in the style of 
the books of the Bible : and that at no one time could these 
various books have been written. They are demonstrably 
the work of different authors, and of different ages. Some 
are historical, as when it is noticed, that after the time of the 
apostles, all writers applied the name Christian to designate 
the followers of Christ, a name never applied in the New 
Testament by Christians to designate one another : the very 
terms which the apostles employ, indicating that the new 
religion was the completion of the old — "chosen" and "faithful." 
Some are religions, founded, that is, on the peculiarities of the 
religious system revealed, as when it is stated, that the religion 
of the New Testament is the only one in which is omitted the 
one ordinance, which would have been natural and acceptable 
to both Jews and Pagans, namely, the offering of animals in 
sacrifice ; an instructive omission. 

The effect of the whole is highly impressive, and is of itself 
a sufficient proof of the substantial credibility of the narrative, 
and of the honesty of the authors. 

Some idea of Paley's Horse Paulinas, may be gathered from 
Of.Scriptnre an examination of the following passages, it being 
with itself, premised that the books quoted were written either 
by different authors, or at different times, and with altogether 
different purposes. 



Acts 20. 2, 3: 2i. 17: 24. 17-19: 
1 Cor. 16. 1-4: 2 Cor. 8. 1-4: 9. 2. 
Acts 20. 4. 
Acts 19. 21. 
Acts 19. 21, 22. 
Acts 19. 21: 1 Tim. 4. 12. 
Acts 18. 27, 28: 19. 1. 
Acts 16. 3 : 21. 23, 26. 
Acts 18. 8 : Rom. 16. 23 : 1 Cor. 16. 15. 

A single instance may be yet more impressive. Barnabas 

(we are told) was a native of Cyprus, who sold his 

property and laid the money at the apostles' feet, 

(Acts 4. 36, 37). We are told also, quite incidentally, that 



Rom. 15. 25. 26. 

Rom. 16. 21-24. 

Rom. 1. 13 : 15. 23, 24. 

1 Cor. 4. 17-19. 

1 Cor. 16. 10, 11. 

1 Cor. 1. 12: 3. 6. 

1 Cor. 9. 20. 

1 Cor. 1. 14-17. 



EVIDENCES : SPIRITUAL. Ill 

Mark was his nephew, (Col. 4. 10). Compare these facts 
with the following passages (where it is stated, that John 
Mark went as far as Cyprus his native country, and soon re- 
joined his mother at Jerusalem, greatly to the dissatisfaction 
of Paul), and how remarkable the consistency of the whole : 
1 Cor. 9. 6, 7 : Acts 11. 20, 22 : 13. 4 : 15. 37, 39 : and 13. 13. 
The harmony pervading everything connected with Barnabas 
(says Mr. Blunt) is of itself enough to stamp the book of Acts 
as a history of perfect fidelity. 

See Barks' Horoe Apostolicse. published by the Religious Tract 
Society. 

Compare in the same way the abrupt termination of the 
history in Acts 8. 40, with Acts 21. 8, 9. 

206. But in addition to the moral evidence of Scripture, 

evidence suggested by the morality of the New 
Testament, the character of our Lord, the candour 
and sincerity, and self-denial of the first Christians, and the 
moral beauty of Christian principles, as illustrated in the lives 
of consistent believers, there is evidence directly spiritual. 
This evidence is partly appreciated by the intellect, but still 
more bv the heart and conscience. So far as it treats of man 
as the gospel finds him, it appeals equally to all ; so far as it 
treats of man as the gospel forms him, it appeals only to the be- 
liever. To the first part of this evidence the apostle refers in 
1 Cor. 14. 23-25 ; and to the second, in Rom. 8. 16 : 1 John 5. 20. 

207. This evidence consists, in part, in the agreement 
Harmony of between what the awakened sinner feels himself. 
Scripture and and what the Bible declares him to be. The 
rience of the gospel proclaims the universal corruption of 



sinner. 



human nature. It speaks not only of acts of 
transgression, but of a deep and inveterate habit of ungod- 
liness in the soul, and of the necessity of a complete renewal. 
If this description were felt to be untrue, if man were con- 
scious of delight in submitting his will to God's will, and in 
obeying commands which rebuke his selfishness and pride, he 
might at once discredit the truth of the gospel. But when 
he finds that the description answers to his own state, and 
that every attempt at closer examination only discovers to 
him the completeness of this agreement, he has in himself an 
evidence that this message is true. 



112 EVIDENCES : SPIRITUAL. 

208. The second stage of the evidence is reached when a 
« . man finds that the provisions of the gospel are 
adapted to adapted to his state. He is guilty, and needs 

pardon. He is corrupt, and needs holiness. He 
is surrounded by temptation, and needs strength. He is 
living in a world of vexation and change, and he needs some 
more satisfying portion than it can supply. He is dying, 
and he shrinks from death, and longs for a clear revelation of 
another life. And the gospel meets ah these wants. It is a 
message of pardon to the guilty, of holiness to the aspiring, 
of peace to the tried, and of life to them that sit in the 
shadow of death. 

209. And whilst there is perfect adaptation to human want, 
Harmony of no ^ ess striking is the agreement between the de* 
Scripture scription given in the gospel of its results, and the 

'infi flip p\- 

perience of Christian's experience. The effects of the belief 
the Christian. f y^e truth are repeatedly portrayed in Scrip- 
ture. Each promise is a prediction, receiving daily fulfil- 
ment. Penitence and its fruits, the obedience of faith and 
the increasing light and peace which it supplies, the power of 
prayer, the influence of Christian truth on the intellect, and 
the heart and the character, the struggles, and victories, and 
defeats even of the new life, all are described and constitute 
an evidence in the highest degree experimental ; an evidence 
which grows with our growth, and multiplies with every step 
of our progress in the knowledge and love of the truth. Such 
insight into our moral being, and such knowledge of the 
changes which religious truth is adapted to produce, could 
never emanate from human wisdom, and they prove that 
God himself is the author of the book in which such qualities 
are disclosed. 

210. We repeat the caution, however, that this evidence is 
n chiefly of value for the confirmation of the faith of 
confirmation a Christian, because none else will appreciate or 

understand it. • To such, however, this evidence is 
so strong as often to supersede every other. To the Christian, 
the old controversy between Christianity and infidelity has 
but little interest ; he already feels the truth which evidences 
seek only to prove ; it seems needless to discuss the reality 
of what he already enjoys ; he has the "witness in himself." 
21 i. It may be added, too, that the evidence depends not 



evidences: experimental. 113 

Christianity so much on Christianity as adapted to our wants, 

moti K .')ui-°" as on Christianity adapted to promote our holi- 
holiness. ne>-. When Christ appeared, the Jews felt their 
want of an earthly deliverer. A Messiah who should make 
the Gentiles fellow heirs, they did not want at all. The 
system of Mohammed, again, is adapted with great skill to 
the desires of a sensual, gross- minded, and ambitious people. 
The Hindoos adhere to a religion that is without evidence, 
because they find it suited to their tastes. All these cases, 
however, are very different from the case of Christianity ; it 
came to us not conformed to our natural inclinations, but 
seeking to conform them to itself; and when this process 
is begun, then only is its adaptation revealed. Heathen na- 
tions sought a religion conformed to their own corrupt pro- 
pensities : and on finding such a religion they embraced 
and believed it. Pagan systems are adapted to man as he is, 
and as he desires to be, while yet in love with sin ; the 
gospel is adapted to man as he is and ought to be. Paganism 
is the adaptation of a corrupt system to a corrupt nature ; 
the gospel is the adaptation of a life-giving system to a nature 
that needs to be renewed. The first seeks to conform its 
teaching to our tastes ; the second to conform our tastes to 
its teaching. And it is while this latter conformation is 
proceeding, that the believer has the evidence of the truth. 
When he believes, he has the hope of faith, then comes the 
hope of experience — experience founded on the sanctifying 
influence of the love of God, Rom. 5. 2-5. 

To the physician who is intrusted with the cure of some 
Analogous mortal disease, two courses are open. He may 
case. treat the symptoms, or he may treat the disease 

itself. If in fever he is anxious only to quench the thirst of 
his patient, or in apoplexy to excite the system, his treat- 
ment may be said to be adapted to the wants of the sufferer ; 
but it is not likely to restore him. A sounder system treats 
the disease, and that medicine is the true specific which is 
adapted ultimately to remove it. The evidence of the virtue 
of such a specific is, not its palatableness nor its power of 
exhilaration, but the steady continued improvement of the 
health of the patient ; an evidence founded on experience, 
and strongly confirming the proofs which had originally 
induced him to make the trial. 



114 evidences: SUMMARY. 

And so of the gospel. It may exhilarate, and it may please 
the taste ; but the evidence of its truth and of its being truly 
received is its tendency to promote our holiness. 

212. What then is the reason of our hope ? is a question 
Summary,— which every inquirer may ask and answer, All 
inteingibie ^he answers of which the question admits, no one 
to an. can be expected to give, for a full investigation of 

Christian evidences would occupy a life-time ; but it is easy 
to give such an answer as shall justify our faith. Christianity 
and the Christian books exist, and have existed for the last 
eighteen hundred years. Christian and profane writers agree 
in this admission. The great Founder of our faith pro- 
fessedly wrought miracles in confirmation of his message, 
and gave the same power to his apostles. They all under- 
went severe suffering, and most of them died in testimony of 
their belief of the truths and facts they delivered. These 
facts and the truths founded on them, the apostles and first 
Christians embraced in spite of the opposing influences of 
the religious systems in which they had been trained. The 
character and history of the Founder of the faith were fore- 
told many hundreds of years before in the Jewish Scriptures. 
He taught the purest morality. He himself gave many pre- 
dictions, and these predictions were fulfilled. His doctrines 
changed the character of those who received them, softened 
and civilized ancient nations, and have been everv where 
among the mightiest influences in the history of the human 
race. They claim to be from God, support their claim by in- 
numerable evidences, and we must either admit them to be 
from God, or ascribe them to a spirit of most miraculous and 
benevolent imposition. Add to all this, that he who receives 
them, has in himself additional evidence of their origin and 
holiness, and can say from experience, u I know that the Son 
of God is come, and hath given us an understanding, that we 
may know Him that is true. We are in him, even in his Son 
Jesus Christ. This is the true God and eternal life," i John 5. 20. 

These facts are not abstruse, but accessible to all, and in- 
telligible to the feeblest. For the candid inquirer, any one 
department of this evidence will often prove sufficient : no 
other religious system being founded on miracles and pro- 
phecy, or exhibiting such holiness and love. The icJioJe evi- 
dence combined, is overwhelmingly conclusive. 



EVIDENCES. 115 

213. And yet there is, in relation to these evidences, much 
Evidence unbelief both among inquirers and professed 

leaves two Christians. Among inquirers there is unbelief, 
classes in - ' 

doubt. for want of candour and teachableness : a fact, 

The uncandid which is itself an evidence of the truth of Scripture, 
inquirer. anc j { n harmony with the general dealings of God. 
In common life, levity, or prejudice, or carelessness will often 
lead men astray, and even make them incapable of ascertain- 
ing what is really wise and true. And Scripture has expressly 
declared, that those who will not love truth, shall not under- 
stand it. So deeply did Grotius feel this consideration, that 
he regarded the evidence of Christianity as itself an evidence 
of the Divine origin of the gospel, being divinely adapted to 
test men's character and hearts. 

De Verit, ii. § 19. See also Dan. 12. 10: Isa. 29. 1:3, 14: Matt. 
6. 23: 11. 25: 13. 11, 12: John 3. 19: 1 Cor. 2. 14: 2 Cor. 4. 4: 
2 Tim. 3. 13. 

Among professed Christians, too, there is want of confidence 
in the fulness of the Christian evidence, and conse- 
careiess quent want of inquiry. Baxter has acknowledged, 

nstian - that while in his younger days he was exercised 
chiefly about his own sincerity, in later life he was tried with 
doubts about the truth of Scripture. Further inquiry, how- 
ever, removed them. The evidence which he found most 
conclusive, was the internal : such as sprang from the witness 
of the Spirit of God with his own. " The spirit of prophecy, 5 ' 
says he, " was the first witness : the spirit of miraculous 
power, the second ; and now," he adds, " we have 
the spirit of renovation and holiness." " Let Chris- 
tians therefore," he concludes, " tell their doubts, and inves- 
tigate the evidence of Divine truth, for there is ample provision 
for the removal of them all." 

Most of the doubts which good men feel may be thus dis- 
pelled. Others, chiefly speculative, may in some cases re- 
main, and are not to be dispelled by the best proofs. Even 
for these, however, there is a cure. Philosophy cannot solve 
them ; but prayer and healthy exercise in departments of 
Christian life to which doubting does not extend can; or, 
failing to solve them, these remedies w r ill teach us to think 
less of their importance, and to wait patiently for stronger 
light. Ours is a complex nature, and the morbid excitability 



116 THE BIBLE A KEVELATION OF GOD. 

of one part of our frame may often be cured by the increased 
activity of another. An irritable faith is a symptom of defi- 
cient action elsewhere, and is best cured by a more constant 
attention to practical duty. Difficulties which no inquiry 
can remove will often melt away amidst the warmth and vigour 
produced by active love. 



CHAPTER III. 

Peculiarities of the Bible as a Revelation from God 

** A mans love of Scripture at the beginning of a religious course, is such as 
makes the praise, which older Christians give to the Bible, seem exaggerated : but 
after twenty or thirty years of a religious life, such praise always sounds inadequate. 
Its glories seem so much more full than they seemed at first." — Dr. Arnold. 

" To seek Divinity in Philosophy, is to seek the living among the dead : so to seek 
Philosophy in Divinity, is to seek the dead among the living." — Bacon, Advance- 
ment of Learning. 

" The Old and New Testaments contain but one scheme of religion. Neither 

part can be understood without the other They are like the rolls on which 

they v ere anciently written It is but one subject from beginning to end • 

but the view which we obtain of it grows clearer and clearer as we unwind the roll 
that contains it." — Cecil. 

Sec. I. A Revelation of God, and of Human Nature. 

214. There are various aspects in which Scripture may be 
regarded. The most important, is that which represents it as 
a revelation of God and man : of God in relation to man, of 
man in relation to God : and of both in relation to the work 
and office of our Lord. 

215. Scripture is a revelation of God, of his character and 
Scripture, a will. That will is indeed written on the works of 

God^ndof^ "^ s nan( ^ s ? ail( ^ more clearly on the constitution of 
man. man : but in the Bible alone is the transcript com- 

plete, and there alone is it preserved from decay. 

216. Or with equal accuracy, the whole may be described 
as the exhibition of human nature, in individuals and in na- 
tions under every form of development ; holy, tempted, fallen, 
degenerate, redeemed, believing, rejecting the faith, struggling, 
victorious, and complete. The Bible begins with man in the 
garden of Eden, his Maker as his friend ; and after a wondrous 
history, it exhibits him again in the same fellowship, though 
no longer on earth or in paradise, but in heaven : the whole 
of his forfeited blessedness won back by the incarnation and 
suffering of the Son of God. 

217. More generally still, the Bible may be described as the 



THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 117 

great storehouse of facts and duties, and of all 

A storoliou^'" 4 

of spiritual spiritual truth. It gives authentic information on 
truth. ^g history of the world, from the remotest times 

on which all human writings are silent, or filled with fable* ; 
the occasion and immediate consequences of the first sin ; the 
origin of nations, and of diversity of language. We thus trace 
the progress, and mark the uniformity of those principles on 
which men have been governed from the beginning, all bearing 
their testimony to the wisdom and holiness of God, and the 
mercy of the Divine administration. \Ye trace the progress 
and development of human nature, and of the plan of redemp- 
tion : the first, shown in every possible diversity of position, 
and the second, influencing all the Divine procedure, perfected 
in Christ, and exhibited in the gospel. In a word, we find 
all the great questions (whether of fact or duty), which have 
occupied the attention of the wisest men, settled by authority, 
and on principles which neither need nor admit of appeal. 
We have given to us the decisions of the infinitely wise God 
as the ground of our opinions and practices, and his promise 
as the foundation of our hope. 

218. In no part of the Bible, therefore, are these questions 

inappropriate : — 

Appropriate _££ L . 

questions in What does it teach concerning man I or concern- 
reading it. cerning God ] or concerning the grand scheme 
of redemption ? or concerning the restoration of human na- 
ture to its primeval dignity and blessedness ] 

Sec. 2. TJie Bible, a Revelation of Spiritual Religious Truth. 

219. If this view of the subject of the Bible, be kept in 
Scripture, a mind, — God in relation to man, and man in relation 
revelation of ^ q a an( j q oc [ anc i man j n relation to the work 

spiritual 7 

truth, on and office of our Lord, — one peculiarity of Scripture 
wid saiva- ( as to its fulness and brevity), will be explained. 
tion - It gives the history of the world, as " God's 

world," and as destined to become the kingdom of his Son. 
It tells us of its origin, that we may know bv what God has 
done, the reverence due to him : what is las power whose law 
this book has revealed : whose creatures we are, that we may 
distinguish him from the idols of the heathen, who are either 
imaginary beings, or parts of his creation. 

All the subsequent narrative of the Bible, seems written on 



118 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 

the same principle. It is an inspired history of religion (of 
man in relation to God,) and of other things, as it is affected 
by them. Idolatrous nations are introduced, not as indepen- 
dently important, but as influencing the church, or as in- 
fluenced by it : and thus narrative and prophecy continue 
from the first transgression, through the whole interval of 
man's misery and guilt, to a period, spoken of in a great di- 
versity of expressions and under both economies, when the 
" God of heaven shall set up a kingdom that shall never be 
destroyed." 

That these historical disclosures supply ample materials for 
inquiry, and (had the narrative been false), for refutation, and 
that as they have never been refuted, their antiquity and 
extent are strong presumptive evidence of the truth of Scrip- 
ture is obvious : a but it is the principle of selection, and the 
clear scope of the whole which are now noticed. To convey 
religious truth is clearly the author's design. Whatever is 
revealed must be studied with this fact in view, and whatever 
is withheld, may be regarded as not essential to the accom- 
plishment of this purpose. 

220. Let it be remembered, too, that it is God as holy in 

relation to a man as a sinner, and God and man in 

of God, as relation to Christ as the Eedeemer, who form the 

holy. great theme of Scripture : and that what is told us, 

has reference to the relation of such Beings. 

Take for example, the history of the first sin. The object of the 
narrative of the fall is clearly moral. It shows the progress of 
temptation, and directs our thoughts to the Saviour. We mark the 
conviction of duty, the contemplation of the pleasure which sin may 
produce, the consequent obtuseness of conscience, and the hope that 
desire may be indulged and yet punishment be averted, desire be- 
coming intenser, passion stronger, conscience feebler, till at length 
the will consents and the act is done. Such is all transgression. 
The moral lesson of the fall is thus complete, though much is con- 
cealed. 

Subsequent portions of Scripture are written on this same prin- 
ciple. In the history of Cain, and in the rapid progress of wicked- 
ness, we notice the consequences of sin, and from the Deluge learn 
how deeply man had fallen. And yet each expression of God's dis- 
pleasure is so tempered with mercy, as to prepare us for the double 
truth, that God had provided a Redeemer to restore us to Divine 
a See these remarks illustrated in Bishop Butler s Analogy, 2nd Part. 



THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 119 

favour, and a Sanctifier to renew us to holiness, and that man needed 
them both. Hence it is, that amidst all this wickedness, facts are 
recorded, which hold out the prospect of recovery, and even fore- 
shadow the means of securing it. In Abel and Seth, and Enoch 
and Noah, we find faith in the Divine promise, and consequent 
holiness. They " called upon the name of the Lord." They 
i: offered a more excellent sacrifice " than their ungodly neighbours, 
expressive at once of then obligation and their guilt ; they ' ' walked 
with God." 

As the world was repeopled, human sinfulness is seen in other 
forms. Men are scattered over the earth, and ultimately, the plan 
of the Divine procedure is changed. A particular family is made 
the depositor}- of the Divine will, and its history is given. Of that 
family, the son of the promise is chosen : and of his sons, not the 
elder and favourite, but the younger. The history of Ms descendants 
is then given with a double reference, first to their own faith 
and obedience, and then to the coming of the Messiah. There is 
both an ultimate and an immediate purpose, and both are moral. 
The institutes of this people illustrate the doctrines of the cross, 
and we have moreover, the record of their sins, for our warning, 
and of their repentance, for our imitation and encouragement. 

Concerning all these narratives, much might have been told 
us, which is withheld. Difficulties might have 

All written 7 . . . f . 

on this prin- been solved : important physical, or historical or 
ethical questions might have been answered. But 
we have to seek the solution of these questions elsewhere. 

Of Assyria, for example, we read in a single passage of the book of 
Genesis, (Gen. io.ii, 12,) but not again for 15 coy ears, till the time of 
Menahem (2 Kings 15. 19): and of Egypt we have no mention, be- 
tween the days of Moses and those of Solomon. The early history 
of both nations is exceedingly obscure, perhaps impenetrably so. 
But the knowledge is essential neither to our salvation nor to the his- 
tory of the church, and it is not revealed. 

In the prophetic Scriptures, this peculiarity is equally ob- 
Soofpro- vious. They are all either intensely moral, or 
pnecy. evangelical, or both. It might have been other- 

wise, without injury to prophecy as an outward evidence of 
Scripture. The gifts of prediction and of moral teaching, 
might have been disjoined : but in fact they are not. "What 
might have ministered to the gratification of natural curiosity 
only, is enlisted on the side of practical holiness. The pro- 
phet is the teacher, and the history of ' the future (which 



120 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 

prophecy is), becomes like the history of the past, the hand- 
maid of evaugelical truth, and of spiritual improvement. 

So is it in all that is revealed in relation to Christ. We 
n * ™_ . , rea( i of the dignity of his person, but it is with 

So of Christ. i // -i 

a constant relerence to w us men, and to our sal- 
vation." If he is set forth as the Light of the world, it is to 
guide us into the way of peace : if, as the Lamb of God, it is 
that he may redeem us by his blood : if, as entering into 
heaven, it is as our propitiation and intercessor. We call him 
justly the " Son of God :" lie loved to call himself as his 
apostles never called him, and with a peculiar reference to 
his sympathy and work, the " Son of man." 

Scripture then, is the revelation of religious truth, and of 
truth adapted to our nature as fallen and guilty. We use it 
rightly therefore, only as it ministers to our holiness and con- 
solation. It might have revealed other truth, or the truth it 
does reveal may be regarded by us only as sublime and 
glorious- But this is not God's purpose. He has given it for 
our instruction, our conviction, our rectification (or correction), 
and our establishment in righteousness. All knowledge 
may be useful : but this knowledge is necessary. " Let it not 
go, keep it, for it is thy life," Prov. 4. 13. 

221. Two practical rules are suggested by these remarks. 
First, we must not expect to learn anything from Scripture, 
except what it is, in a religious point of view, important for us 
to know. Some seek " the dead among the living," (as Lord 
Bacon phrased it,) and look into the Bible for natural philo- 
sophy and human science : others inquire in it for the "secret 
things " which " belong only to God :" and both are rebuked by 
the very character and design of the Bible. It is the record 
of necessary and saving truth ; or of truth in its religious as- 
pects and bearings, and of nothing besides : its histories being 
brief or full, as brevity or fulness may best secure these ends. 

222. Secondly. It becomes the Christian to make a practical 
application of every truth which Scripture reveals. He must 
believe, and apply the whole. To reject truth is wrong : to 
deny morality is wrong : and it is equally wrong to disjoin 
them. It is only as virtue is moulded on truth, that it be- 
comes genuine and complete. 

223. But though' the Bible is not a revelation of science, it 



THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 121 

may be expected to be free from error, and to con- 
iivonsistent tain, under reserved and simple language, much 
with science. concea i e( j wisdom, and turns of expression which 
harmonize with natural facts, known perfectly to God, but 
not known to those for whom at first the revelation was 
designed. 

This expectation is just : and in both respects, the Bible 
presents a striking contrast to the sacred books of heathen 
nations. 

224. All ancient systems of religion, and all eminent philo- 

^ sophers of antiquity, so far as they are known, 

Scripture maintained notions on science no less absurd than 



cosmogonies. 



= - 



their theology. 



In Greek and Latin philosophy, the heavens were a solid vault 
over the earth, a a sphere studded with stars, as Aristotle called 
them. The sages of Egypt held that the world was formed by the 
motion of air and the upward course of flame : Plato, that it was an 
intelligent being: Empedocles, held that there were two suns: 
Zeucippus, that the stars were kindled by their motions, and that 
thev nourished the sun with their fires. 

All eastern nations believed that the heavenly bodies exercised 
powerful influence over human affairs, often of a disastrous 13 , kind, 
and that all nature was composed of four elements, fire, air, earth, 
and water, substances certainly not elementary. 

In the Hindoo philosophy, the globe is represented as flat and 
triangular, composed of seven stories; the whole mass being sus- 
tained upon the heads of elephants, who, when they shake them- 
selves, cause earthquakes. Mohammed taught that the mountains 
were created to prevent the earth from moving, and to hold it as 
by anchors and chains. The "Fathers of the church" themselves 
teach doctrines scarcely less absurd. " The rotundity of the earth is 
a theory," says Lactantius, "which no one is ignorant enough to 
believe." 

How instructive, that while every ancient system of idol- 
atry may be overthrown by its false physics, not one of the 
forty writers of the Bible, most of whom lived in the vicinity 
of one or other of the nations who held these views, has 
written a single line that favours them. This silence is con- 
solatory, and furnishes a striking confirmation of the truth of 
their message. 

a Firmamentum, MBplupa. ° %us clrrpov, " ill-starred." 

G 



122 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 

225. The exactness of Scripture statements, and its agree- 
ment with modern discovery, is also remarkable. 

The Scriptures, for example, speak of the earth as a globe, and as 
suspended upon nothing, Isa. 40. 22: Job 26. 7-10: Pro v. 8. 27. In 
treating of its age, they distinguish between the creation of unor- 
ganized matter, and of the heavens and the earth, Gen. 1. 1, 2. 
They give to man a very recent origin, and their accuracy in this 
respect is attested by the ascertained state of the earth's surface 
and by the monuments of antiquity. They describe the heavens as 
boundless space, not as a solid sphere; and light as an element inde- 
pendent of the sun, and as anterior to it, anticipating the generally 
received theory of modern inquirers. When they speak of air, they 
say that God gave it weight, as Galileo proved; and of the seas, that 
he gave them their measure : a proportion of land and sea such as 
now obtains being essential to the health and safety of both animal 
and vegetable life. The waters above "the expanse" have an im- 
portance attached to them in Scripture which modern science alone 
can appreciate ; many millions of tons being raised from the surface 
of England alone by evaporation every day. (See Whewell's 
1 Bridgewater Treatise.') 

When they speak of the human race they give it one origin, and 
of human language they indicate original identity and subsequent 
division, not into endless diversities of dialect such as now exist, 
but rather into two or three primeval tongues ; facts which, though 
long questioned, ethnography and philosophy have confirmed, 
Gen. 11. 1: 10. 32. 

AY hen they arrest the course of the sun, that is, of the earth's rota- 
tion, they stay the moon too; a precaution which could not have 
been supposed necessary, but on the supposition of the diurnal 
motion of the earth. When they speak of the stars, instead of sup- 
posing a thousand, as ancient astronomers did (Hipparchus says 
1022, Ptolemy, 1026), they declare that they are innumerable; a 
declaration which modern telescopes discover to be not even a figure 
of speech. " God," says Sir John Herschel, after surveying the 
groups of stars and nebulae in the heavens, "has scattered them 
like dust through the immensity of space." And when the Scrip- 
tures speak of their hosts, it is as dependent, material, obedient 
things, Isa. 40. 26, 27. 

226. Generally, however (it maybe added), Scripture speaks 
Apparent m relation to physical facts in the language of 
exception. common life, and sometimes that language is 
not strictly accurate; as in Job 38. 6: 9. 6: Psa. 104. 3: 



THE BIBLE CONSISTENT WITH ETHICAL SCIENCE, 123 

Prow 3. 20. And the reason is plain. If strictly philo- 
sophical language had been employed, Scripture must have 
been less intelligible : and besides, such language describing 
natural facts not as they appear, but as they really are, would 
have made all such facts matters of revelation. It must have 
excited doubts among the ignorant, and prejudice (from the 
necessary incompleteness of Scripture teaching on such ques- 
tions) among the philosophic ; destroying, among all, the 
unity of impression which the Bible seeks to produce. The 
Bible would have become, in that case, a Divine, though in- 
complete hand-book of science ; an arrangement as little con- 
ducive to the cultivation of a truly philosophical spirit as to 
the interests of religion itself. 

227. Nor less remarkable is the way in which the Bible has 
scriptural noticed abstract questions, or great principles of 
ethics con- ethical science. The laws of our moral nature are 

sis tent -with ^ ' • ' .' 

experience, evidently known to the Author of Scripture, but 

they are not formally announced. They are rather involved 

by implication in the truths or precepts which are revealed. 

Independent investigation long ago discovered that the 

heart of man takes much of its complexion from 

his thoughts, and that. what interests the mind 

influences the character. In harmony with this law is the 

doctrine of Scripture, that habitual and believing attention 

to the truths of Christianity is the great instrument of 

bringing the mind into holy states, 

r John 4. io, 16, 19: Gal. 2. 2c: 1 Cor. 15. 2: 2 Cor. 3. i'6: 
1 Tim. 4. 16: Psa. 119. 9 -11: Psa. 19: 1 Pet. 1. 22. 

"How can man regulate his belief ]" is a question which 
long occupied the attention of thoughtful men. "By attend- 
ing to evidence, and then by contemplating truth." is the 
reply of philosophy. And Scripture is in direct harmony 
with her decision. Faith and affection are both influenced, 
not by analysing them or by violently attempting to 
strengthen or purify them, but by examining truth and 
holding communion with the objects that deserve and claim 
our love. The Bible bids us consider and give heed, assurh ; 
us that earnest humble consideration will end in faith, and 
faith be followed by holy and appropriate feeling. 

Men believe by "giving heed" to truth, Acts 8. 6, 3: Heb. 

G 2 



1 24 THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 

2. i: Prov. 4. 1-4: 2. 1-9: Mark 4. 24, 25: Acts 17. 11, 12. Their 
impenitence is a consequence of their neglect, and their neglect, of 
a wrong state of heart, 2 Thess. 2. 11, 12: Mark 8. 18: John 3. 
19, 20: 5. 38, 39: 2 Cor. 4. 3, 4: Hos. 4. 10. Holy affection is in- 
fluenced by attention and faith, Gal. 5. 6: 2 Cor. 5. 11: Heb. 11. 
7: 1 John 4. 16-18: Rom. 6. 6: Col. 1. 22, 23: Josh. 22. 5. 

Scripture embodies these laws, and acts upon them ; ad- 
ding, however, the significant fact, that wdiere holiness and 
salvation follow in the train of attention and thoughtfulness, 
this result is to be ascribed throughout every part to the 
grace and blessing of the Divine Spirit. 

Attention is the gift of the Spirit, Acts 16. 14: Zech. 12. 10. 
Faith, which follows attention, is his gift, Acts 10. 44 (see 11. 17, 
18): 11. 21. 

The clearer understanding of truth, which follows the believing 
study of it, is his gift, Isa. 42. 7: Psa. 119. 18: Luke 24. 45 : 1 Cor. 
2. 14: 2 Cor. 3. 16: Eph. 1. 17, 18. 

The holy feeling that follows an attentive and believing study of 
truth, is his gift, Ez. 36. 27: 2 Thess. 2. 13: 2 Pet. 1. 2, 3: 
Gal. 5. 22. 

Sec. 3. The Bible a gradual and progressive Revelation. 

228. Another peculiarity of Scripture is, that it is a gradual 
and progressive revelation. 

229. The truths and purpose of God are in themselves in- 
In what capable of progress ; but not the revelation of 
sense. those truths. In nature, the rising sun scatters 
the mists of the morning, and brings out into light first one 
prominence, and then another, till every hill and valley is 
clothed in splendour. The landscape was there before, but it 
was not seen. So in revelation, the progress is not in the 
truth, but in the clearness and impressiveness with which 
Scripture reveals it. 

230. In the beginning, for example, God taught the unity 
In the reve- of his nature ; while the truth that there is a plu- 
lat d° n h 0f H°i d ran ty m the Godhead was taught but indistinctly. 
Spirit. Several expressions in the earliest books imply it, 
and are evidently calculated to suggest it. a In the later 

a Such expressions, for example, as, Let us make man in our 
image (see Gen. 1. 26: 3. 22); and the use of the plural noun, to 
indicate the true God, with a singular verb, Gen. 1. 1: Psa. 58. u 
(Heb.): Prov. 9. 10 (Heb.), and several hundred times. 



Till-; BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 126 

prophets, the truth comes out with greater distinctness ;* 
and in the New Testament it is fully revealed. In the same 
way, the work of the Holy Spirit is recognised in the Old 
Testament, and with increasing clearness as we approach the 
times of the gospel. It is in the New alone, however, that 
we have a distinct view of his personality and work. b 

231. This gradual disclosure of the Divine will is yet more 
remarkable in the case of our Lord. The first 
promise (Gen. 3. 15) contained a prophetic declara- 
tion of mercy, and foretold his coming and work, though in 
mysterious terms. The first recorded act of acceptable wor- 
ship (Gen. 4. 4: Heb. 11. 4) was a type, expressing by an 
auction the faith of the offerer in the fulfilment of the first 
prediction. There was to be triumph through suffering, and 
there was to be the substitution of the innocent for the 
guilty. 

These promises and types were multiplied with the lapse 
ratriarckal °f time. In the person or worship of Enoch, of 
period. Xoah, d of Melchizedec, e and of Job, f there was 

much that was typical and predictive ; still more in the his- 
tory of Abraham" and his immediate descendants. 

Under the Mosaic dispensation, other typical acts or per- 
sons, and places and things, were instituted, and 

■S 1 SA1P t-j y * 

the design of the institution was most distinctly 

The expressions in Numb. 6. 22-27, compared with the New Tes- 
tament benediction, Isa. 6. 3, 8: 48. 16: Jer. 23. 5, 6, are very 
remarkable. 

The " angel of the Lord" probably refers in most passages to the 
Messiah, as the Jewish writers generally maintain, regarding him 
as an object of Divine worship. See Gen. 16. 7 and 13, where the 
incommunicable name of Jehovah is given to him: see, also, Gen. 
22. n-18: 31. 11-13: 32. 28-30: Hos. 12. 4, 5: Gen. 48. 15, 16: 
Ex. 3. 2-15: 19. 19, 20: 20. 1: 23. 20, 2r, compared with Acts 
7. 38: Josh. 5. 13-15 : 6. 2: Judg. 13. yi^ : Isa. 63. 8, 9: Mai. 3. 1. 

a Isa. 9. 6: Mic. 5. 2: Zech. 13. 7. 

b Gen. 1. 2: 6. 3: Psa. 51. 11, 12: Isa. 48. 16: 61. 1: Ezek. j t 
24,. 27. 
c Jude 14. d 1 Pet. 3. 20: Gen. 8. 20 

e Heb. 5:6. f Job. 19, 25: 1.: 42. 7. 8. 

? Gen. 12. 3: 26. 4: 49. 10, etc. 



126 THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 

explained. a Prophecies, also, became more clear and fre- 
quents 

Between the days of Samuel and Malachi — a period of more 

than six hundred years — a succession of prophets 

appear, who gradually set forth the person and 

work of the Messiah ; they foretell, too, the outpouring of the 

Spirit and the general prevalence of the truth : c points on 

which the earlier revelation is silent. 

In the extent of their predictions, the prophets have not 
gone beyond the first promise which was intended to give 
hope of complete redemption ; but in their clearness, in the 
detailed, account they give of what redemption involved, and 
what it cost, the difference is most marked ; while in the 
same qualities, the Gospels have gone at least as far beyond 
the prophets as the prophets have gone beyond the law. 

232. It is noticeable, too, that the predictions of the old 
Practical economy and its practical doctrines go hand in 
doctrines. hand. The revelation spreads on each point. 
The light that illuminates the living spring, or the harvest- 
field of truth, shows with equal clearness the path that leads 
to them. The law gives Divine precept with more fulness 
than previous dispensations, and the prophets go beyond the 
law, occupying a middle place between it and the gospel. 
They insist more fully on the principles of personal holiness, 
as distinguished from rational and ceremonial purity, and 
their sanctions have less reference to temporal promises. 
The precepts of the law are in the law stern and brief : its 
penalties denounced with unmitigated severity. In the pro- 
phets, the whole is presented in colours, softer and more at- 
tractive ; hues from some distant glory, itself concealed, have 
fallen upon their gloomy features and illumined them into its 
own likeness. The law had said, " Thou shalt love the Lord 
thy God with all thy heart and with all thy strength f and 
the extent of this command nothing could exceed. The 
prophets, however, expound and enforce, and animate it with 
a new spirit, and direct its application to greater holiness. 

a Lev. 1. 4: 6, 2-7: 17. 11. b Numb. 24. 17: Deut. 18. 15: 

Acts 3. 22, 23. 

c 1 Pet. 1. 11: Psa. 68. 18: Joel 2. 28: Isa. 53 : 61. 11: Zech. 14. 9, 



THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 127 

The rule of life thus .becomes in their hands increasingly 
luminous and practical. 

The Psalms, again, are a great instrument of piety, and are 
so far additions to the institutes of legal worship, which 
contain no specific provision for devotion. 

234. If the reader will compare the precepts of the Penta- 

teuch on repentance with those of the prophets on 
the same duty,* or the statements of both on the 
relation between the Jews, or of the world generally, and Him 
who came to enlighten the Gentiles as well as his people 
Israel,* or will mark the increasing spirituality and clearness 
of the whole horizon of spiritual truth as the dawn of the 
gospel day drew on, he will not fail to understand the con- 
sistency and progressive development of revelation. In both 
he wih see evidence of the presence of that God who (as 
Butler expressed it) " appears deliberate in all his operations,"' 
and who accomplishes his ends by slow and successive stages, 
whether they refer to the changes of the seasons, the move- 
ments of Providence, or the more formal disclosures of his 
wih. 

235. This peculiarity of Scripture makes it important that 
Importance the various parts of the Bible should be read in the 
of chronoio- or( j er { n which the Spirit revealed them. A 

gical arrange- ^ , * 

mem. chronological arrangement of sacred history, the 

Psalms, and the Prophets, is essential to the complete explana- 
tion of the several parts : nor is it less so, to a clear and con- 
sistent view of the progressive unveiling of the Divine cha- 
racter and plans. d 

236. It deserves to be remembered too, that even when we 
On other are not contemplating the gradual unfolding of 
grounds. truth, the study of Scripture chronologically is 
often essential to a just appreciation of truth. 

Compare, for example, Paul's first two Epistles with the last, 
1 and 2 Thess. with 1 and 2 Tim., as they lie side by side in the 
English version: and we shall see what changes several years of 

a Deut. 30, 1-6: Ezek. 18: Isa. 57. 15, 16: Psa. 40. 6-8: 51. 
16, 17. 

b Isa. 66. 21. c See especially Jer. 31. 31-34. 

d For a chronological arrangement of the whole. of the Bible, see 
Part II. 



128 SUCCESSIVE DISPENSATIONS. 

labour had produced in the apostle's feelings, and in the state oi 
the church. 

Touching as is the enumeration of the apostle's sufferings, given 
in 2 Cor. n., chronological arrangement reminds us, that that 
chapter supplies comparatively little of the evidence we have of 
Ins sincerity. It was written before his imprisonment in Judea 
and at Rome. Two years of imprisonment, shipwreck, another 
imprisonment, and finally, martyrdom are to be added to the ac- 
count. 

Voltaire ridicules the force of the language, in which are pre- 
dicted (as he thinks,) the fortunes of a people, whose narrow strip 
of country did not exceed 200 miles in length. Chronological ar- 
rangement would have made his remark the more striking, but it 
might also have suggested the solution of the difficulty. The pro- 
phecy grows most confident and comprehensive when the nation is 
all but annihilated. Is it likely, therefore, to have had its origin 
in national vanity, or to have its accomplishment in national revival 
and success ? 

237. Sometimes this gradual development of the Divine 
Various dis- will is spoken of as successive dispensations : — the 
peosations. Adamic, the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the Gos- 
pel : Dispensation meaning the way in which God deals with 
men, or (in this connection,) the truth revealed, the ordi- 
nances and consequent conduct which are enjoined. 

The Adamic dispensation continued only during man's 
innocency. The Patriarchal lasted more than 2500 years, 
and the history of it is given in Gen. 3. — Exod. 20. It is so 
called from the fact, that the heads of families were the 
governors and teachers of men — (Patriarchs), such as Adam, 
iSeth, Enoch, and Noah, before the flood, and Job, Melchizedec, 
Abraham, and his immediate descendants after it. They were 
the depositaries of the Divine will, the guardians of prophecy, 
and some of them furnished in their history types of our 
Lord. There were, during this period, but few predictions, 
though there are distinct intimations of preparation for the 
coming of the Messiah, as in the distinction between clean 
and unclean animals, in reference to sacrifice, Gen. 8. 20, in 
sacrifice itself, and in the covenant with Abraham, Gen. 15. 20. 
In the Patriarchal dispensation, too, may be traced many of 
the first principles of the Mosaic. 

The covenant made with the Jews through Moses — the 
Mosaic dispensation — lasted for about 1500 years, and abounds 



SUCCESSIVE DISPENSATIONS. 12D 

with typical persons, places, and things. The Jewish people 
were in truth a type both in their institutions and history. 

See Lev. 6. 2-9: 16. 21: 17. 11: Eph., Heb., and 1 Cor. lo. 

The gospel dispensation, the great principles of which may 
be traced in the previous economies, is founded on the facts 
given in the Gospels, the life and death of our Lord. In the 
Acts we see truth in action, both among individual believers 
and in the church ; in the EjJistles, the doctrines founded on 
these facts are developed and enforced ; and in the Revelation 
we have in prophetic visions, the history of truth in its strug- 
gles with error, and of the church till the end of time. 

238. These books constitute the dispensation of the gospel, 

and with them, the development of evangelical 

Development , x . ,, 

ends with truth (so far as the present state is concerned), 
scripture. ends. There may be passages in the Bible, whose 
full meaning is not yet discovered, and which are perhaps 
" reserved," as Boyle expressed it, " to quell some future 
heresv, or resolve some vet unformed doubt, or confound some 
error that hath not yet a name,*' or prove by fresh prophetic 
evidence that it came from God. Scripture, moreover, is like 
the deep sea ; beautifully clear, but immeasurably profound. 
There is, therefore, no definable limit to our insight into its 
meaning. But we are to look for no further revelation : nor 
are w 7 e to regard as developments of Scripture doctrine, the 
additions of men. 

Examples of the abuses of this truth it is not necessary to 
multiply. Popery is the standing illustration. It 
ment ends in pleads for the development of truth out of Scrip- 
ture, and in the church. The blessedness of the 
dead w T ho die in the Lord for example, is said on its theory, 
to be the natural germ of saint worship. Christ's presence 
in the supper, is in the same way, the germ of the adoration 
of the host, and the salutation of the angel, of the deification 
of the virgin. But all this is abuse. The gradual develop- 
ment of truth in Scripture, is one thing. An accretion which 
overlays the truth is another ; and it is for the former only 
we contend. 

Sec. 4. The Unity of the Bible. 

239. Nor less instructive is the unity of the sacred volume, 

G 2 



130 THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 

It has the first requisite of a great book — a single purpose, 
and that purpose kept in view throughout every page. 

240. This unity is not owing (it will be observed) to the 
^. J . , circumstance, that the volume is the work of one 

Not of style, 

but of doc- author, or 01 one age. As many as forty different 
tnne - writers (including the authors of smaller portions,) 

composed it. The style is now history, now song, now argu- 
ments or dialogue, now biography, or prophecy, or letters. 
Deeper than these causes of diversity and sufficiently strong 
to counteract their influence, must be the secret of this mar- 
vellous harmony. It is found, in fact, in the superhuman 
care of One who is infinite in power and wisdom. The entire 
building which was 4000 years in rearing, is symmetrical 
throughout, and must have had a Divine founder, who first 
planned and then superintended the whole. 

241. Look again, for example, at the uniformly moral pur- 

pose of the volume. It is the story of human 
moral pur- beings in relation to God : first of man, as man : 
pose. then of families : then of a nation : then of the 

wider society of the church. In all other professed revela- 
tions, the writers dwell at length on the origin of the universe 
(as in the shastras of the Hindoos), or on the physical theory 
of another life (as in the pretended revelations of Mohammed), 
or on topics which cannot even be imagined, to be of any prac- 
tical importance (as in the fables of the Talmud, the legends 
of the Romish church, and the visions of Swedenborg). All 
that the Bible teaches, on the other hand, refers to God as 
connected with man, singly or socially, or to man as connected 
with God : and is moral and practical. It contains no cos- 
mogony, no mythology, no metaphysics, no marvels which are 
not moral : no ideal which is not also a reality. In its histories, 
biographies, prophecies and psalmody, it has but one aim, to 
knit together the broken relations between God and man, 
and between man and man : — to redeem and sanctify our 

race. 

242. If we look at the doctrines which were believed and 

taught, we find a unity no less remarkable. 
Of doctrine. -rj n(ier every dispensation, the great principles of 

Christianity have been recognised by all holy men. Eeligion, 
"subjectively "regarded, has ever been faith and obedience. And 
as a evstem of truth ("objective religion"), it has never changed. 



THE UNITY OF THE BIBDE. ' 131 

From the earliest times we find a belief in tlic unity of God ; 
in the creation and preservation of all things by Divine 
power ; in a general and particular providence ; in a Divine 
law, fixing distinctions between right and wrong ; in the fall 
and corruption of man ; in the doctrine of atonement through 
vicarious suffering ; in the obligation and efficacy of prayer ; 
in direct Divine influence ; in human responsibility ; and in 
the necessity of practical holiness. 

• The latv, as given by Moses, abounds in ceremony, and 
Of the law was evidently adapted to the peculiar circum- 
andorilu-' stances of one people. The gospel has but few 
man nature, ceremonies, remarkable for their simplicity, and 
the whole is of universal application. But though at first 
sight so dissimilar, the two systems are essentially one. 
They present the same views of God and of man, suggest or 
plainly teach the same truths, and are adapted to excite the 
same feelings. 

One example more : we have in Scripture several succes- 
sive portraits of human nature ; one taken before the deluge, 
another soon after it : one probably 800 years later, and pre- 
served in the book of Job ; another, 500 years later still, by 
David ; a fifth, 500 years later, by Jeremiah ; and a sixth, 500 
years later still, by Paul. Let the reader compare these pic- 
tures with one another and with experience, and he will feel 
that each description had really the same origin/and that the 
inspired writers had one purpose — the elevation of our nature 
by humiliation, and penitence, and faith. 

Gen. 6. 5: 8. 21: Job 15. 16: Psa. 14. 1, 3: Rom. 1. 19: 3. 

243. This unity comprehends doctrines entirely beyond 
Its doctrines human knowledge. The Bible reveals everywhere 
man know- "^ ne same God, holy, wise, and good : it speaks of 
ledge. ]^ s designs in governing the world, and of the final 

issue of the present struggle between good and evil. a It 
treats of human nature and of true happiness ; b analyses with 
matchless skill the secret motives of human action, and 
points out the grand source of human misery : subjects which 
have engaged the thoughts of the wisest men, whose views 

a Gen. 3. 15: Dan. 7. 14: 1 John 3. 8. 

b Gen. 1. 26: Eom. 3. 23: Eccl. 12, 13: Matt. 5. 3, etc. 



132 THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 

are as remarkable for their vagueness and variety as are 
those of the Bible for their consistency and clearness. 

244. Two remarks are suggested by these facts — 

First, The Bible must be regarded, not as a series of dis- 
tinct revelations, but as one and indivisible. Doctrines which 
are clearly revealed in the New Testament depend for many 
of their evidences, and yet more for their illustrations, on the 
Old. The one dispensation is the completion of the other. 
The first is the type, or earthly figure ; the second, the hea- 
venly reality. The nature of the " good things to come " may 
be gathered from " the shadow," as well as from the things 
themselves. The ancient record, moreover, has many his- 
torical and precious associations. It fostered in the ancient 
church the same graces as are required now. It exhibits 
holy men struggling with our temptations. Above all, it 
must be remembered, that in the history of individuals and 
of nations, as of the race, there is a time when the delivery 
of truth, in forms as elementary and, comparatively, rude as 
those found in the Old Testament, seems to be essential to 
the spiritual training of character. To this day, it is known 
that some of the narratives and practices of the old economy 
give to heathen nations a clearer idea of the Divine holiness, 
and of human duty, than even the more full disclosures of 
the new. 

245. Secondly, Hence an important test of truth, and of 
the relative value of truth. If it be said, for example, that 
the sacrifice and priesthood of Christ are not revealed in the 
gospel, or are subordinate truths, we look to the law, or to 
earlier dispensations ; and if it be maintained that in the 
gospel there is no priesthood or sacrifice, we have then in the 
law a series of shadowy observances, without reference or 
meaning. The blood, the altar, the holy place, the propiti- 
atory intercession, are all types of nothing, and the previous 
economy is robbed of its significance. If it had significance, 
but is now abolished; the substitution of the gospel in its 
place implies a change in the very principles of the Divine 
government. Under that dispensation, law was inexorable ; 
now it is yielding and remiss. Then repentance alone was pow- 
erless to save, now it is mighty and efficacious. At first, man 
was pardoned through an atonement, at least, by prerogative. 
As it is, the mystery is solved. Eevelation ts a consistent 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 133 

whole. The doctrines of the later manifestation unfold their 
meaning, and instruct with increased impressiveness and 
consistency, when studied amidst the patterns of the earlier. 

Sec. 5. Not a Revelation of systematic Truth or of specific Rules. 

246. Another of the peculiarities of Scripture, no less 
striking than those named, is the absence of all systematic 
form in the truths revealed. There is no compend of 
Christian doctrine, nor are there specific rules on the duties 
of the Christian life : an omission the more marked, as in the 
books of most false religions (the Koran and Shastras, for ex- 
ample) the description of the ' faith. ' is most precise, and the 
minutest directions are given concerning fasts, ablutions, and 
other points of religious service. 

247. This peculiarity is both natural and instructive. In 

the Old Testament, the earlier part (and much, of 
natural and the later) is purely historical. Moral truth 
instructive, transpires exclusively through, narrative, and the 
narrative is fragmentary and concise. God had been in com- 
munication with man for more than 2000 years before he 
gave " the law." What he had revealed, or how he revealed 
it, cannot be fully gathered from the record. The very ob- 
ject, indeed, of a large portion of the Bible, seems to be not so 
much the disclosure of truth, as the embodiment of truth 
already disclosed. 

The New Testament, again, was written for those who had 
received instruction in the Christian faith, and had embraced 
it. It can hardly be expected, therefore, to contain regular 
elementary instruction, or an enumeration of articles of faith. 
When the Epistles were written, the churches had been 
formed under Divine teaching and on a Divine model ; while 
the Gospels are clearly historical, and rather imply, or sug- 
gest, religious truth, than systematically reveal it. 

248. Religion is objective, or subjective ; a system of holy 
Kov.- truth is doctrine, or of active holy principles. The first is 
revealed. truth, and the second is piety. In Scripture both 
are revealed, but it is rather in the form of examples, or of 
incidental illustrations, than of systematic teaching. 

Let us notice, for example, how the Bible speaks of the 



134 THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 

Illustrated in character of God, as a moral governor, and of 
God and man. ma n, both as sinful and as holy. 

By the character of God is meant his power, his wisdom, his 
holiness ; and by his moral government, his superintendence of the 
concerns of the universe on fixed and holy principles. 

Everywhere, throughout the Bible, his perfections are revealed, 
but they are revealed in his works. They are never defined or men- 
tioned even, without reference to some practical end. 

When Abraham, through Sarah's impatience or unbelief, had 
taken Hagar, hoping to see an early fulfilment of the Divine pro- 
mise, Jehovah rebuked him, and for the first time spoke of himself 
as the "Almighty God." Gen. 17. i. When Israel exclaimed, "My 
way is hid from the Lord," the answer was given, " Hast thou not 
known . . . that the everlasting God fainteth not, neither is weary : 
there is no searching of his understanding," Isa. 40. 28. 

Considering his government, we find its principles embodied in 
facts, or in practical precepts, exclusively. His dispensations are 
unchangeable, like himself. In every nation and age, he that 
worketh righteousness is approved. He judges according to every 
man's work. a He controls what seems most accidental. b He 
brings about his ends by means apparently trifling or contradictory. 
He makes even the wicked the instruments of his will. d He for- 
gives, and is ready to forgive. 6 He hears and answers prayer. f He 
marks the motives of men, as in the case of Lot's wife and of 
Joash. s He chastises those whom he most loves, as in the case of 
Moses, of David, and of Hezekiah. h He preserveth the righteous, 
and none that trusteth in Him shall be desolate. 1 

Man is set before us in lights equally instructive. If we would 
analyse and describe our sinfulness, we may find scoffing infidelity 
in the antediluvians ; J envy in the brethren of Joseph, and in 
Cain; k malice in Saul; 1 slander in Doeg and Ziba; m contempt for 
Divine teaching in Korah and Ahab ; n covetousness in Achan and 

a Deut. jo. 17 \ 2 Chron. 19. 7: Rom. 2. 11: Gal. 2.6: Eph. 6. 9: 
Col. 3. 25: 1 Pet. 1. 17. 

b Jer. 38. 7-13: Acts 16. 23. . 

c 1 Sam. 9. 3, 15, 16: Judges 7. 13-15. 

d Neh. 13. 2: Acts 2. 23. ° Dan. 9. 24: 2 Chron. 7. 14, 

f 2 Chron. 33.12,13 : Gen. 24. 12. g Gen. 19. 26: 2 Kings 13. 9. 

h Numb. 20. 12: 2 Sam. 24. 11, 15: 2 Chron. 32. 25. 

» 1 Sam. 17. 37:. Phil. 4. 12, 18. J Jude 14, 15. 

k Gen. 4. 5: 37. 11. l 1 Sam. 18. 28, 29. 

m 1 Sam. 22. 9: 2 Sam. 16. 1. n Num. 16. 3: 1 Kings 20: 22, 



THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 135 

in Gehazi, and Judas ; a ambition in Abiinelech and the 
sons of Zebedee; b pride in llezekiah and Xebuehadnezzar. c 

To sot forth the inconsistencies of human nature, it shows us, in 
Ahithophel, the friend and the traitor; 1 - 1 in Joab, the brave soldier 
and faithful servant/ yet "a doer of evil," and one who opposed 
God'- appointment and sided with Adonijah; f in Jehoram, a 
destroyer of the images of Baal, who vet cleaved to the sin of Jero- 
boani f in Herod, reverence for John, and a spirit of hardened 
disobedience; 11 in Agrippa, belief of the prophets, and a rejection of 
the gospel; 1 in many of the chief rulers, a faith in Christ, combined 
with a readiness to join in the sentence of the Sanhedrim, that he 
was '-guilty of death. "J 

We see the power of self -deceit in David and Balaam ; k of prejudice, 
in Naaman, in Xicodemus, in the people of Athens and of Ephesus; 1 
of habit, in Ahab, who humbled himself before Elijah, and yet re- 
tained to his idols ; m and in Felix, of whom we read that he 
trembled once, though we never read that he trembled again. 11 

The danger of ungodly connections is seen in the antediluvians 
and Esau, who married with those who were under the curse of 
God ;° in Solomon ; p in Jehoshaphat's connection with Ahab 
(through Athaliah); q and in Ahab's connection with Jezebel : r of 
worldly prosperity, in Rehoboam 5 and Uzziah. 1 

If we seek for the exhibitions of Christian excellence, again, we 
have it not defined, but illustrated: faith in Abraham; 11 patience in 
Job ; v meekness in Moses f decision in Joshua ; x patriotism in 
Xehemiah; 7 friendship in Jonathan. 3 In Hannah, we have a pat- 
tern to motners; aa in Samuel, and Josiah, and Timothy, to children ; tb 
in Joseph and Daniel, to young men; cc in Barzillai, to the aged; dd in 

a Josh. 6. 19, etc. b Jud. 9. 1-5 : Mark 10. y^. 

c 2 Kings 20. 13 : Dan. 4. 30. d Psa. 55. 13 : 2 Sam. 16. 15. 

2 Sam. 12. 28: 24. 3. f 2 Sam. 3. 27-39. 

* 2 Kings 3. 1-3. h Mark 6. 16-20. 
■ Acts 26. 27, 28. i John 12. 42: Btatt. 26. 66, 

k 2 Sam 12. 5-7: Num. 32. 

1 2 Kings 5. 11, 12: John 3: Acts 17. 18: 19. 28. 

m 1 Kings 21. 27: 22. 6. n Acts 24. 

Gen. 6. 1-3: 26. 34. * Xeh. 13. 25, 26. 

q 2 Kings 8. 18-26. r 1 Kings 21. 

£ 2 Chron. 12. 1. *- 2 Chron, 26. 16. 

Gal. 3. 7-9. v James 5. 11. 

Numb. 12. 3. x Josh. 24. 15. 

7 Neh. 1. 4: 5. 14. 2 1 Sam. 19.2-4, &c. 



aa 



i Sam, 1. 27, 28. bb 1 Sam. 3: 2 Chron. 34. 9: 2 Tim. 3. ±5, 
- -• 39- 9- dd 2 Sam. 19. 34, 35- 



136 THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 

4 

Eliezer, to servants ; a in David, to those under authority ; b in our 
Divine Lord, to all of every age and in every condition, whether of 
duty or of suffe ing. 

To make the truth taught in these examples (except in the last) 
complete, we must trace the evidence of their weakness. They 
failed in the very parts of their character which were strongest. 
Abraham through fear, c Job through impatience, d Moses through 
irritability and presumption. 6 

If w T e attempt, again, to ascertain from Scripture what Paley has 
called the " devotional virtues" of religion, veneration towards 
God, a habitual sense of his providence, faith in his wisdom and 
dealings, a disposition to resort on all occasions to his mercy for 
help and pardon, we shall find them rather illustrated than defined, 
embodied, that is, in character and example, and not in propo- 
sitions ; f the whole adapted with admirable skill, and by the very 
form they assume to our wants. 

It is this presence in Scripture of men like ourselves, that 
brings it home to our business and bosoms. There is felt 
to be something human in it, as well as Divine. It meets us 
at every turn. We feel, as we look, that it has a power which, 
like the eye of a good portrait, is fixed upon us, turn where 
we will, 8 

See Miller's Bampton Lectures, p. 128. 

249. What an essential quality in a volume designed for all 
Scripture countries and for every age ! If articles of faith ? 
thence or m inute rules of practice had been given, they 

adapted to all r m ° , ■, 

countries. niust have been retained for ever, and w T ith them 
the heresies and errors which they were intended to condemn. 
Either, they must have been very general, and therefore use- 
less for their avowed purpose, or they must have been so 
minute as not to be practicable in all countries, and coinpre- 

a Gen. 24. b 1 Sam 24. 6-10, etc. c Gen. 20. 2, 

d Job. 3. 1. e Deut. 32. 51. 

f Paley has some admirable remarks, applying these principles to 
the character (given in Scripture) of our Lord. "Evidences," p. 231. 
Eeligious Tract Society's ed. 

s Besides answering this moral purpose, it is worthy of remark 
that the style of Scripture, consisting of figures and specific exam- 
ples, or " singular terms" is the kind of diction least impaired by 
translation. See Whateley's Rhet., part iii., chap. 2, § 2. 



THE BiULE : NOT A SYSTEM. 137 

heiisible by all Christians. The Koran for example, places 
the utmost importance on the offering of prayer at sunrise 
and sunset ; a rule which proves that the religion of the false 
prophet was never designed for Greenland or Labrador, where 
for several months the sun never sets. A summary of doc- 
trine, too, perfectly intelligible to a matured Christian, might 
be nearly all mysterious to the converted Hottentot. 

250. And even if such a summary could have been made 

generally intelligible, its effects upon the minds of 
and reflection Christians would have been disastrous. They 
rtant. -would have stored their memory with the very 
words of the Creed, without searching the rest of Scripture. 
There would have been no room for thought, no call for in- 
vestigation, and no excitement of the feelings or improvement 
of the heart. The creed being, not that from which the faith 
is to be learned, but the faith itself, would be regarded with 
indolent and useless veneration. It is only w T hen our energies 
are roused and our attention awake, when we are acquiring 
or correcting, or improving our knowledge, that knowledge 
makes the requisite impression upon us. God has not made 
Scripture like a garden, " where the fruits are ripe and the 
flowers bloom, and all things are fully exposed to our view ; 
but like a field! where we have the ground and seeds of all 
precious things, but where nothing can be brought to maturity 
without our industry ;" a nor then, without the dews of hea- 
venly grace. " I find in the Bible," says Cecil, " a grand pecu- 
liarity, that seems to say to all who attempt to systematize it, 

I am not of vour mind T stand alone. The great and 

the wise shall never exhaust my treasures : by figures and 
parables I will come down to the feelings and understandings 
of the ignorant. Leave me as I am, but study me incessantly." 

251. Even good men, too, have undue preferences. If all 

truth of the same order were placed together in 
All truths . r f 

and duties Scripture, men would read most what they most 
* n : loved : to the neglect of what may be as important 
though less welcome. But as truth is scattered throughout 
the Bible, we learn to think of doctrine in connection with 
duty, and of duty in connection with the principles by which 
it is enforced. 

a More's Mystery of Godliness. 



138 THE BIBLE : NOT A SYSTEM. 

252. Tliese facts rebuke the system of the Komish church : 
NotTheo- she condemns the study of the Bible, fostering 
l £Meto'he e man,s aversion to the investigation of truth, and 
studied. his indolent acquiescence in what is ready prepared 
to his hand : a propensity against which the very structure 
of the Christian Scriptures seems designed to guard. 

They suggest, too, a lesson to those who regard the Bible as 
influential only when made a treasury of intellectual truth. 
Systematic Divinity, founded upon the Bible, is perhaps the 
last perfection of knowledge, but not necessarily of character. 
A man may be drawn to the sacred page by its pictures of 
Divine goodness, and may love it with a return of affection 
for all its mercy, or of hope for its promises, or may feed his 
soul with its provisions, or direct his life by its counsel, and 
yet do nothing to systematize its doctrines, or at all under- 
stand the technical phrases of theological truth. This life of 
devotion with its acknowledgment of Frovitlroice, and imita- 
tion of Christ, is the chief thing : combined with systematic 
thinking, it makes a man profoundly holy and profoundly 
wise ; but without the systematic thinking there may be both 
holiness and wisdom. 

253. They suggest a third lesson. Systematic catechetical 

treatises on doctrine are of use, chiefly in defining 
boSk for the or preserving unity of faith ; but must not bu re- 
young. garded as the instruments of religious trainiug, or 

as the store-houses of effective knowledge. They address the 
intellect only, and that too in logical forms, without narrative, 
or example, or feeling, or power. They contain no patterns of 
holiness : no touches of nature. Use them therefore in their 
right place ; but remember that the Divine instrument of 
man's improvement, is that book which abounds in examples 
of tenderness, of pity, of remonstrance ; which gives forth 
tones, and looks, and words, at once human and Divine, ever 
the same, and yet ever new — the Bible. 

[On the subjects of this section, see " Errors of Bomanism 
traced to their Origin in Human Nature," and " Essays on 
some of the Peculiarities of the Christian "Religion," by Arch- 
bishop Whately.] 



INTERPRETATION : STUDY. 139 



CHAPTER IV. 



On the Interpretation of Scripture. 

" Man can weary himself in any secular affair, but diligently to search the Scrip- 
tures is to him tedious and burdensome. Few covet to be mighty in the Scriptures ; 
thoi .vinced their great concern is enveloped in them." — Locke, Commonplace 

Bot ''. 

•• The generality of Scripture hath such a contexture and coherence one part with 
another, that small insight into it will be gained by reading it confusedly. There- 
fore, read the whole in order." — Dr. Francis Roberts. 

"• The tropical sense is no other than the figurative sense. As we say in language 
derived from the Greek, that a trope is turned from its literal or grammatical sense, 
so we say in language derived froni the Latin that a figure is then used, because in 
such cases the meaning of the word assumes a new form. The same opposition, 
therefore, which is expressed by the terms literal sense and figurative sense, is 
expressed also by the terms grammatical sense and tropical sense." — Marsh, 
Lectures, Part hi. 

Sec. I. On the necessity of Care in the Study of Scripture. 



254 



Tee importance of carefully studying the Bible with 
every accessible help may be gathered from the 
need study circumstances connected* with the preparation of 
ISr.SSS" the sacred books. 

cumstances 

in which they They "were written by different writers of every 

were written. n ,» ,,. ,. -> * -•to j. t 

degree of cultivation, and of different orders — 

"Writers 01 

different priests as Ezra, poets as Solomon, prophets as 
Isaiah, warriors as David, herdsmen as Amos, 
statesmen as Daniel, scholars as Closes and Paul, fishermen, 
" unlearned and ignorant men," as Peter and John. 

The first author, Moses, lived 400 years before the siege of 
Bates and Troy, and 900 before the most ancient sages of 
Places. Greece and Asia, Thales, Pythagoras, and Confucius : 

and the last, John, 1500 years later than Moses. 

The books were written in different places ; in the centre 
of Asia, on the sands of Arabia, in the deserts of Judaea, in 
the porches of the temple, in the schools of the prophets at 
Bethel and Jericho, in the palaces of Babylon, on the idolatrous 
banks of Chebar, and in the midst of the western civilization ; 
the allusions, and figures, and expressions, being taken from 
customs, scenery, and habits, very different from each other, 
and from those of modern Europe. - 



140 CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THE BIBLE WAS WRITTEN. 

Some of the writers, as Moses, frame laws, others sketch 
Have differ- history, as Joshua ; some compose psalms, as 
ent purposes, David ; or proverbs, as Solomon. Isaiah writes 

and address i • j_i v j_ i_ ■ i i 

different cha- prophecies ; the evangelists, a biography ; several 
racters. f i\ lQ apostles, letters. 

Whole books, and parts of books, refer to the heathen, as 
in Isaiah and Nahum ; while parts are addressed to the Jews 
only : one Gospel was intended for Hebrew converts, and 
another for Gentiles. The Epistles to the Corinthians are 
addressed to men who had little respect for authority, and 
were unwilling to be bound, except by the fewest possible 
ties. The Epistle to the Galatians is addressed to those who 
wished to bring their converts under the bondage of the law. 
That to the Komans addresses (in part,) the pharisaically self- 
righteous ; the Epistle of James, the nominal and careless 
professor. 

The time, the place, the employment and previous history, 
the character and aim of the various writers, and even the 
position of those they addressed, all need to be considered ; 
as these circumstances must have exercised an influence, if 
not upon the thoughts embodied in the language of Scripture, 
yet upon the language itself. 

255. The importance of a careful study of Scripture will yet 
Scripture more appear, when we consider the difficulty of 
needs study, communicating to men, and in human language, 

from imper- . i „,.. • • , -1 , n 007 

fectionofian- any ideas 01 religious or spiritual truth, 
guage. 2 ^ Most of the language which men employ in 

Xy'in men- reference to spiritual things, is founded on analogy 
tai science. r resemblance. This is true of all language which 
speaks of the mind or of its acts ; and especially of the lan- 
guage of early times. In the infancy of races, language is 
nearly all figure, and describes even common facts by the aid 
of natural symbols. The very word " spirit," means in its 
derivation, " breath." The mind is said to see truth, because 
the act of the mind by which it is perceived, bears some 
resemblance to the act of the eye. To "' reflect," is literally 
to bend or throw back, and so to look round our thoughts. 
" Attention " is a mental exercise, analogous to the stretching 
of the eye in the examination of some outward object. It is 
the necessity of man's state, that scarcely any fact connected 
with the mind, or with spiritual truth, can be described, but 



ANALOGICAL LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 141 

in language borrowed from material things. To words ex- 
clusively spiritual or abstract, we can attach no definite cou- 
ception. 

257, And God is pleased to condescend to our necessity. 
He leads us to new knowledge by means of what is 
already known. He reveals himself in terms pre- 
viously familiar. If he speak of himself, it must be in words 
originally suggested by the operations of the senses. If he 
speak of heaven, it is in figures taken from the scenes of the 
earth. 

We sav that God " condescends to our necessity." This 
is true : but it might be said with as much truth, that God 
having stamped his own image upon natural things, employs 
them to describe and illustrate himself. " The visible world 
is the dial-plate of the invisible." Spiritual thoughts were 
first embodied in natural symbols ; and those symbols are 
now employed to give ideas of spiritual truth. To the devout 
man, especially, the seen and the unseen world are so closely 
blended, that he finds it difficult to separate them. The world 
of nature is to him an emblem, and a witness of the world of 
spirits. They proceed from the same hand. In his view, 

Earth- 
Is but the shadow of heaven, and things therein, 
Are each to other like. 

It is impossible to avoid the conviction, that many of the 
figures of the Bible have originated in such a habit, and are the 
offspring of exquisite taste and devout piety. 

Nor is it only from the nature of sjriritual truth, or from 
the marvellous connection which subsists between material and 
spiritual things, that the inspired writers employ the language 
of figure. Such language is often most appropriate, because 
of its impressiveness and beauty. It conveys ideas to the mind 
with more vividness than prosaic description. It charms the 
imagination, while instructing the judgment, and it impresses 
the memory, by interesting the heart. 

258. (1.) Sometimes, for example, common things are as- 
Common sociated in Scripture, with what is spiritual. 

things sug- 
gest religious God dwells inflight." He sets up his " kingdom." 

Heaven is his "throne." The Christian's faith is described 

in the same order of terms. He " handles " the word of life. 



142 EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM MAN. 

He "sees" Mm, who is invisible. He (l comes " to Christ, and he 
" leans " upon him. 

259. (2.) Sometimes the Bible, borrowing comparisons from 
Man ourselves, speaks of God as having human affections, 

and performing human actions. 

Hands, eyes, and feet, are ascribed to God; and the meaning is, 
that he has power to execute all such acts, as those organs in us are 
instrumental in effecting. He is called "the Father;" because he 
is the creator and supporter of man, and especially, because he is 
the author of spiritual life. He " lifts up the light of his coun- 
tenance," when he manifests his presence and love (Psa. 4. 6,) and 
He "hides his face" (Psa. 10. 1), when these blessings are withheld. 

In Gen. 6, it is said, " It repented the Lord that he had made 
man," i. e., He had no longer pleasure in his work, so unpleasmg 
and unprofitable had man become by transgression. 

In Gen. 18. 21, He says, " I will go and see," to imply that he 
should examine the doings of men before he condemned them. 

In Jer. 7. 13, He says, u I spake unto you, rising up early and 
speaking," to imply the interest he felt in their welfare, and the 
care he had taken to instruct them. 

In Dan. 4. 35, it is said, " He doeth according to his will," i. <?., 
not capriciously, but independently of men, and so as justly to re- 
quire our entire submission. 

It may be observed generally, that though there is some analogy 
between the love and wisdom, the knowledge and holiness, which we 
ascribe to God, and those same faculties in men, there is a great 
difference between them. The faculties in God are infinitely more 
noble, though there is enough of resemblance in the expressions of 
each, to justify the application of the same terms. 

Two remarks, in reference to the employment of this ana- 
logical language, are important. 

260. (1.) The figures which are used in speaking of spiritual 
truth, are not used, as in common description, to 
do not exag- give an unnatural greatness or dignity to the ob- 
gerate truth. j ec ^ s they describe. The things represented have 
much more of reality and perfection in them, than the things 
by which we represent them. It is so in all such language. 
The mind iveighs arguments, and that action is more noble 
than the mechanical habit from which the expression is taken. 
God sees much more perfectly than the eye : and the light in 
which he dwells is very feebly represented by the material 



EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM JEWISH RITES. 1-13 

element to which that name is applied. "When it is said that 
the church is the bride of Christ, the earthly relation is but 
a lower form of the heavenly ; in the same way as earthly 
kingdoms and earthly majesty are but figures and faint sha- 
dows of the true. The figurative language, then, which we are 
compelled to employ when speaking of spiritual things is 
much within the truth, and never beyond it. 

261. (2.) It is a necessary result of the employment of such 
Often used in language, that figurative expressions are sometimes 
different used in different senses. 

senses. 

If God is said, for example, to repent, and to turn from the evil 
which he had threatened against sinners, and in other places, it is 
said that God is "not a man, that he should lie ; neither the son of man, 
that he should repent" (Xunib. 23. 19), in the first, it is meant that 
God changes his dealings with sinners, when they change : and in 
the second, that there is no fickleness or untruthfulness in him. 

In Psa. 1 3. 11, God is said to make " darkness his secret place," and 
in 1 Tim. 6. 16, he is said to dwell in light. In the first ease, dark- 
ness means inscrutahleness, and in the second, light means purity, 
intelligence, or honour. In Exod. 33. 11, it is said, that God "spake 
unto Moses face to face," and in ver. 20, he declares that no man 
can see his face and live. In the first passage, the expression means 
to have intercourse without the intervention of another; in the 
second, to have a full and familiar sight of the Divine glory. 

The same word (it has been remarked), expresses in Hebrew, 
''to bless" and "to curse," and this dissimilarity of meaning has 
excited surprise. The word originally means "'to bend the knee,"' 
and that act was equally appropriate in asking a favour for others, 
and in denouncing them. 

262. (3.) It may be remarked further, that the Bible often 

speaks of spiritual truth, in terms suggested by 
Jewish his- the facts of Jewish history, or by rites of Divine 
t0ly * institution. 

The idea of holiness, e. g., for which in its Christian sense, the 
heathen have no word, was suggested to the Jews by means of a 
special institution. All animals, common to Palestine, were divided 
into clean and unclean. From the clean, one was chosen without spot 
or blemish : a peculiar tribe, selected from the other tribes, was ap- 
pointed to present it; the offering being first washed with clean 
water, and the priest himself undergoing a similar ablution. Neither 
the priest, nor any of the people, nor the victim, however, was deemed 



144 EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM JEWISH RITES. 

sufficiently holy to come into the Divine presence, but the offering 
was made without the holy place. The idea of the infinite purity 
of God, was thus suggested to the mind of observers, and holiness 
in things created, came to mean under the law, " purification for 
sacred uses," and under the gospel, freedom from sin, and the pos- 
session by spiritual intelligences, of a " Divine nature." 

The demerit of sin, and the doctrine of an atonement, were taught 
in words taken from equally significant rites. The victim was slain, 
and its blood (which was the life, ) was sprinkled upon the mercy seat, 
and towards the holy place ; and while the people prayed in the 
outer court, they beheld the dark volume of smoke ascending from 
the sacrifice, which was burning in their stead. How plainly did 
this suggest that God's justice was a consuming fire, and that the 
souls of the people escaped only through a vicarious atonement ! 
The ideas thus suggested, were intended to continue through all 
time, and we find them often expressed in terms borrowed from 
these ancient institutions. 

Under the law, again, the priests were clothed in white linen, 
and dressed in splendid apparel. Expressions taken from these 
customs are hence employed to indicate the purity and dignity of 
the redeemed. 

The whole of Jewish history is in the same way suggestive 
of spiritual truth, and of analogous expressions. 

Men are the " slaves " of sin. Their road is through the " desert." 
They cross the "Jordan" of death. They enter the "rest " that re- 
mains for the people of God. They have their " forerunner:" their 
prophet : their priest, who is also called in prophecy after the days 
of Saul, their king. 

263. (4.) It may be remarked again, that many of the ex- 
pressions of the New Testament are employed in 

Many terms . . 

used in new senses entirely unknown to the common writers of 

senses. fa Q Q ree ^ tongue. 

The New Testament term for humility, meant in classic Greek, 
mean-spiritedness, and though Plato has used the word once or 
twice, to indicate a humble spirit, this is confessedly an unusual 
meaning, De leg. iv. The Greeks had no virtue under that name, 
and even Cicero remarks, that meekness is merely a blemish. De 
Off. in, 32. Grace in the sense of Divine unmerited favour: Justi- 
fication as an evangelical blessing : God as a holy, self-existent merci- 
ful Being : Faith as an instrument of holiness, and essential to 
pardon : all these terms are used in Greek, and in all versions of the 
New Testament, with peculiar meaning. To us all, they are old 



FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 145 

words in a new sense. All language exhibits similar changes: 
" calamity ' meant originally, in the language from which it is 
taken, the loss of standing corn (calamus): "sycophant" meant 
fig-informer, and "sincerity," without wax, alluding to the practice 
of the potter in concealing the flaws of his vessels: but in Scripture, 
such changes are unusually numerous. Happily, however, there 
need be no misapprehension concerning the terms which are thus 
employed, as Scripture itself has defined the ideas they convey, 
sometimes by a reference to the old dispensation, sometimes by a 
formal or indirect explanation of the terms themselves. 

264. It may aid the reader in interpreting Scripture, to 
Figures das- know how the various figures which our condition 
slued. compels us to use in speaking of spiritual truth, 
are classed and named by grammarians. A knowledge of the 

mes is not essential, but a knowledge of the differences on 
which the classification is founded, may often prove so. 

265. TTken a word, which usage has appropriated to one 

thing, is transferred to another, there is a thope or 
figure : and the expression is tropical or figurative. 
if, however, the first signification of a word is no longer used, 
the tropical sense becomes the proper oue. The Hebrew 
word " to bless," for example, meant originally " to bend the 
knee," but it is not used in Scripture with that sense, and 
therefore " to bless " is said to be the proper, and not a figura- 
tive meaning. 

Y> nen there is some resemblance between the two things to 
which a word is applied, the figure is called a Metaphor, as 
u Judah is a lion's whelp," Gen. 49. 9. "I am the true Vine," 
John 15. 1. 

"When there is no resemblance, but only a connection between 
them, the figure is called Synecdoche : as when a cup is used 
for what it contains, 1 Cor. 11. 27 : or as when a part is put 
for the whole, " my flesh " for " my body," in Psa. 16. 9. 

When the connection is not visible, or is formed in the 
mind, as when the cause is put for the effects, or the sign for 
the thing signified, the figure is called Metonymy, as in John 
13. 8. " If I ivash thee not, thou hast no part with me," where 
by wash, is meant, purify or cleanse. Sometim.es the figure 
is explained in Scripture itself, as in 1 Pet. 3. 21, where bap- 
tism is explained as there meaning "the answer of a good 
conscience toward God " 

H 



146 ALLEGORICAL NARRATIVES. 

All the foregoing figures refer to single words, The follow- 
ing refer to several words, as they make a continued represen- 
tation or narrative. 

266. Any statement of supposed facts, which admits of a 
Allegories literal interpretation, and requires or justly admits 
classified. a mora ]_ or figurative one, is called an Allegory. 
It is to narrative or story what trope is to single words, adding 
to the literal meaning of the terms employed, a moral or 
spiritual one. Sometimes the allegory is pure, that is, contains 
no direct reference to the application of it, as in the history 
of the prodigal son. Sometimes it is mixed, as in Psa. 80, 
where it is plainly intimated (ver. 17,) that the Jews are the 
people whom the vine is intended to represent. 

When the allegory is written in the style of History, and is 
,, , , confined to occurrences that may have taken place, 

Parables, etc. .,.__.._ J L ? 

it is called a Parable. 

When the allegory contains statements of occurrences, 
which, from their very nature could not have happened, it is 
called a Fable. (Judges 9. 6-21 : 2 Kings 14. 9 : 2 Chron. 
25. 18.) 

When the resemblances on which an allegory is founded, 
are remote and abstruse, it is called a Riddle. Nothing, how- 
ever, need be said of Scripture riddles, as their hidden mean- 
ing is always explained. (Judges 14. 14 : Prov. 30. 15-21.) 

When the resemblance between two persons or things is 
represented, not in tcords, but in some action or object, the 
object or action, which has (so to speak) the double meaning, 
a literal and a spiritual one, is called a Type. It. is a double 
representation in action : as an allegory is a double represen- 
tation in words. 

When the act or thing which is represented is present, or 
past, or near at hand, the act which represents it is called a 
Symbol, and is said to be symbolical. Baptism is thus an 
outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace ; 
and the bread we eat in the holy supper, and the wine we 
drink, are symbolically the body and the blood of Christ. 
(See also 1 Kings 11. 30: 2 Kings 13. 14-19: Jer. 27. 2-8: 
13. 1-7 : 18. 2-10.) Some things, as the Passover, are both 
symbols and types. They commemorate one event, and they 
prefigure another. Language drawn from types and symbols. 
is subject to the same rules as ordinary figures of speech. 



STUDY NEEDED. 147 

267. Tropical, or figurative, then, is a general term, applied 

Ffeuiativo ^° worc ^ s or s ^ n gl e expressions, and includes meta- 
and aiie- phor, synecdoche, and metonymy ; allegorical, 
again, is a general term, applied to continuous nar- 
rative, and is used whenever the narrative (whether it be 
riddle, or fable, or parable, or common history) has, or re- 
ceives, a double meaning. Typical refers to an action with a 
double meaning, and generally relates to something future ; 
symbol iced refers to actions with a double meaning, and relates 
generally to something past or at hand. 

268. These figures of speech, it may be noticed, are not 
Common in peculiar to the language of the Bible. They are 
ail language. f oun( i m a ll languages ; but, as they are most 
common in those which are most ancient, and are necessary 
to enable us to speak impressively or intelligibly even, of 
spiritual truth, they are very frequent in Scripture. To com- 
prehend parts of Scripture, therefore, and to avoid error in 
interpreting it, it is specially important that we should 
understand them. 

269. Let, then, these various facts be combined. Scripture 

was written by different persons, at remote periods, 
in distant countries, amidst manners and customs 
altogether unlike our own, on subjects of the greatest extent 
and variety — civil, ecclesiastical, historical, prophetic ; the 
latter, especially, requiring terms both precise and ambiguous, 
and the whole expressed in dead languages, and in terms to a 
great degree analogical and figurative. Be it remembered, 
also, as we have seen, that the grand theme of Scripture ex- 
tends through all time, involving truths and precepts (the 
former both physical and moral), with which our reason and 
experience are but little conversant ; that it is not confined 
to time, but includes in its connections both worlds : that all 
its disclosures are comprehended in a narrow space and 
treated with much brevity ; and it will at once be clear how 
much learning is needed to make these things plain. There 
is, in fact, in Locke's definition of theology a literal truth : It 
is the direction of all knowledge to its true end, the glory of 
the eternal God, and the everlasting welfare of the human 
race. 



148 SPIRIT OF STUDY. 



Sec. 2. Of the Spirit in which the Bible should be studied. 

"God has determined that Divine things shall enter through the heart into the 
mind, and not through the mind into the heart. In Divine things, therefore, it is 
necessary to love them, in order to know them, and we enter into truth oniy 
through charity."' — Pascal (Pt. i., (} 3). 

" He who has not believed will not experience, and he who has not experienced 
cannot know." — Arselk. 

" The theologian must himself believe the doctrines which he studies. Without 
this moral qualification, ii is impossible to obtain a true insight into theological 
truth." — Tholuck {Lectures on Methodology, Bibl. Rep., 1844). 

"An inward interest in the doctrines of theology is needful for a Biblical inter- 
preter. The study of the New Testament presupposes as an indispensable requisite 
a sentiment of piety and religious experience. The Scripture will not be rightly 
and spiritually comprehended unless the Spirit of God become himself the interpreier 
of his words ; the angel us interpres to open to us the true meaning." — Hagexbach. 

" Pectus est quod facit theologum." — Xeaxdek's Motto. 

270. The first place is due, when we speak of the study of 
Teachable t ne Bible, to the exercise of a humble and devout 
spirit. mind. It becomes us, first of all, to cherish the 
habit of earnest and reverential attention to all it reveals 
and to seek that inward teaching of the Holy Spirit which 
God has promised to them that ask him. This is, perhaps, 
not strictly a rule of interpretation, but it is essential to the 
application of all rules. An analogous truth is admitted in 
relation to every other subject of inquiry. To appreciate 
true poetry, there must be a poetic taste. The study of phi- 
losophy requires a philosophic spirit. An inquirer into the 
processes of nature needs, above all, to be imbued with the 
temper of the inductive system which Bacon taught ; nor 
should this truth be questioned when it is applied to the 
study of the Bible. 

271. Men need Divine teaching, not because of the peculiar 
Origin of this difficulty of Scripture language, nor because of the 
need. incomprehensibility of Scripture doctrine — for the 
things most misunderstood are the things which are revealed 
most clearly — but because, without that teaching, men will 
not learn, nor can they know those truths which are revealed 
only to those who feel them. When Christ appeared, the 
light shone in the darkness, and the darkness comprehended 
it not. Unholy affection had surrounded the mental eye with 
the very opposite of clear "dry light," and had impaired the 
Whence and or g an itself. Blindness of heart produced ig- 
howsup- norance ; and alienation "from the life of God" 
^ ie ' was at once the cause and the aggravated effect of 



SPIRIT OF STUDY. 149 

an " understanding darkened." Eph. 4. 18. The source of this 
teaching is clearly revealed : Christians are " all taught of the 
Lord ;" and he who gave to the Ephesian church " the spirit 
of wisdom and revelation," was "the God of our Lord Jesus 
Christ, the Father of glory," Eph. 1. 17. The means of se- 
curing this teaching is equally revealed. "The meek will he 
guide in judgment, the meek will he teach his way." He that 
is willing to do His will " shall know of the doctrine, whether it 
be of God," John 7.17. "If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask 
of God . . . and it shall be given him." A child-like docility, 
an obedient heart, a dependent and prayerful frame, are evi- 
dently essential to the successful study of Divine truth. 
"Bene orasse est bene studuisse" is, therefore, an aphorism, 
subordinately, indeed, of Luther's, but really of God's. 

272. It is necessary, however, in order to complete this 
1 teachable truth, to add, that the Spirit of God does not 
spirit dis- communicate to the mind of even a teachable, 
revealed obedient, and devout Christian, any doctrine or 
truth. meaning of Scripture which is not contained al- 
ready in Scripture itself. He makes men wise wp to what is 
written, but not beyond it. When Christ opened the under- 
standing of his apostles, it was " that they might understand 
the Scriptures," Luke 24. 45. When he opened Lydia's heart 
she attended to the things that were spoken by Paul : David 
prayed that God would be pleased to open his eyes, that he 
might behold wondrous things out of the Divine law, Psa. 119. 
18. "'The Bible, and through the Bible," indicates, therefore, 
at once, the subject and the method of Divine wisdom. 
Whatever is taught contrary to it, or in addition, or without 
its aid, is to be ascribed to the spirit of darkness, or to our- 
selves. 

273, This first principle of Bible interpretation is taken 
T ,. from the Bible itself. It occupies the same place, 
sanctioned by too, in the teaching of our Lord, who, in his first 

recorded discourse, assured Xicodemus that, " ex- 
cept a man be born again, he cannot see " — can neither under- 
stand the nature nor share the blessedness of — "the kingdom 
of God," John 3. 3. 

Compare, also, 1 Cor. 2. 14 : 1 Cor. 12. 8 : 1 Cor. 1. 21. 
1 John 2. 20, 27: 2 Cor. 4. 1-6. 1 Pet. 2, 1, 2 : James 1. 21. 
Psa. 25. 4, 5: 119. 12, 18: 2 Tim. 3. 13, etc. 



150 RULES OF INTERPRETATION : FIRST RULE. 



Sec. 3. Of Rules of Interpretation. 

" Strict grammatical analysis, and the rigid observance of exegetical rules, lead to 
the same views of truth as are entertained by theologians, who bring to the study of 
the Bible strong sense and devout piety." — Tholuck. 

_ " The various controversies among interpreters have commonly led to the admis- 
sion, that the old Protestant views of the meaning of the sacred text are the correct 
views."— Winer. 

" He that shall be content to use these means, and will lay aside the prejudices 
. . . which many bring with them to every question, will be honoured to gain an 
understanding of Scripture ; if not in all things, yet in most ; if not immediately, yet 
ultimately."— Whitaker (Disput. of Scrip., p. 473). 

" The most illiterate Christian, if he can but read his English Bible, and will take 
the pains to read it in this manner, will not only attain all that practical knowledge 
which is essential to salvation, but, by God's blessing, he will become learned hi 
everything relating to his religion in such a degree that he will not be liable to he 
misled, either by the refuted arguments, or the false assertions of those who endea- 
vour to engraft their own opinions upon the oracles of God." — Horsley. 

274. Whether words are used literally or tropically, the 

First rule • ^ rs ^ ru ^ e °^ interpretation i s to ascertain the sense- 
usage of lan- in which general usage employs them. As all the 
writers of the sacred Scriptures wrote or spoke to 
be understood, we must interpret their language as we inter- 
pret the language of common life. 

They tell us, for example, that " there is none that doeth good;"* 
figuratively, that "all flesh has corrupted his way;" b 
x " affirming the same truth in two different forms. They 
state that repentance is necessary to forgiveness; and that both re- 
pentance and forgiveness are the gifts of Christ/ 1 All the great 
doctrines of the gospel are stated in language equally simple and 
decisive : the existence and perfections of God ; the unity of 
Jehovah, of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; the fall 
of man; the corruption of human nature; our moral responsibility; 
redemption through the atonement of Christ; the renewal of the 
heart by the influence of the Holy Spirit ; the freeness and sove- 
reignty of Divine grace ; the progressive holiness of Christians, and 
Idieir final and eternal blessedness. If language have meaning, 
these doctrines are taught in innumerable passages of the Bible, and 
in terms incapable of mistake. 

275. Simple, however, as this rule is, it is often broken in 
This rule ^ ne interpretation of the Scriptures. 

violated. Qrigen, for example, reading that Abraham married 

Keturah, in his old age, and learning that Keturah meant, in He- 
brew, "sweet odour," and that " sweet odour" is specially applicable 

a Rom. 3. 12. b Gen. 6. 12. 

c Isa. 55. 7. d Acts 5. .31. 



FIRST RULE: HEBRAISMS. 151 

to such as have the fragrance of righteousness in their character, 
thought that one most important meaning must be, that in his old 
age Abraham became eminently holy. JL more modern commen- 
tator, Cocceius, examining the 8th Psalm, thinks that when it is 
said that "all sheep and oxen" are put under his feet, "the fowl of 
the air, and the fish of the sea," it is meant that all Christians are 
subject to Christ; and that even the ungodly (represented by the 
birds and the fish) are really, though unwillingly under his rule. 

• 276. A kindred error changes the plainest history into 
fable, and teaches us to regard the whole of the miracles of 
Christ as common occurrences, obscurely described. On this 
principle, Scripture history means nothing that is definite, or 
it means anything which a vivid fancy can imagine is to 
mean. In either case, the meaning is not in the Bible, but in 
the mind of the inquirer. 

277. But while, as a general rule, we are to understand the 
^.^^ words of Scripture in their common sense, there 
are some peculiarities which need to be noticed. 
Being translated from the Hebrew with great literalness, the 
English version often employs the idioms and expressions of 
that tongue, and those are to be understood not according to 
the English, but according to the Hebrew idiom. 

(a). The Jews, for example, frequently expressed a qualifying 

4 ,. ,. thought bv the use, not of an adiective, but of a second 

Adjectives, ° J 9 \ J * " 

how ex- noun ; a practice which may be traced in the Hebrew 

pressed. Greek of t]ie -^ ew T esta ment. "Your work of faith, 

and labour of love, and patience of hope," means, "your beheving 
work, and loving labour, and hopeful patience," 1 Thess. 1.3. So, 
in Eph. 1. 13, the "Spirit of promise" means the "promised 
Spirit." 

(&). It was a common idiom of the Hebrew to call a person 
having a peculiar quality, or subject to a peculiar 
^ da --~ eY ii ? the child or son of that quality. 

In 1 Sam. 2. 12, Eli's sons are called "sons of Belial," that is, of 
wickedness. In Luke 10. 6, a "son of peace" means a person of 
gentle and attentive mind, disposed to give the gospel a willing re- 
ception. In Eph. 5. 6-8, " children of disobedience," and "children 
of light," mean, respectively, disobedient and enlightened persons. 

So Matt. 24. 15 : Mark 13. 14: Roni. 7. 24: 1 John 3. 10: Jas. 2.4: 
Heb. 1. 3: Rev. 3. 10. In some of these passages, however, the 
idiom is, perhaps, emphatic. 



152 FIRST RULE: HEBRAISMS. 

(c). Comparison, again, is very peculiarly expressed in 
Hebrew. 

Comparison. 

To love and to hate, for example, is a Hebrew ex- 
pression for preferring one thing to another. Thus it is said in 
Luke 14. 26, "If any man come to me, and hate not his father:" 
for which we find, as in Matt. 10. 37, "He that loveth father more 
than me." The same expression is used in John 12. 25 ; in Horn. 9. 
13; in Gen. 29. 18, 30, 31 ; and in Deut. 21. 15. 

Comparison is sometimes intimated by the use of adverbs 
of negation. 

Thus in Gen. 45. 8, "not you sent me hither, but God:" it was God 
rather than you. So Ex. 16. 8: 1 Sam. 8. 7: Prov. 8. 10: Hos. 6. 6: 
Jer. 7. 22, 23. So in Mark 9. 37, "Whosoever shall receive me 
receiveth not me, but him that sent me;" not so much, or, not only 
me, but him. So in Matt. 5. 39: Luke 14. 12: John 5. 22, 30, 45: 
6. 27: Acts 5. 4: 1 Cor. 1. 17: Eph. 6. 12: 1 Thess. 4. 8. 

(d). Plural nouns are sometimes used in Hebrew to imply 
Plurals, how "that there are more than one, though it may be to 
used. one on jy that reference is made. 

Gen. 8. 4: 19. 29: Judges 12. 7: Neh. 3. 8: Matt. 24. 1, where 
"his disciples" means one of them: Mark 13. 1: Matt. 26. 8, and 
John 12. 4: Matt. 27. 44: Mark 15. 32, and Luke 23. 39: Luke 23. 
36, and Matt. 27. 48. In some of these instances, however, all or 
several shared in the sentiment, John 13. 4. " Garments," i. c t> 
one of them, the upper, see Mark 5. 27, 30 (original). 

(e). The names of parents, or ancestors, are often used in 
Scripture for their posterity. 

Names of x j. v 

ancestors, Tn us in Gen. 9. 25, it is said, "Cursed be Canaan," 

etc. 

i. e., his posterity. This curse, it will be remembered, 

did not affect those of his posterity who were righteous; for both 

Melchisedec and Abimelech were Canaanites, as was the woman who 

came to Christ, and whose daughter was healed, Gen. 14. 18-20: 

20. 6: Matt. 15. 22-28. In the same way, Jacob and Israel arc 

often put for the Israelites, as in Ex. 2. 24: Psa. 14. 7: 1 Kings 

18. 17, 18. 

(/). The word "son" is sometimes used, by a Hebraism 
(common, indeed, to nearly all languages), for a 
remote descendant. 

The priests are called the sons of Levi. Mephibosheth is called 
the son of Saul, though he was the son of Jonathan, 2 Sam. 19. 24: 



FIRST RULE : HEBRAISMS. 153 

so Gen. 46. 22. Zechariah, the grandson of Iddo (Zech. 1. 1), is 
called his son, Ezra 5. 1. "Son" is thus used for any descendant, 
as "father" is used for any ancestor, 1 Chron. 1. 17. 

" Brother" is used in the same way for any collateral relation. 
It is thus applied by Abraham to Lot, who was his 
nephew. a In one instance, too, the descendants of a 
man who married a daughter of Barzillai are called, from the name 
of their maternal ancestor's father, the children of Barzillai. b In 
the same way, Jair is called the son of Manasseh, because his grand- 
father had married the daughter of one of the heads of Manasseh. 
Mary is also thought to have descended from David in this way; so 
that our Lord was David's son, not only through his reputed 
father, but by direct descent through his mother. 

278. A knowledge of these last rules of speech, will often 
Vrraare-t correct apparent contradictions. Athaliah, for ex- 
contxadictions ample, is called in 2 Kings 8. 26, the daughter of 

{ ■ '~'-T*"T ^ O T P (t 

Oinri, and in ver. 18 she is called the daughter of 
Ahab. She was really Ahab's daughter, and Omri's grand- 
daughter. See also i Kings 15. 10, and 2 Chron. 13. 2, and 
1 Chron. 3. 15, compared with 2 Chron. 36. 9, 10. 

279. There are other peculiarities, semi-Hebraisms, which 

Other pecu- need to be named. 

lianties : use (gY Some numbers in Hebrew are used for an 

of numbers. • i n •■ n 

indefinite number. 

"Ten," for example, means "several," as well as that preciso 
number, Gen. 31. 7: Dan. 1. 20. 

••Forty" means "many." Persepolis is called in Eastern lan- 
guage, "the city of forty towers ;" though the number was much 
larger. This is probably the meaning in 2 Kings 8 . 9, where Hazael 
is said to have brought as a present to Elisha forty camels' burden 
of the good things of Damascus. This is probably the meaning, too, 
in Ezek. 29. 11, 13. 

"Seven" and "seventy" are used to express a large and com- 
plete, though an uncertain number, Prov. 26. 16, 25; Psa. 119. 164: 
Lev. 26, 24, etc. We are commanded, for example, to forgive till 
seventy times seven, to indicate that, if our brother repent of his 
sin, there must be no end of our forgiveness. The seven demons 
cast out of Mary of Magdala indicate her extreme suffering, and, 
perhaps, her great wickedness. 

3 Gen. 14. 16: 29. 12, 15: so the word is probably used in John 
7. 3: Gal. 1. 19. b Ezra :.. 61: Xeh. 7. 63. 

h3 



154 FIRST RULE : PROPER NAMES. 

(b). The Scriptures sometimes use a round number when 
not perfectly accurate. 

From Numb. 25. 9 and 1 Cor. 10. 8, we learn that between 
23,000 and 24,000 were slain by the plague. The first passage 
mentions 24,000, the second 23,000. In Judges 11. 26, 300 years 
is put for 293. See Josh. 4. 19: Numb. 33.3: and compare 14. ^y. 
Judges 20. 46, 35: 9. 5, 18, 56. 

(c). Occasionally, in Scripture, verbs denoting simple being 
TT , or action are used, when only a declaration is 

II sage of 7 J , 

verbs of intended, or even a mere supposition that the act 

action. • 'nil it i 

is or will be done, or regarded as done. 

In Lev. 13. 3, 13, for example, where the priest is said to cleanse 
the leper; 1. e., he declares him to be clean. The letter killeth; that 
is, declares death as a consecpience of sin, Rom. 5. 20: Phil. 3. 7. 
See also, Rom. 4. 15 : 7. 9 : 2 Cor. 3. 6. So in prophecy, the 
speaker is said to do what he only foretells, Jer. 1. to: Ezek. 43. 3 : 
Isa. 6. 10. 

(d). In interpreting the words of Scripture, it needs to be 
Use of proper noticed, that the proper names are used very 
oaines. peculiarly. 

Different persons have often the same name. 

Pharaoh (or ruler, from Phre, the sun) was the general name of 
the kings of Egypt from the time of Abraham till the invasion of 
Egypt by the Persians, as Ptolemy was the common name of their 
kings after the death of Alexander. Abimelech (meaning my father 
the king) seems to have been the common name of the kings of the 
Philistines; Agag was the name of the kings of the Amalekites; as 
was Benhadad (the son of the sun) of the kings of Damascus. 
Among the Romans, Augustus Caesar was the common title of their 
emperors. The Augustus mentioned in Luke 2. 1 was the second 
of that name. The Ca>sar who reigned when Christ was crucified 
was Tiberius. The emperor to whom Paul appealed, and who is 
called both Augustus and Csesar, was Nero, Acts 25. 21. The 
Egyptian and the Philistine kings seem to have had, like the Ro- 
mans, a proper as well as a common name. We read, for example, 
of Pharaoh Necho and of Pharaoh Hophra; and the Abimelech 
mentioned in Psa. 34, is called Achish in 1 Sam. 21. 11. 

In the New Testament, several very different persons are known 

under the common name of Herod. Herod the Great, 

Herod, who. -,. n j j r i,- a t_ ^ i 

as he is called m profane history, was he who slew in 

his old age the young children at Bethlehem. It was he who 



FIRST RULE : PROPER NAMES. 155 

rebuilt and decorated the Temple, and enlarged Ccesarea. He was 
notorious for his jealousy and cruelty. On his death, the half of 
his kingdom (including Judaea and Samaria) was given to his son 
Archelaus; most of Galilee was given to his son Herod the Tetrarch, 
or king, Luke 3.1: Matt. 14. 9; and some other parts of Syria and 
Galilee to his third sou, Philip Herod. It was Herod the Tetrarch 
who beheaded John, and mocked our Lord in his last sufferings. 
His conduct towards Herodias, his niece and sister-in-law, ended in 
his being banished to Gaul. The dominions of both Herod and 
Philip were ultimately given to his -nephew, the brother of Herodias, 
Herod Agrippa, who is called in Scripture, Herod only. In the 
end, he possessed all the territory in Palestine v,\hich had belonged 
to his grandfather, Herod the Great. He was the murderer of the 
apostle James, and died miserably and suddenly at Caasarea. His 
son was Herod Agrippa, called in the Xew Testament Agrippa only. 
It was before him that Paul was brought by Festus. The character 
of this man was very different from that of his father, and a know- 
ledge of the fact that they were not the same man is essential to a 
clear understanding of the history. 

Different places have often the same name. 

Caesarea is the name of two cities ; one called Caesarea Philippi, 
in Galilee ; the other on the shore of the Mediterranean. The one 
mentioned throughout the Acts of the Apostles was the port whence 
travellers generally left Judaea for Rome. 

Antioch, in Syria, again, is the place where Paul and Barnabas 
commenced their labours, and where the followers of Christ were 
first called Christians. The Antioch of Acts 13. 14, and of 2 Tim. 
3. 11, is in Phrygia. 

There is a Mizpeh ('watch-tower') in Mount Gilead, where 
Jephtha resided, where Jacob and Laban made their covenant, Gen. 
31, 49: Judges 11. 34; a Mizpeh of Moab, 1 Sam. 22. 3, perhaps 
the same as the previous; a Mizpeh of Gibeah, where Samuel re- 
sided, and where Saul was chosen king, 1 Sam. 7. 11; and there is 
also a Mizpeh in the tribe of Judah, Josh. 15. 38. 

Sometimes the same name is applied to a person and to a 
place. 

Magog, for example, is the name of a son of Japheth, and it is 
also the name of the country occupied by a people called Gog, 
probably the Scythians, or, as they are now called, the Tartars, 
Ezek. 38.: Rev. 20. 8. The Turks have sprung from the same 
stock 



156 FIRST RULE : PROPER NAMES. 

The same persons and places have sometimes different 
names. 

The father-in-law of Moses, for example, is called Hobab and 
Jethro, Judges 4. 11: Ex. 3. 1. Reuel was perhaps his wife's grand- 
father, though called her father, Ex. 2. 18. Levi is the same as 
Matthew. Thomas and Didymus are the same person; the words 
meaning a twin. Thaddeus, Lebbseus, and Judas, are all names of 
the apostle Jude. Sylvanus, Lucas, Timotheus, are Latin forms 
of Silas, Luke, and Timothy; the last three belong to our transla- 
tion, not to the original. 

Iioreb and Sinai are names now and anciently applied to different 
peaks of the same range of mountains; and both names are some- 
times applied to the whole range. 

Cesarsea (of Galilee) was called Laish, and then Dan, 1 Kings 12. 
29: Judges 18. 29. 

The Lake of Gennesareth was anciently called the Sea of Cin- 
neretli, afterwards the Sea of Galilee, or the Sea of Tiberias, Matt. 
4. 18: John 21. 1. 

The modern Abyssinia is called Ethiopia, and sometimes Cush; 
the latter name, however, being applied generally to Arabia or to 
India; hence, probably, Chusistan. Greece is called Javan and 
Greece, Isa. 66. 19: Zech. 9. 13. Egypt is called Ham and Rahab, 
Psa. 78. 51: Isa. 51. 9. 

The Dead Sea is called the Sea of the Plain, from its occupying, 
or adjoining, the plain on which the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah 
once stood; the East Sea, from its position in relation to Jerusalem; 
and sometimes the Salt Sea, 2 Kings 14. 25: Gen. 14. 3. 

The Nile is called in Scripture Sihor, Josh. 13. 3, but more com- 
monly the River; both names, however, being applied also to other 
streams. 

The Mediterranean Sea is sometimes called the Sea of the Philis- 
tines, who resided on its coasts; or the Utmost Sea; or, more com- 
monly, the Great Sea, Ex. 23. 31: Deut. 11. 24: Numb. 34. 6, 7. 

The Holy Land is called Canaan; the Land of Israel, of Juda?a; 
Palestine, or the Land of the Shepherds ; and the Land of Promise, 
Ex. 15. 14: 1 Sam. 13. 19: Isa. 14. 29: Heb. 11. 9. 

280. The careful recognition ■ of the different application of 
proper names is of great moment, especially in reconciling 
apparent contradictions in sacred Scripture. 

Ahaziah, for example, the son of Jehoram, is called Azariah and 
Jehoahaz, 2 Kings 8. 29: 2 Chron. 22. 6: 21. 17. 

Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, is called Johanan and Shallum, 
2 Kings 23. 30: 1 Chron. 3. 15: Jer. 22. n. 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION : SECOND RULE. 157 

.lehoiada, the priest, is called Jolianan and, probably, Barachias, 
2 Chron. 24. 20: 1 Clirou. 6. 9. Matt. 23. 35. The meaning of all 
these names is similar. 

Uzziah is called Azariah ; Nathaniel, Bartholomew. In such 
instances, the different names have often the same meaning. 

281. It is obvious, however, that a word has often various 
Second rule- senses ? eacrl °f which is sanctioned by general 
usage, as in- usage. "We need, therefore, a second rule of 

fluenced. }iy 

the rest of interpretation; to fix the meaning of a word, it 
the sentence. - g necessar y to mark the meaning of the other 

words with which it is connected in the sentence ; i. e., we 
must ascertain the sense in which general usage employs it 
in its particular connection. 

Faith, for example, sometimes means the gospel (of which faith 
in Christ is the great doctrine), as in Gal. 1. 23, "he 
now preacheth the faith which once he destroyed." 
And so in 1 Tim. 3. 9: 4. 1: Acts 24. 24. It means, again, truth 
or faithfulness, as in Rom. 3. 3, "shall their unbelief make the 
faith of God without effect?" And so in Titus 2. 10 (orig.), and 
probably in Gal. 5. 22. It means, further, in one passage, proof 
or evidence, Acts 17. 31 (Gr.) It means a conscientious con- 
viction of duty, as in Rom. 14. 23; or, most comprehensively, that 
exercise of the mind and heart which receives spiritual and Divine 
truth (Heb. 11.); or, more specifically, the repose of the mind and 
heart in the work of Christ as the ground of our pardon and means 
of our holiness (Rom. 3. 28). 

Flesh means sometimes what is tender and teachable, as in 
Ezek. it. 19; "I will give you a heart of flesh;" where it is opposed 
to a heart of stone. It means, also, human nature, without any 
reference to its sinfulness, John 1. 14: Rom. 1. 3: 9. 3; or, more 
commonly, human nature as corrupt and sinful, Rom. 8, 5 : Eph. 2.3. 
Another meaning is, all that is outward and ceremonial in religion, 
as distinguished from what is inward and spiritual, as in Gal. 6. il\ 
3. 1', where it refers more especially to the ceremonies of the Mosaic 
ritual (compare Phil. 3.3). 

Salvation means in some places outward safety and deliverance, 
as in Ex. 14. 13; Acts 7. 25 (orig.); or healing, as in James 5. 15, 
where, in the case of a sick Cliristian, the prayer of faith is said to 
save, j. e., heal, the sick. Its more common meaning, however, 
is in reference to spiritual blessing ; when it sometimes includes 
justification for as much of our salvation as is completed on earth; 



158 SECOND rule: figurative language. 

as in Eph. 2.8: Luke 1, 77; or, more frequently, the whole of the 
blessing which Christ has secured for believers, beginning with 
forgiveness, and ending in eternal glory, Eom. 13. 11. Sometimes 
it means simply the gospel, as in Eeb. 2. 3, where it is said to be 
"spoken by the Lord, and confirmed unto us by them that heard 
him." 

In the same way, blood is used in Scripture with several mean- 
ings : God "hath, made of one blood all nations of men," Acts 
17. 26, i. e., they have a common origin or nature. To give the 
wicked blood to drink, is to place in their hands the cup of death. 
In Matt. 27. 25, "His blood be on us, and on our children," means, 
the guilt of having put him to death: "his death" (that is, the 
guilt of it) be upon us. In Rom. 5. 9, the Christian is said to be 
justified by the blood of Christ; and in Heb. 9. 14, the blood of 
Christ is said to "purge our consciences from dead works." The 
robes of the redeemed are made white in the blood of the Lamb. 
In these passages, the blood of Christ means his " obedience unto 
death," "the offering of himself" on the cross, the ground of our 
justification, the instrument and motive of our holiness. 

The general meaning of the word grace is " favour." As applied 
to God, it means the unmerited favour exercised by him towards 
men; as in 2 Tim. 1. 9, "According to His own purpose and grace." 
It means, moreover, all the different gifts of that grace : justifi- 
cation, as in Rom. 5. 15; strength and holiness, as in 2 Cor. 12. 9, 
"My grace is sufficient for thee;" and eternal glory, 1 Pet. 1. 13. 
The "word of his grace" is the gospel, in Acts 14. 3. So in Heb. 
13. 9, it means doctrines of the gospel, and not meats or rites. 

In nearly all these passages, the meaning of the words is fixed by 
the position in which they stand. The general ideas which the 
words suggest are defined by their particular connection. 

282. The rule which thus helps us to select, out of the 
Rule applied man y meanings of a word, the single meaning 
to figurative which is appropriate to the place, helps us also to 
determine whether the word is used -literally or 
figuratively. If, on reading the sentence, it is found that the 
words, in their proper sense, involve a contradiction or an 
impossibility, it becomes plain that there is a figure of 
speech. 

In 1 Pet. 2. 5, for example, Christians are called "living stones." 
In Rom. 13. 12, they are exhorted to " put on the armour of light." 
In r Pet. 1. 13, they are said "to gird up the loins of their mind." 
In all these passages, the connection of each word shows it be figu- 



THIRD RULE : CONTEXT. 159 

native. Taken alone, it may be figurative, or it may be literal; but 
in its present connection, tne literal interpretation would be incon- 
gruous. Thus, again, the washing which the apostle states 
Christians to have received (i Cor. 6. n) is clearly figurative; for 
it is "by the Spirit of our God.'* The command of our Lord, 
■* Let the dead bury their dead" (Matt. 8. 22), must be understood 
figuratively, and means, let the worldly-minded attend to worldly 
concerns. The words of Christ, " This is my blood," are figurative; 
-the literal interpretation of them being repugnant to reason and 
Scripture. 

In the use of figurative language, the inspired writers seem 
to have selected their expressions on the principle 
figurative °* resemblance. 

S^rSture. What is grand in nature is used to express what is 

dignified and important among men : the heavenly 
bodies, mountains, stately trees, designating kingdoms, or those in 
authority ; the lower ground, the branches, and the earth generally, 
designating the mass of the people. 

Political changes are represented by earthquakes, tempests, 
eclipses, the turning of rivers and seas into blood, Jer. 4. 23-28: 
Isa, 13. 10, 13: Matt. 24. 29: Acts 2. 19. 

Things which have a fertilizing influence, as dew, showers, streams, 
are used to represent spiritual blessings, Isa. 25. 6: John 4. 13, 14. 

The qualities of animals are referred to in figurative expressions; 
beasts and birds of prey being emblems of oppressors. 

A horn signifies power, Dan. 8. A rod, the exercise of power in 
chastening. Light and darkness express joy and sorrow, knowledge 
and ignorance, prosperity and adversity, holiness and sin. a Mar- 
riage often denotes a covenant with God; adultery, the violation of 
that covenant by idolatry. A vineyard often denotes a church; if 
it bear wild grapes, it is unfruitful; if its inclosures are broken 
down, it is affiieted, or corrupt, Isa. 5. 1-7. 

This rule will not determine, in all cases, whether words 
are to be understood literally or figuratively ; but it will go 
far to decide in most. Other rules will be found noticed 
below. 

283. But, while the words employed, or their connection in 
Third rule : the sentence, will often suggest the meaning, it is 
the context, sometimes necessary to look beyond the words, 
and even the sentence, to the context ; and there w y e find — 

a Esther 8. 16: Isa. 5. 20: Psa. 97. 11: Eph. 5. 14. 



160 THIRD RULE: CONTEXT. 

284. (1). Words and passages explained in the language of 
the inspired writers themselves, sometimes by definitions, 
and sometimes by examples ; sometimes by expressions 
which limit the meaning. 

In Heb. 11, for instance, Faith is first described, and then illus- 
trated. It is said to be a confident expectation of things 
hoped for: a perfect persuasion of things not seen : and 
then examples are given of both parts of the definition. In Noah, 
it was perfect persuasion of the truth of God in regard to the Deluge. 
In Abraham, it was confident expectation of the fulfilment of the 
promise made to himself, and to his seed. If the Divine word speak 
of mercies, faith hopes for them ; if of things purely spiritual and 
future, faith believes in them. 

Perhaps no passage illustrates better than this, the difficulty of 
making a good translation; and the wisdom of God in giving us a 
Bible of examples, rather than of definitions. The word ' l substance, " 
is a literal translation of the original ; and means, whatever stands 
under and sustains all that is attached to it, whether subjects or 
qualities. No one word could have expressed more completely, 
the idea of the original: and yet it is not clear. In Heb. 1. 3, the 
same word is translated "person" and in 2 Cor. 11. 17, confidence, 
(of boasting :) and buth translations are correct. The full idea is 
that of well-founded or confident expectation. Faith is therefore, 
as to things hoped for, a thing on which real or substantial confidence 
may rest. It is moreover, the evidence of things not seen. The 
full idea here, again, is, such evidence of things not seen, as silences 
doubt and refutes opposition ; or rather, it is the conviction which 
such evidence produces. All this extent of meaning is found in the 
original words : but no one word can express it. If the Bible were 
made up of definitions, a translation without a paraphrase would be 
impossible. We may well feel thankful, therefore, that it is a book 
of examples chiefly : and that it illustrates its principles rather in 
the lives of believers, than in logical and abstruse terms. 

Perfection, again, is defined in several parts of the Bible. 

In Psa. 37. 37, it is used as synonymous with uprightness or sin- 
cerity, a real unfeigned goodness : -and this is its general meaning in 
the Old Testament, 1 Chron. 12. 33, 38. In the New Testament, it 
means either the possession of clear and accurate knowledge of Di- 
vine truth, or the possession of all the graces of the Christian cha- 
racter, in a higher or lower degree. The first is the meaning in 
Heb. 5. 14: where strong meat is said to belong " to them that are 
of full age, (marg. perfect) : even to those who by reason of use have 
their senses exercised to discern both good and evil." So in 1 Cor. 



THIRD RULE : CONTEXT. 161 

2. 6: Phil. 3. 15. The second is the meaning in James 1. 4: where 
" perfect" is denned as "entire, wanting nothing." In 2 Pet. 1. 
5-7, the graces which make np the perfect Christian, are enumerated. 

In Eph. 3. 4, 5, Mystery is defined by example, as the truth, that 
the Gentiles should be partakers of the promise in Christ by the 
gospel. 

The course of this world, means man's natural state and life, 
as opposed to the kingdom of Christ : it is the outgoing of the spirit 
that worketh in the children of disobedience. 

In Gal. 4. 3, the expression, the elements of this w t orld1s used; 
and is explained in ver. 9, 10, of the same chapter. See also Heb. 
2. 5 : 6. 5 : 1 Cor. 10. 11. 

Not unfrequently, the meaning is limited; or explained by 
the context even in simple narrative. 

Compare Gen. 6. 19, 20: 7. 2, 3: where "pairs," and the number 
of pairs are spoken of respectively: so from Gen. 48. 8, 10, we 
gather that Jacob's blindness was partial: From Exod. 6. 3, and 
Gen. 13. 4 (Heb. Jehovah), it may be concluded that the faithfulness 
of Jehovah in giving effect to his promises, was not revealed to the 
Israelites till the Exode: From Exod. 9. 6: 9. 20, it is clear that 
" all," means all, with specified exceptions. The Levites spent five 
years on probation, before fully entering upon their office, hence 
]S"umb. 4. 3: 8. 24. Modify in the same way, Xurnb. 14. 30, by 
Josh. 14. 1: and Josh. 11. 19, by 15. 63. 

285. (2.) Sometimes, where there is no formal definition, 
the meaning is made clear by the use of some ana- 

YVords ex- . ... . in , 

plained by logous or similar expression ; or by the use ot 
oppXe" opposite ones. 

In Gal. 3. 17, the tc covenant with Abraham" is ex- 
Examples, plained, as the promise which God made to him. 

In Rom. 6. 23, the meaning of the word death (the wages of sin), 
is gathered from the opposite: "the gift of God is eternal life, 
through Jesus Christ our Lord." 

In Col. 2. 7, the expression, " rooted and built up in Christ," is 
explained, as meaning " established in the faith." 

In Rom. 4. 5, it is said, that " to him that worketh not, faith is 
counted for righteousness:" the expression "worketh," being ex- 
plained in several places in the same chapter. In ver. 2, the phrase 
is "justified by works." From the same verse, we learn that it 
means the contrary of " believing in Him that justifieth the un- 
godly." So in James 2. 14, the faith that cannot save, is the faith 



162 third rule: context. 

that spends itself in words, and not in deeds. It is a faith that is 
without obedience: it is a faith such as devils feel (ver. 19,) and it 
is not such as Abraham felt (ver. 23). To be "justified by works/' 
therefore, expressly includes in Paul, the rejection of Christ as the 
Saviour of the guilty, and an adherence to the whole covenant \ 
while the " works" of which James speaks imply faith in Christ. 
The same truth is taught by our Lord in John 3. 36; where it is 
said, " He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life: and he 
that believeth not the Son shall not see life:" where the word 
" believeth not" is in the original, " is not obedient to;" showing, 
as Doddridge well observes, that the faith to which the promise of 
eternal life is annexed, is a principle of unreserved obedience. 

In 1 John 3. 9, it is said, tl Whosoever is born of God doth not 
commit sin." But, on comparing this expression with other parts 
of the Epistle, we find that, to commit sin, means " to walk in 
darkness," 1. 6: " to keep not the commandments," 2, 4; "to hate 
his brother," 2. 9 ; "to love the world,'' 2. 15 ; expressions that 
bespeak settled habit ; a habit alien to the spirit of a Christian. 

286. To this class of expressions' belong the parallelisms or 
metres of the original Scriptures ; in which one 

Words ex- x 

plained by part of a sentence answers more or less accurately 

Parallelisms. to anotlier0 

Sometimes the parallelism is synonymous or gradational ; 
Svnonymous giving precisely the same thought, or the same 
or grada- thought with some addition. 

tional. ° 

The first Psalm is a beautiful instance of this gradual extension 
of thought : 

Blessed is the man 

That walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, 

X or standeth in the way of sinners, 

Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. 



The gradations are obvious — 



Walketh — has casual 

intercourse. 
Standeth — has close 

intimacy. 
Sitteth — has perma- 



Counsel — has public 

resort. 
Way — chosen path. 

Seat — habitual rest- 



nent connection. ing place. 



Ungodly — negatively 

wicked. 
Sinners — positively 

wicked. 
Scornful — profanely 

wicked. 



Similar instances may be found in Psa. 24. 3, 4: Isa. 55. 6, 7. 
Prov. 16. 32, is an instance of the synonymous parallel. He that 
is slow to anger is commended, not because he is listless or indif- 



THIRD RULE : PARALLELISMS. 163 

ferent, but because he " ruleth his own spirit :" the one expression 
delinirig the meaning of the other. 

Occasionally these parallelisms extend over whole chapters, or 
over books of Scripture. In this case, the similarity of thought 
needs to be traced with some care. Thus in Psa. 132. 

Ver. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, is answered by ver. 12. 

Ver. 7, , , by ver. 13. 

Ver. 8, , , by ver. 14. 

Ver. 9, , , by ver. 15, 16. 

Ver. 10, ,, by ver. 17, 18. 

In Psa. 135. 15-18, there is a similar instance. 

An attention to these parallelisms is often necessary to bring out 
the meaning of Scripture. In Luke 12. 47, 48, for example, the 
comparison of the expression, " he who prepared not, neither did 
according to his will," with the expression, " he that did commit 
tilings worthy of stripes," suggests the reason that acts of omission 
in spite of knowledge, are to be punished with many stripes, while 
sins of commission without knowledge, are to be punished with few. 

Sometimes the Parallelisms are antithetic ; containing op- 
Antithetic, posite terms, and sometimes opposite sentiments. 

In Prov. 10. 7, for example, it is said that " the memory of the 
just is blessed;" where the meaning of the word "memory " is fixed 
by the following line: "but the name of the wicked shall rot." 
" oS ame " and "memory" are synonymous. In Prov. 11. 24, the 
scattering which tends to increase, is not the scattering in which 
extravagance may indulge, but the exercise of a wise generosity: for 
the following clause opposes it to the withholding of more than is 
meet, which tends to poverty. 

In Hosea 14. 9, it is said, "The ways of the Lord are right, and 
the just shall walk in them: but the transgressors shall fall 
therein:" where the just are obviously the obedient. 

Other kinds of metrical parallelism are also frequent in 
Scripture : but as they are parallelisms of construe- 

C obstructive 

tion only, (called therefore, synthetic or construc- 
tive,) and refer only to the form of the sentence, it is not ne- 
cessary here to notice them. Psa. 19, 7-1 1 : Psa. 148. 7-13: 
Isa. 14. 4-9, are instances. 

287. (3.) Very often the meaning is decided by the general 
VTotds ex- reasoning, or allusions of the context. 

iSealoSng ( a \ Sometinies the meaning is defined by the 
or allusions, allusions of the context : and the words are to be 
taken in a limited sense. 



164 INTERPRETATION : CONTEXT. 

In Psalm 7. 8, for example, David prays, " Judge me, Lord, ac- 
cording to my righteousness;" i. e., according to his innocency, in re- 
ference to the charge of Cush the Benjamite. He often uses the same 
expression with similar limitations. The word ' ' righteous " or ' i more 
righteous " is even applied to wicked men : as in 1 Kings 2.32; and 
in 2 Sam. 4. 1 1 . In the second instance, Ishbosheth is said to be 
righteous (though he had opposed what he knew to be God's promise 
in reference to David,) merely to imply that he had done no injury 
to his murderers. The same phrase is applied to Sodom and Go- 
morrah, because they were less guilty than Jerusalem, Ezek. 16. 52, 
The counsel of Ahithophel is called good, and the conduct of the 
unjust steward wise, not because they were absolutely so, but be- 
cause they were likely means of accomplishing the ends of each. 

In John 9. 3, it is said, " Neither hath this man sinned, nor his 
parents." The meaning is simply, that his blindness was not the 
punishment of any particular sin. 

In James 5. 14, the elders of the church are commanded to anoint 
the sick, and to pray over him; " and the prayer of faith shall save 
him." The church of Rome founds on this one passage the doctrine 
of extreme unction; which they say is to save the soul of the dying. 
But from ver. 15, i&, it is plain that by "save" is meant "heal." 
So that, whatever this practice implied, it was to be observed, not 
with the view of saving the soul; but, in the case of one already a 
Christian, with the view of restoring his health. 

Opposite Q)>) The context, or general arrangement of a 

sense some- p assa g e ^ ma ,j even prove that words are to be un- 
ded. derstood in the very opposite of their usual sense. 

In 1 Kings 22. 15, "Go, and prosper" was spoken ironically: 
and meant the reverse. In JSTumb. 22. 20, " Rise up, and go" ap- 
pears from ver. 12. 32, to imply " If, after all I have told you, your 
heart is set on violating my command, do it at your own risk." 
The use of this form of speech may be seen in 1 Kings 18. 27; 
Judg. 10. 14: Mark 7. 9: 1 Cor. 4. 8. 

288. The general reasoning of the various passages of 
in reasoning Scripture i s > commonly, sufficiently plain to indi- 
of Scripture, C ate the meaning of the words employed. Great 
and particles attention, however, needs to be paid to the use of 
important, parentheses and of particles ; the particles con- 
necting different branches of a sentence, or argument, toge- 
ther, and the parentheses withdrawing from the direct line of 
argument the words which ?«re included in them. The latter 



INTERPRETATION: CONTEXT. 165 

interrupt the grammatical construction of the sentence, and 
the former perfect, or complete it. 

289. When the parenthesis is short, it creates no difficulty, 

and can scarcely be said to interrupt the reasoning, 
as in Phil. 3. 18, 19 : Acts 1. 15. When it is long, 
it seems to embarrass the argument, and often ends in the 
repetition of the words of the preceding clause. Eph. 3. 2 to 
4. 1 (first clause) is all in parenthesis ; so in Phil. 1. 27 to 
2. 16, and, perhaps, 3. 2 to 3. 14. In the first and last of 
these cases, " therefore " is an evidence of the end of the paren- 
thesis. 

The parenthesis is often indicated in the argumentative parts of 
Scripture, by the use of the word "for:" as in Bom. 2. ii-i6, or 
13-16: 2 Cor. 6. 2: Eph. 2. 14-18. 

290. Attention to particles is often important. 

Then, for example, is often emphatic; sometimes as 
an adverb of time, as in Mai. 3. 4, and 16. And again 
in 1 Thess. 4. 16, "The dead in Christ shall rise first. Then, we 
which are alive, and remain, shall be caught up together with them 
in the clouds." It is not said here, that the dead in Christ rise be- 
fore the rest of the dead, but that the dead rise before the living 
are changed. But it is much oftener used as an equivalent for 
therefore. Therefore, itself generally expresses an inference or 
conclusion from what precedes : but it sometimes indicates that the 
sentence has been interrupted by a parenthesis, or is repeated : and 
means "As I before said," or "to resume." Matt. 7. 24, (see ver. 
21): 1 Cor. 8. 4, (see ver. 1): Mark 3. 31, (see ver. 21): John 6. 24, 
(see ver. 22): Gal. 3. 5, (see ver. 2). Through, means sometimes 
<( by means of:" as in John 15. 3. " Through the word I have 
spoken unto you:" and sometimes " for the sake of," Rom. 5. 1 ; or 
" in the midst of," as in Gal. 4. 13. JSTow, is sometimes an adverb 
of time: sometimes it means "as the case is," contrasting an 
actual with a supposable one, John 18. 36, where "then" means 
(< in that case," and asserts the consequence; Luke 19. 42; Heb. 
8. 6, (ver. 4.) "Rather" means "on the contrary," Rom. 11. 
11 : 12.19: Eph. 5. 11. The comparison implied in the modern use 
of the word is expressed in Scripture by " and not." See § 277 (c). 

291. The connection is sometimes obscured through the 
ether sources use °f a covert dialogue; objections, responses, 
of difficulty anc [ replies not being distinctly marked. 

m the ecu- r ° d 

nectioc. g e8 R om# ^ ^ e t Cf , where' we have a dialogue between 



166 INTERPRETATION : CONTEXT. 

the apostle and an objector. Isa. 52. 13: 53, 54, a dialogue be- 
tween God, the prophet, and the Jews. 
Psa. 20. 15 : 24. 104, are responsive. 

The abruptness of transition in historical narrative, and 
especially in prophecy, creates difficulty. Different, and 
often distant events are joined in what seems to be the same 
paragraph. 

Frequently a difficulty arises from the fact, that the con- 
clusion of an argument is omitted, or a premise is suppressed, 
or an objection is answered, without our being told what the 
objection is. 

The Epistle to the Romans furnishes examples of all these diffi- 
culties. Rom. 3. 22-24: 8. 17, 18: 9. 6: chapters 3 and 4. 

292. Attention to the context is of great moment in ascer- 
taining the meaning of the figurative language of 
plied to inter- Scripture, and in determining whether the language 
pret gures. - g -fig Ura tive or literal. That the expressions are 
figurative is sometimes stated or implied, and then the mean- 
ing is appended. Sometimes it is necessary to look to the 
general argument or allusions of the passage. 

In 1 Pet. 3.21, the baptism which saves us is denned. It is " not 
the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good 
conscience towards God." "To bear one's sin," is a figurative ex- 
pression, meaning to suffer the punishment of it. Hence the 
synonymous expressions to be cut off, and to die, are connected with 
it, Exod. 28. 43: Lev. 19. 8. 

In Hosea 4. 12, and elsewhere, (especially in Ezekiel,) a spirit of 

lasciviousness is said to have drawn the Israelites astray; but then 

'it is immediately added, "They sacrifice upon the tops of the 

mountains, and burn incense upon the hills;" to show that it is 

spiritual unfaithfulness of which the prophet is speaking. 

When Christ said " He that eateth me, even he shall live by me," 
John 6. 57, the Jews misunderstood his meaning, but he had him- 
self already explained it : for in the same discourse, he had repeated 
the truth in. literal terms, "He that believeth on me hath ever- 
lasting life." This text is understood literally, by most Roman 
Catholic writers; though our Lord expressly gave it this figurative 
interpretation; and the ordinance of the Supper, to which they sup- 
pose it to refer, had not then been instituted, and was entirely 
unknown to His hearers. 

In Matt. 26. 28, Christ calls the wine his blood: and again, in 



INTERPRETATION : SCOPE. 167 

ver. 29, he calls the same cup the fruit of the vine: implying, that 
his first expression was figurative. The expression in 1 Cor. 3. 15, 
u He himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire/' is the passage in 
Scripture generally quoted in favour of the popish doctrine of pur- 
gatory. Attention to the context will show that the whole is 
figurative. The wood, hay, stubble, which man may build on the 
foundation, are expressions confessedly figurative. The foundation 
itself is figurative, and means Christ; and the expression " so as by 
fire," must be understood in a sense consistent with the general 
argument of the passage. 

Similarly figurative expressions may be seen in 1 Cor. 5.8: Matt. 
16. 6. 12. See also Isa. 51. 1: Eph. 5. 32, where the union of 
Christ and his church (and not marriage,) is spoken of as the 
mystery. 

293. When the words, the connection of the sentence, and 
Fourth rule the context, fail in removing all ambiguity, or in 

tton^generS" gi y ^ n g "^ ne ^ uu nieaning of the writer, it is then 
scope. necessary that we look at the scope or design of 

the book itself, or of some large section, in which the words 
and expressions occur. The last preceding rule touches this ; 
and, indeed, all the rules of interpretation glide by degrees 
into one another. 

294. Sometimes the scope of a section, or of the book itself, 

is mentioned. 

Scope some- 
times men- In Rom# 3# 28 f or example, St. Paul tells us the 
tioned. . , . . 

conclusion, to which his reasonings, up to that point, 

had brought him : namely, that man is justified by faith, without 

the deeds of the law. 

The principal conclusions of the Epistle to the Ephesians are 
stated, the first doctrinal, in 2. 11, 12, that the Gentiles were no 
longer aliens; the second practical, in 4. 1-3, exhorting Jews and 
Gentiles to exercise the spirit and temper which become then* new 
relation. Subordinate conclusions are expressed in 3. 13 : 4. 17, 25 : 
5.1, 7: 6. 13, 14: where the words " therefore" or " wherefore," 
generally indicate the result of each successive argument. 

The design of the Proverbs is told us in 1. 1-4, 6; of the Gospels 
Proverbs. ^ n J°^- n 20. 31; of the Bible itself in Eom. 15. 4* 
The Bible. 2 Tim. 3. 16, 17. 

295. The design of some parts of the Bible can be gathered 
_ . only from the occasions on which they were written. 

Design g&- •* ■* 

thf o d fr<?m TLe 9 ° tb " Psalm was P r o babl 7 written by Moses, at 
the time when God sent back the children of Israel to 
wander in the wilderness. The scope of Psa. 18. 34. 3. 



168 INTERPRETATION : SCOPE. 

5 t . is illustrated by their inscriptions. The Psalms which are headed 
''Songs of Degrees/' 120-134. were written for the Jews, to be sung 
during their annual journeys to Jerusalem. Many of the verses 
will be seen to have additional meaning from the knowledge of this 
fact. 

The Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and the Galatians, 
Ep. Colos- were all written to illustrate the peculiar doctrines of 
sians, Ep. the gospel, and to answer the misrepresentations of the 
Ed. Gala- ' Judaizing teachers of the church. Many expressions 
tians. w jH be explained by a reference to the Acts of the 

Apostles, and especially to the 15th chapter; where we have the 
history of the whole question, which these epistles discuss. 

296. The great means, however, of obtaining a knowledge 
k of the scope of the various books of the Bible, or 
theredfrom of particular passages, is the repeated and con- 
stmiyof tinuous study of the books themselves. When 
Scripture. once ^his knowledge is gained, it will throw great 
light on particular expressions, and illustrate other parts of 
the Bible in a way both instructive and surprising. 

To understand the precept of our Lord, Matt. 19. 17. "If thou 
wilt,enter into life, keep the commandments," we look 
p ' to the scope. An inquirer proud of his own righteous- 

ness, asks what he must do to obtain eternal life, and our Lord refers 
him to the law, to rebuke and humble him. 

The subjects of the predictions, Isa. 1-39, are generally indicated. 
The subjects of subsequent chapters, are less marked, and the con- 
nection can be traced only by repeated perusal. When traced, it 
throws light upon the meaning. Chapters 5 1-55, for example, form 
one prophecy; 51. 1-8, containing an earnest thrice -repeated appeal 
to the people to hear, verses 1, 4, 7: 51. 9-52. 12, contains an earnest 
appeal to God and to Zion; verses 9, 17: 52. 1:52. 13-53. 12, is a 
glorious description of the work of the Messiah, and forms the 
centre of the prophecy; 54. describes the results of his work on the 
destiny of the church; and 55. on the destiny of the world. 

297. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the imme- 
Scopeofpas- c ^ ai:e scope of the passage, or the general scope of 
sage and of the book, is to be regarded. 

book some- 
times dif- I n Luke 15. for example, there are several parables 

addressed to the Pharisees, who complained that our 

Lord received sinners: and among those parables, is that of the 

prodigal son. It is certain that the scope of the Gospel of Luke, is 

to exhibit and recommend the gospel to the Gentiles : and the 

question arises, who is meant by the elder son, and who, by the 



interpretation: scope. 169 

younger \ Some say, the Pharisee and the sinner; others say. the 

Jew and the Gentile. The first interpretation is sanctioned by the 
scope of the context; and the second, by the general scope of the 
Gospel. It will be seen that both interpretations are consistent and 
probable. A due regard to the scope of the parables is of great im- 
portance. 

It has been doubted whether the "rest" (or the keeping of a 
rest or sabbath, as it may be translated,) spoken of in Heb. 4. refers 
to the literal sabbath, to heaven, or to the peace which the gospel 
brings, ending however in eternal life: a question that can be de- 
cided only by the argument. Comp. verses 3, 9, 10. 

In the same Epistle, the description of 3Ielchisedec as without 
descent, has created some difficulty. It will be noticed, however, 
that the apostle is comparing his priesthood with that of Christ; 
and it is said, that both are alike in this, that they are equally 
without succession; and so differ from that of Aaron. The limited, 
and not the universal meaning of the words, is therefore the only 
one required by the argument . 

In the same way, if we need further light on the apparent contra- 

n . diction between St. Paul and St. James, we look at the 

Comparison . . . . 

of the scope scope of their Epistles. That to the Romans is designed to 

m Epistles prove, that by the performance of the duties of the law, 
reconciles ap- r '..". r , , . 

parent con- no man is justified, because his obedience is imperfect. 
tradictions. The ol .j ect of the Epistle of j ames ^ i s to pr0Te> tfjat no 

man can be justified by a faith which does not tend to holiness. If 
these designs be kept in view, it will be found, that the apparent 
contradictions cease. The object of the first Epistle of John is de- 
fined in chap. 2. 1, as similar to the object of the Epistle of James. 
The scope of the Romans, as compared with the scope of the Ga- 
latians, explains an apparent contradiction between these Epistles. 
In the one, the observance of days is allowed, Rom. 14. 5 . In the 
other, it is forbidden, Gal. 4. 10, 11. The permission is given to 
Jewish converts who had a tender conscientious scruple about setting- 
aside the precepts of the law in which they had been trained. The 
prohibition is addressed to Gentile converts, who supposed that the 
cross could not save them, but through circumcision. Their ob- 
servance of days was owing to that feeling, and therefore con- 
demned. 

298. The most comprehensive rule of interpretation yet 
Fifth rule : remains. Compare Scripture with Scripture ; 
comparison "things spiritual with spiritual," 1 Cor. 2. 13. It 

with otner -i 

parts of is by the observance of this rule alone that we 

bcnpuire become sure of the true meaning of particular 

1 



170 INTERPRETATION \ PARALLEL PASSAGES. 

passages ; and, above all, it is by this rule alone that we 
ascertain the doctrines of Scripture on 'questions of faith and 
practice. A Scripture truth is really the consistent explana- 
tion of all that Scripture teaches in reference to the question 
examined ; and a Scripture duty is the consistent explanation 
of all the precepts of Scripture on the duty examined. It is 
in studying the Scripture as in studying the works of God. 
We first examine each fact or phenomenon, and ascertain its 
meaning ; and then classify it with other similar facts, and 
attempt to explain the whole. Such explanation is called a 
general law. 

299. The importance of studying Scripture in this way is 
Importance strikingly manifest from the mistakes of the Jews. 
of this com- " We have heard out of the law" (said they) "that 

Christ abideth for ever," Isa. 9. 7 : Dan. 7. 14, 
" and how sayest thou The Son of man must be lifted up V 
The everlasting duration of his kingdom was often foretold ; 
but that he should be lifted up and cut off, though not for 
himself, had been foretold too, Isa. 53. : Dan. 9. 26. A com- 
parison of these passages would have removed the ground of 
their objections. 

300. (1). Sometimes we compare the words of Scripture 
Parallelism with one another, with the view of -ascertaining 
oi words. their meaning. 

David, for example, is called in 1 Sam. 13. 14, and in Acts 13. 22, 
" a man after God's own heart:" and the question has been asked, 
whether this expression is meant to exhibit David as a model of 
perfection. On referring to 1 Sam. 2. 35, however, it will be found 
that the phrase is again used, " I will raise me up a faithful priest, 
who shall do according to that which is in mine heart:" and this 
suggests the primary meaning; namely, that David, especially in 
his public official conduct, should fulfil the Divine will, and main- 
tain inviolate the laws which God had enjoined. 

From the Psalms and history, we gather that David was also an 
eminently devout man, but it was in reference to his kingly office, 
primarily, that this description was given; however applicable it 
may also be to the general spirit of piety which David evinced, and 
to the unfeigned penitenoe which he manifested after having been 
betrayed into sin. 

In reading Gal. 3. 27, we find the expression " As many as have 
been baptized into Christ have put on Christ :" and we 
turn to Rom. 13. 14; and there find, that to put on 



INTERPRETATION : PARALLEL PASSAGES. 171 

Christ, is opposed to making provision for the flesh; and then again 
to Col. 3. io } where the same phrase of "putting on" the new man, 
implies renewal in knowledge after the image of the Redeemer, 
Tver. 12,) kindness, humbleness, meekness, and, above all, charity, 
the bond of perfectness. In Gal. 6. 17, the apostle says, "From 
henceforth, let no man trouble me," (by such calumnies, as if I 
were a friend of the ceremonial law); " for I bear in my body the 
marks of the Lord Jesus." We turn to 2 Cor. 4. 10, where we find 
a similar phrase, " bearing about in the body the dying of the Lord 
Jesus:" and, turning again to 2 Cor. n. 23-27, we gather that these 
marks of the Lord Jesus, were simply the scars of his sufferings for 
Christ; not (as some interpreting the passage literally have sup- 
posed, ) the marks or stigmata of the cross. 

The comparison of the words of Scripture is often essential 
importance to ^ ne right understanding of Scripture truth, 

of comparison especially in reference to proper names. 

in reference aw j- a 

to names. j n p ggL I0 ^ £ or exam pi e ^ ft i s sa id, " They make a 

calf in Horeb :" i. e., as appears from Exod. 32, in the very place 
where God had taken them into covenant, and immediately after 
they had pledged themselves to renounce all idolatry. 

In Numb. 22. 24, we have an account of the character of Balaam: 
and his position as a prophet makes us question at first whether he 
was not a good man, though grievously mistaken. On turning to 
the New Testament, however, we find the question decided. The 
apostle Peter tells us that covetousness was his snare. The 
apostle Jude classes him with Cain and Corah: and in Rev. 2. 14, 
we are told that it was at his suggestion that Balak threw a tempta- 
tion in the way of the children of Israel, which caused the destruc- 
tion of 23,00c of them in one day. 

301. A close attention to Scripture will show that there are 

Verbal arai- a ^ ^ eas ^ ^ nree kinds of verbal parallels. First, 
leiisms of where the same thing is said in the same words, 
as Ex. 20. 2-17 : Deut. 5. 6-18 : Psa. 14. : 53. : Isa. 
.2. 2-4 : and Micah 4. 1-3. Here one passage may be used to 
prove the accuracy of the other, or the occasion or application 
•of the passage may throw light on the passage itself. Isa. 6. 
9, 10, is referred to, for example, six times in the New Testa- 
ment, and a comparison of all the passages will illustrate the 
text. Secondly, where the same facts are narrated in similar 
and some identical words, as in Exod., Lev., and Deut. ; Sam., 
Kings, and Chron. ; and in the Gospels. In this case, plain 

1 2 



172 INTERPRETATION : PARALLEL PASSAGES. 

expressions illustrate difficult ones. One passage explains or 
modifies the other, as in Matt. 2. 1, and Luke 2. 1-4. Thirdly 
where the words or idioms are used in different connections ; 
"sound doctrine," for example, is an expression used in 
1 Tim. 1. 10 : 6. 3 : 2 Tim. 1. 13 : 4. 3 : Tit. 1.9: 2. 1, 2, 8 : 
and from a comparison, it will be seen that the phrase means, 
the grand simple doctrines of the gospel, as opposed to sub- 
tlety, and as sanctifying in their influence. In reference to 
such cases, the signification of words, in a passage where it 
is fixed by the connection, should be applied to interpret 
passages where there is nothing that can fix it. In Eom. 7. 
18, the word "flesh" means a natural unholy state, as is 
ascertained from chap. 8. 8, etc. 

Sometimes the phrases employed, though in themselves 
alike, are used in altogether different senses, as in the fol- 
lowing passages: John 1. 21: Matt. 11. 14: John 5. 31: 
8. 14 : Acts 9. 7 : 22. 9 : Luke 1. 33 : 1 Cor. 15. 24. 

Apparently different expressions are thus harmonized. 
God's offer, for example, of seven years' famine, 2 Sam. 24. 13, 
includes the three preceding years during which that calamity 
had continued, 2 Sam. 21. 1. In 1 Chron. 21. 11, 12, there is 
no reference to the preceding famine, and the offer is there- 
fore of three years only. So 2 Sam. 24. 24 : 1 Chron. 21. 25. 

302. In considering verbal parallelisms, two general rules 
n ,. . are important. Ascertain, first, the sense which 

Cautions in ± > ? 

using verbal the words to be examined bear in other parts of 
para sms ^g same author, and then in other writings of the 
same date, and then throughout the Bible. The meaning of 
words often changes ; and all writers do not use the same 
word in the same sense. And, secondly, no meaning can be 
admitted from an apparently parallel passage, if that meaning 
is inconsistent with the context, or with the reasoning of the 
author. In the Epistles to the Eomans and the Galatians, 
for example, " works," when used alone, means the opposite 
of faith, namely, the performance" of legal duties as the 
ground of salvation. In James, the expression always means 
the obedience and holiness which flow from faith. In the 
one case, works are inconsistent with salvation ; in the other, 
they are essential to it. But it is impossible to explain the 
one by the other. So, in John 1. 1, the term "word" cannot 
be explained by 2 Tim. 4. 2, where the same term is em- 



g 



INTERPRETATION : PARALLEL PASSAGES. 173 

ployed, but in a different sense. The " word " means the 
ospel in Timothy, but that meaning cannot be applied to 
the passages in John, so as to give any consistent sense to 
the context. 

303. (2). Sometimes we compare the facts or doctrines of 
Parallelism Scripture in order to gain a complete view of 
of ideas. Scripture truth. This is the parallelism of ideas, 
and not of words only. 

If, for example, we wish to know whether, in the Lord's supper, 
the cup is to be received by all the faithful, or only by the priest, 
we turn to Matt. 26. 27, and we find the command, "Drink ye all 
of it." And, if it be asked whether "all" means the apostles only, 
or all in its most comprehensive sense, we turn to 1 Cor. 11. 28, 
where the same topic is treated of. There we find that in each case 
(six in all) the eating of the bread and the drinking of the cup are 
mentioned together, and enjoined on all Christians indifferently. 
The charge given to all is, " Let a man examine himself; and so let 
him eat of that bread, and drink of that cup." 

If we are investigating the meaning of Matfc. 16. 18, " Thou art 
Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church," and desire to 
know its meaning, we turn to 1 Cor. 3 . 1 1, and find that the only 
foundation of the church is Christ. In the sense, therefore, of 
being the foundation on which the salvation of the church is to rest, 
the passage in one sense of it is at variance with other parts of 
Scripture. We turn, again, to Acts 2. 41, and to Acts 10: 15. 7, 
and find that Peter's preaching was the means of the first conver- 
sions, both among Jews and Gentiles. His labours, therefore, com- 
menced the building, and in this sense he might be the foundation 
of the church. Or the statement may refer to Peter's confession, as 
Augustine and Luther held, and then the parallel passages are 
Gal. 1. 16: John 6. 51: 1 John 3. 23 : 4. 2, 3. 

The most important rule in reference to this order of 
What is ob- parallelism is, that a passage in which an idea is 
score must expressed briefly or obscurely is explained by 

be explained .... 

by what is those in which it is fully or clearly revealed ; and 
that difficult and figurative expressions are ex- 
plained by such as are proper and obvious. 

The doctrine of justification by faith, for example, is explained 
briefly in Phil. 3 . 9, and fully in the Epistles to the Komans and the 
Galatians. 

"A new creature" is a figurative expression, used in Gal. 6. 155 
and is explained in chap. 5. 6, and in 1 Cor. 7. 19. 



174 INTERPRETATION : ANALOGY O* FAITH. 

The charity spoken of in i Pet. 4. 8 is "brotherly love/' and it 
is said to cover "a multitude of sins ;" not because it extinguishes 
them and so justifies the sinner, but (as shown in Prov. 10. 12) 
because it quenches contention and strife. 

304. When any passage is explained by a reference, not to 
Parallelism any one or more texts, but by a reference to the 
analogy of general tenor of Scripture, it is then said to be 
faith. interpreted according to the analogy, or rule 

of faith. We have examples of this kind of reference in 
Gal. 5. 14, and again in 1 Cor. 15. 3-1 1, where the apostle 
states the facts and doctrines connected with the death and 
resurrection of Christ, and then proceeds to prove other 
facts and doctrines from them. 

This analogy of faith is called in the Bible, "the Scrip- 
Meaning of tures," 1 Cor. 15. 3, 4 ; " all the law," as in Gal. 5. 
this term. Iz ^ . anc [ "the mouth of all the prophets," Acts 3. 
18. " The analogy of faith " is the expression used by the 
apostle Paul, in Eom. 12. 6, where he exhorts those who 
expound the Scriptures (or prophesy) to do it according to 
the proportion or analogy, the measure or rule of faith. 

The expression therefore is identical with " the whole 
tenor of Scripture ;" and the doctrine w 7 hich is founded upon 
it is taken from all the texts relating to one subject, when 
impartially compared ; the expressions of each being re- 
stricted by those of the rest, and the whole explained in 
mutual consistency. 

(1). God is set forth in Scripture, for example, as a Spirit, 

omniscient, and holy, and supreme. All passages, 

therefore, which seem to represent Him as material, 

local, limited in knowledge, in power, or in righteousness, are 

to be interpreted agreeably to these revealed truths. 

(2). If, again, any expositor were to explain the passages of* 
Scripture which speak of justification by faith as if it freed 
us from obligations to holiness, such an interpretation must 
be rejected, because it counteracts the main design and 
spirit of the gospel. 

(3). In Prov. 16. 4, it is said, " The Lord has made all things 
for himself : yea, even the wicked for the day of evil." The 
idea that the wicked were created that they might be con- 
demned, wmich some have founded upon this passage, is 
inconsistent with innumerable parts of Scripture (Psa. 145. 9 : 



INTERPRETATION : PARALLEL PASSAGES. 175 

Ezek. 1 8. 23 : 2 Pet. 3. 9). The meaning therefore is, as de- 
termined by the analogy of faith, that all evil shall contribute 
to the glory of God, and promote the accomplishment of his 
adorable designs. 

305. It is thus that philosophy interprets natural appear- 
Generai laws & nc es. When once a general law is established, 

applied in particular facts are placed under it, and any ap- 
tliis way in r * 3 . J * 

natural pearance that seems contradictory is specially 

philosophy, examined ; and of two explanations of the ap- 
parent anomaly, that one is selected which harmonizes best 
with the general law. 

306. The use of the parallel passages of Scripture in deter- 
Paraiieiisms mining whether language is figurative or literal is 
figures. r ° °f & Tea t moment. God, for example, often repre- 
Exampies. sents himself as giving men to drink of a cup 
which he holds in his hand : they take it, and fall prostrate 
on the ground in fea.rful intoxication. The figure is used 
with much brevity, and without explanation, in some of the 
prophets/' In Isa. 51. 17-23, it is fully explained, and the 
meaning of the image becomes clear. The intoxication is 
desolation and helplessness, more than can be borne ; and 
the cup is the fury (or righteous indignation) of Jehovah. 

In reading Acts 2. 21, we find it said, that " whosoever shall 
call on the name of the Lord shall be saved ;" and the question 
may be asked, What is meant by calling upon the name of 
the Lord 1 Matthew tells us, that " not every one that saith 
Lord ! Lord ! shall enter into the kingdom of heaven :" so 
that the passage is not to be understood in its literal and 
restricted sense. On referring to Eom. 10. 11-14, and 1 Cor. 
1.2, we find that this language, which is quoted from the 
prophet Joel, implied an admission of the Messiahship of 
Christ, and reliance on the doctrines which he revealed. 

307. It is obvious that, while the figurative meaning of a 

word has generally some reference to its literal 
to be applied meaning, it must not be supposed to include in 
too mr. ^ e figurative use all that is included in the literal ; 

similitude in some one respect, or more, being sufficient to 
justify the metaphor. 

Christ calls his disciples his sheep, and the points of com- 
parison are, clearly, his affection for them, his care over them, 
and their confidence and attachment to him. Common sense 
B Nahum 3. 11: Hab. 2. 16: Psa. 75. '6, etc. 



176 INTERPRETATION : SUMMARY. 

discovers and limits the application of the terms. Christ 
himself is called, with smaller limits, the Lamb, with special 
relation to his character and sacrifice. So sin is called in 
Scripture a debt ; atonement, the payment of a debt ; par- 
don, the forgiveness of a debt. But we must not hold these 
terms so rigidly as to maintain that, because Christ died 
for man's sin, therefore all will be finally saved ; or that, 
oecause he has obeyed the law, therefore sinners are free to 
live in sin. Men are dead in sin, but not so dead as to be 
free from the duty of repentance ; nor are they guiltless if 
they disregard the Divine call. These principles are suffi- 
ciently obvious when applied to passages which contain 
figures founded upon material objects. They are even more 
important, though less easy, when applied to passages which 
contain figures taken from human nature or common life. 
More errors, probably, have arisen from pushing analogical 
expressions to an extreme than from any other single cause ; 
and against this tendency the sober, earnest student of the 
Bible needs to be specially upon his guard. 

308. To ascertain, therefore, the meaning of any passage of 
Summary of Scripture, whether the words be employed figu- 
these rules, ratively or literally, we must ask the following 
questions : What is the meaning of the terms 1 If they have 
but one meaning, that is the sense. If they have several, we 
then ask, Which of those meanings is required by other parts 
of the sentence '? If two or more meanings remain, then, 
What is the meaning required by the context, so as to make 
a consistent sense of the whole 1 If, still, more than one 
meaning remains, What then is required by the general 
scope 1 And, if this question fail to elicit but one reply, 
What then is required by other passages of Scripture 1 If, in 
answer to all these questions, it is found that more than oue 
meaning may still be given to the passage, then both inter- 
pretations are true ; and we must fix on the one which best 
fulfils most of the conditions, or must look elsewhere for 
some further guide, 

309. It is important to observe that, whether the language 
These rules we examine be figurative or literal, and whether it 
inS-pretiug be used in history or in prophecy — in allegory or 
the words of j n plain discourse — these rules are equally appli- 

all parts of 1 i « i 

Scripture. cable. There is not one rule lor tropes, and 
another for words in their proper sense ; nor is there one 



APPLICATION OF RULES. 177 

rule for interpreting the words of the parables of Scripture, 
and another for interpreting the words of its historical 
statements. It is true that in history or narrative we 
expect to find words used in their literal sense ; while in 
poetry or allegory the figurative may be expected to pre- 
dominate. We apply, however, the same rules, needing some, 
indeed, more in one case than in the other ; but still taking 
the sense which the words express, as that sense is defined 
and limited (if it be so) by the whole of the sentence, by the 
context, by the scope of the writer, and by other parts of the 
Bible. 

Nor is it less important to observe that these rules are 
And of com- required not only in interpreting Scripture, but in 
mon life. interpreting all language that is used in the inter- 
course of life. 

Sec. 4. Of the Utility and, Application of Fades in 

Interpretation. 

It must have occurred to the reader that, underneath the 
rules of interpretation which we have given, there are some 
general principles common to all language, which regulate the 
application of them. Those principles it is important to 
state, as they both justify the rules we have given and aid 
us in applying them. 

310. To perceive the meaning of most parts of the Bible 

. which teach the fundamental truths of the gospel, 

generally it is only necessary to know the subject and the 
p am ' language employed. If the Bible be in our own 

tongue, and we understand what the topic is of which it 
treats, the meaning will generally be plain. No instance can 
be given in Scripture of an obscure passage, concerning which 
a man may rationally suppose that there is any doctrinal 
truth contained in it, which is not elsewhere explained. 

The great advantage of rules of interpretation is not to 
discover the meaning of plain passages of Scrip- 
ture, but to ascertain the meaning of such as are 
ambiguous or obscure. 

Yet, as on many points of importance we need to compare 
Scripture, in order to ascertain and prove its meaning, and as 
such comparison is itself part of our discipline, promotes our 

I 3 



ITS APPLICATION OF RULES. 

holiness, and is adapted to unfold the treasures of Divine 
truth, it is of great moment that the humblest Christian 
should understand these rules, and apply them. Eevelation 
is to be the study of our lives, and it is plainly the will of 
God, that all the resources of learning, industry, and prayer, 
should be employed in the search. 

So dependent is man for his knowledge of the Divine 
A devout w ill? upon the motive and temper of his inquiries, 
sp^k and the teaching of the Spirit of God, that a prayer- 

ful and humble Christian with few advantages, will often gain 
a more accurate and extensive acquaintance with Scripture, 
than one of higher mental attainments, but of feeble piety. 
The exercise of a teachable and prayerful spirit, therefore, is 
among the most important principles of Biblical interpreta- 
tion. 

The true meaning of any passage of Scripture is not 
True mean- every sense which the words will bear, nor is it 
ing of words. eV ery sense which is true in itself, but that which 
is intended by the inspired writers, or in some cases by the 
Holy Spirit, though imperfectly understood by the writers 
themselves. 

The sense of Scripture is to be determined by the words : 
a true knowledge of the words is the knowledge of 

Is the sense. , ° ° 

the sense. 

The meaning of words is fixed by the usage of language. 
FLxed by Usage must be ascertained whenever possible from 
usage. Scripture itself. 

The words of Scripture must be taken in their common 

meaning, unless such meaning is shown to be in- 
Common . . , 

meaning to consistent with other words in the sentence, with 
preferre . ^ ar g umen -5 or context, or with other parts of 
Scrip ture. 

Of two meanings, that one is generally to be preferred, 
which was most obvious to the comprehension of the hearers 
or original readers of the inspired passage, allowing for those 
figurative expressions which were so familiar as to be no ex- 
ception to this general rule. 

The meaning attached to the words of Scripture, must 

■ always agree with the context. When the com- 

must agree mon meaning is inconsistent with the context 

with context. -^ mus t \y Q abandoned, and such other meaning 



APPLICATION OF RULES. 179 

adopted as fulfils the requirements and conditions of the pas- 
sage, and can be proved to be sanctioned by usage, either in 
common writers, or in the Bible. 

The scope of a passage, or the reasoning of the writer, 
Scope useful can be employed to determine, which of two senses 
T^I u? 611 ** * s ^° ^ e a dopted only, as the scope or reasoning is 
meaning. clear ; nor will the scope fix the meaning, unless a 
particular meaning is required by the scope. 

The parallel passage that fixes the meaning of words 
Parallel must either contain the same words used in a 

passages. somewhat similar sense, or it must evidently speak 
of the same thing, or of something so similar, as to afford 
occasion for comparison. 

No doctrine founded upon a single text, belongs to the 
analogy of faith. The analogy of faith is chiefly 

Analogy of &J . . .^ " 

faith requires oi use m teaching us to reject an interpretation 
several texts, ^-j^k jg no £ Scriptural. If both the supposed 

meanings of a passage are consistent with this analogy, the 
is useful in rule cannot be applied, so as to decide the meaning, 
rejecting a j n controversial reasoning, this rule is only appli- 

false inter- o; */ srx 

pretation. cable on the supposition, that the doctrine to be 
applied for the purpose of interpretation, is admitted to be 
Scriptural. If it is not admitted, we cannot apply it in the 
interpretation of a disputed text. 

311. Theology is the whole meaning of Scripture, or it is 
The sense of the sense taught in the whole of Scripture, as that 
Seoi^one 1 sense ^ s modified, limited, and explained by Scrip- 
thing, ture itself. Scriptural theology is not one thing, 
and the meaning of Scripture another. It is a consistently 
interpreted representation of the statements of the Bible, on 
the various facts, doctrines, and precepts, which the book of 
God reveals. 



180 STUDY OF ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES. 



a Sec. 5« Application of these Bides to the Study of the 

Original Scriptures. 

" As I shill not exact the study of the original Scriptures, from those whose 
want of parts or leisure dispenseth them from it ; so I cannot but discommend those., 
who wanting neither abilities, nor time, to range through I know not how many 
other studies, can yet decline this : and who, sparing no toil nor watches to put it 
out of the power of the most celebrated philosophers to deceive them in another 
doctrine, leave themselves obnoxious to the ignorance, fraud, and partiality of an 
interpreter, in that of salvation ; and thereby seem more shy of taking any opinions 
upon trust, than those, in whose truth or falseness, no less than Gods glory, and 
peradventure their own eternal condition is concerned. Methinks, those who learn 
other languages, should not grudge those that God hath honoured with speaking to 
us, and employed to bless us with that heavenly doctrine that comes from him, and 
leads to him." — Bo tee. 

" The habit of reading the Scriptures in the original, throws a new light and 
sense over numberless passages." — Cecil, Remains, p. 199. 

312. The rules of interpretation which have been applied 
Previous m ^ ne P rev i° us section to the English version, are 
rules appii- equally applicable to the study of the original 
of original Scriptures. The importance of such study is 
Scriptures. obvious, from the fact, that all versions are more 
or less accurate as guides to the meaning of the inspired 
writings. On referring to Sec. 6, Chap. i., it will be seen that 
the meaning of particular words, the connection of arguments, 
and the significance of parallel passages, are all liable to be 
obscured in even the best translations. 

313. In studying and explaining a living language, we de- 

termine the usage by a reference to our expres- 

But others . . & J . r 

needed, be- sions m common lite, but in the case 01 the lan- 
language^of 1 g ua g es of the original Scriptures, we are dependent 
Scripture not for a knowledge of their meaning almost entirely 

spoken. , . , , 

upon books : grammars, lexicons, ana versions, are 
our authority, and for most purposes, their authority is 
sufficient. 

314. But in saying that our knowledge of the meaning of 
We depend dead languages rests upon authority, an expression 
for m ^ uin S is employed, which it is important to explain ; we 
ties. speak of the authority of law, and of the authority 
of a witness, or of a manuscript, but the word is used in these 
two cases, in very different senses. By the authority of laiv, 
Authority is * s meant its rightful power ; by the authority of a 
testimony. witness is meant his testimony, which we deem to 
be more or less credible in relation to the question in hand, 

a See Preface. 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : GRAMMARS. 1ST 

Is ow, it is in the second sense only, that we speak of the au- 
thority of lexicons. A good lexicon has great weight attached 
to it, because it professes to give both carefully examined 
meanings of the words it contains, and also a summary of the 
evidence upon which those meanings rest. If we doubt its 
explanation, we either examine other lexicons, from the days 
of Hesychius (a. d. 400.) downwards if the word be Greek, or 
examine the passages where the word is found, and then 
weigh for ourselves the evidence they supply. Whenever, 
therefore, we have to interpret a Divine precept addressed to 
us in a dead tongue, we ascertain the meaning of the precept 
through the medium of human authority, i. e., testimony ; 
we obey the precept because it has the authority of God. This 
difference of the two meanings of the word is important. 

If then, there be reason to question the meaning given to 
a word or phrase, in any lexicon or grammar, we proceed to 
investigate that meaning for ourselves, and various plans may 
be adopted. 

315. i. We may consult other authorities, grammars or 

lexicons. We may turn (if the phrase be Hebrew), 
Lexicons and to the grammar and lexicon of the earlier Hebrew 
Grammars, writers, Juda Chajug (1040,) and Jona ben Gan- 
nach (11 21), preserved in manuscript, in the Bodleian 
library ; to the grammar of Moses Kimchi (12th century), or 
to the grammars and lexicons of his brother, D. Kimchi, or 
of Elias Levita, all of which have been published. We may 
examine the grammar and lexicon of Gesenius, the founder of 
the modern empirical school of Hebrew, or the grammar of 
Ewald, the founder of the scientific school, or the concordance 
of Fiirst, and the Hebrew works of his pupil, Delitisch, the 
founder of the historical school ; the first, making great use 
of examples, and a moderate use of the Arabic and cognate 
tongues, the second, investigating too exclusively the philo- 
sophy of the language, and the third, the founder of historical 
investigation, and applying Sanscrit to the interpretation of 
Hebrew. For a knowledge of cognate dialects, we may turn 
to the Pentaglot of Schindler (Ham. 161 2), the Heptaglot of 
Castel (Lon. 1669), to Hottinger's grammar of Heb,, Chald., 
Syr., and Arab., (1649), or to the Hebrew grammars (Institu- 
tiones, 1737, Origines Hebrsese, 1723), of Schultens. 

316. In the case of the Greek language, we may use either 



182 ' ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : VERSIONS. 

a general Greek grammar, that, for example, of 

Ireek. J . • 

Lexicons and Buttman, or of Matthise, or of Jelf, and a general 
Grammars, lexicon, Stephens' Thesaurus, for example, or the 
hand-lexicon of Liddell and Scott, or we may use a Hellenistic 
or New Testament grammar and lexicon. Winer's grammar 
is rich in the illustration of New Testament idiom ; and 
Schleusner's lexicon is invaluable from the light it throws on 
the New Testament, from the version of the LXX. The 
lexicons of Bretschneider, and of Eobinson, are also well 
known, and highly useful. 

317. ii. We may examine the versions of the Bible. They 
give the translator's views of the meaning; of the 

T> ersions. ° . 

words or. fecripture. 
The first in value for purposes of interpretation, are the 
Origenand fragments of Origen and Jerome, both of whom 
Jerome. took great pains to ascertain the exact meaning of 

the original Scriptures. 

Next to these are the Greek versions. The LXX, however, 
alone remains in a perfect state : it is of great 
value, but often fails to be of service in difficult 
passages, from the freeness of the translation," 1 the careless- 
ness or ignorance of the translators, b and the want of fixed 
rules of translation. 

Next in value are the Targums, (See Part ii.), and inferior 
„, to these, the Comments of the Talmud, and the 

Targums. ' J 

Notes of the Masorets. 

Ainsworth on the Pentateuch, and Gill's Commentary, through- 
out, generally give the interpretations of the Targums, etc., when- 
ever they are important. 

Last of all among the ancient versions, are the Peschito 
Pescbito and & n d the Yulgate. The former, is on the whole, 
Vulgate. we r| translated, but not unfrequently disfigured by 
additions and omissions. The latter is lessened in value, 
from the fact (which Jerome acknowledges,) that it was trans- 
lated hastily, that he retained many of the old renderings, 

a Isa. 1. 21: 4. 4: 42. 1: Exod. 6. 12, 30: Deut. 32. 8: 33. 2: 
Numb. 12. 8: Exod. 18. 7. 

b Esth. 7. 4: Lev. 19. 26: Psa. 78. 69: Exod. 14. 2. Compare 
Numb. 33. 7: Isa. 23. 1, 10, 14: Ezek. 27. 12: 38. 13: compared 
with Isa. 2. 16: 60. 9: (See further illustrations in Carpzov's Critica 
Sacra, New Testament, p. 513.) 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES ; VERSIONS. 183 

though deeming them inaccurate, from a desire not to offend 

CO y 

the popular ear (Preface to Pent., and Commentary on EecL), 
from the verv free use which has been made of the LXX, 
and also from the general inaccuracy of the modern Vulgate 
text, 

The portions of the Vulgate translated by Jerome, are bet- 
ter helps to interpretation than the other books : but for the 
settlement of the Hebrew text, the other books (which belonged 
to the Old Italic versions.) are the more important. 

Of modern versions the merits are verv various. Latin 
Modem versions made by Romanists are generally ex- 

£22? ver " tremelv literal and often obscure : such are the 
Romanist. versions of Pagninus (1528), Arias Montanus 
(1584), Cajetan (1639), and Malvenda (1650). Some (as the 
version of Clarius) are founded on the Vulgate, which they 
merely correct. Houbigant (1753) gives an elegant version 
of his emended Hebrew text. The Xew Testament has been 
translated bv Erasmus and Sebastian! 

Among Protestants, Munster (1534) gives an intelligible 
version from the Hebrew, preferable to the ver- 
sions of Pagninus and Montanus. He follows, 
however, the same text, and does not widely differ in prin- 
ciples of translation from those authors. 

Leo Juda (1543-4) began another version of the Hebrew 
and LXX. which was published bv Bibliander. the Xew 
Testament being added by others. This version is both free 
and faithful. 

Castalio (1573) gives a version from the original, in which 
he studied to give the sense in elegant classical Latin. It is 
wanting, however, in simplicity and force. 

The version of Junius and Treinellius (1590) is deemed by 
M. Poole among the best. They expressed the article by the 
demonstrative pronoun. The version of the Osianders, like 
that of Clarius, is founded upon the Vulgate. The version of 
Schmidt (1696) is extremely literal, and that of Dathe (1773- 
99) remarkable for fidelity and elegance. The New Testament 
of Beza is highly esteemed. 

Among modern versions into vernacular tongues, that of 

Vernacular Lu ther is on e of the best (1517-30). It is the 

versions. basis of the Swedish (1541)3 the Danish (1550),. 

the Icelandic (1584), an early Dutch version (1560),. 



184 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : VEKSIONS. 

and the Finnish, with its cognate dialects (1642, etc.). A 
German-Swiss translation was also made by Leo Juda (1525- 
29), and, in 1667, a new or revised version for the same 
church was published at Zurich. Luther's version was also 
revised and published by the Zuinglians in 1679. 

The Scriptures were translated into French by E. P. 
Olivetan (i&tfj), with a considerable number of 
references from the LXX placed in the margin. 
This version was corrected, chiefly as to the language, by 
Calvin (1540) ; again, by Bertram, Beza, and others (Geneva, 
1588) ; and has since, from time to time, undergone other 
alterations of the same sort : the revision by Ostervald is best 
known. A French version by Beausobre and L'Enfant 
(17 1 8) was published at Amsterdam, and is highly esteemed 
for its accuracy. 

By order of the Synod of Dort, a version was made into 
the Butch language, in place of a version made 

Dutch 00^ x 

from Luther's, which, had been used till then. 
This version was printed in 1637, and is highly valued for its 
fidelity. 

There are two versions of the Old Testament into Spanish ; 
the one made by a Komanist (Reyna), Basil, 1569, 
and the other by a Protestant (Valera), Amsterdam, 
1602. They are founded chiefly on the Latin version of 
Pagninus, and the second partly on the Genevan -French 
Bibles. There are also three Spanish versions made from the 
Yulgate (1478, 1793-4, 1824). 

The best Italian version is that of Diodati (afterwards 

translated into French), 1607. It follows both the 

LXX and the Hebrew, and is free, accurate, and clear. 

In opposition to the vernacular versions of Protestants, 

Popish versions have been made into nearly all the preceding 

languages, generally from the Yulgate. 

318. All these versions, however, and especially the earliest 
Their value °^ them, are inferior to a good modern lexicon. 
for inter- Most of them were made under peculiar influences 
preia ion. a ^ amidst many difficulties. A modern lexico- 
grapher has larger helps, a more certain text, and the very 
apparatus which these versions themselves supply. So that, 
not to excel with all these advantages on his side would prove 
him to be incompetent or careless. 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES I ETYMOLOGY. 185 



o 



119. iii. In further investigating the meaning, we may 

Kelp from See ^ ^ or ^P fr° m the WORDS THEMSELVES, their 

the words etymologv, the analogv of speech, and the meaning 

themselves. *»••■! 1 • > v i . 

01 similar words in cognate dialects. 

320. (1). Etymology traces the progress of the meaning of 

words, the changes of form which they undergo, 

and points out the significance of their several 

parts. It often gives the true meaning, explains the allusions 

of the context, and accounts for the rendering of ancient 

versions. 

In Genesis, the "firmament" should be translated "expanse/ 9 
contrary to the Septuagint, Vulgate, and English ; the root 
meaning to beat or spread out. 

The Hebrew phrase for ""making a covenant," refers to the stroke 
that smote the victim, whose death confirmed it. 

lipids, a priest, is so called, from the fact that he attends to 
sacred things, or because he sacrifices to God, hpa'pi^ur, in the sense 
of Sow. So facere, for sacrificare, Virgil Ec, iii., 77, and HEW 
asa, for "offer" Lev. 9. 6, 16: Xumb. 28. 24. 

The original word for "minister," in Heb. 8. 2, means, in classic 
Greek, one who performs a public work at his own cost; or, re- 
garding the whole phrase as a Latinism (Antistes Sacrorum), it 
indicates that our Lord presides over ' the worship of the church, 
and presents it acceptably through his intercession. 

The Hebrew word for "to make atonement " 033, kipper) means, 
properly, to "cover over" sin, or expiate; and, secondarily, to pro- 
pitiate, i. e. } to remove the displeasure of another in relation to it. 
The corresponding word in the LXX and Xew Testament (b.do-Kouoii) 
means, first, to propitiate, and, secondarily, to atone for. Both 
ideas are involved in each word, and are sometimes fully expressed. 

The Greek word for "to sacrifice" (Sw«v) means, in Homer, to 
burn wine or food in the fire as an offering, and in later writers, to 
sacrifice, properly so called. From this double meaning we have 
two sets of Greek words, the one referring to the slaying of victims, 
§vu. Svtr'icc, and the other to the sweet odours, or incense, which 
were offered to God (SufAtapu&j thus), and sometimes both ideas are 
combined, Lev. 4. 31 : Eph. 5. 2. Hence, also, §6u is used to 
translate two different Hebrew words, meaning, respectively, to 
sacrifice and to burn sweet incense, 1 Sam. 3. 14: 2 Chron. 25. 14: 
28. 3 : Jer. 1. 16: 44. 5. 

Nearly all the names in Hebrew are significant, and a knowledge 
of their meaning throws light upon the context. The prophecies of 
Jacob concerning his sons refer in a great degree to their names. 



ISO ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : ANALOGY. 

chap. 49 compared with chaps. 29, 30. See also Ruth 1. 20: Gen. 
4. 16. 

So the meaning of Prov. 25. 21, 22, and Rom. 12. 20, "heap 

coals of fire/' is explained by the fact, that fin, chatha, means, ety- 
mologically, to apply fire, and thence to soften. 

The rendering of the LXX and Vulgate in Psa. 7. 14, etc., is 
owing to their translating etymologically ; and so elsewhere, 
ivarifyfAat is an etymological translation of the Hebrew word 

pt&SjT, heezin, Lev. 14, 52, as, rpp&pus, £^?^, shillesh, Deut. 19. 3. 

• • » • 

" To stir up," in 2 Tim. 1. 6, means, in the Greek, to blow fire into 
a flame, a.vaZ > e»<z , upuv. 

In the use of the English version, of course, etymology is 
allowable as a guide to the sense only when the etymology of 
the English corresponds with the etymology of the original : 
gospel, for example, = evayyeXiov ; crucify = ^avpow ; pre- 
determine = irpoopi'Cu) ; mediator = jjLeairrjQ = intercessor, 
one who acts for another especially to produce harmony be- 
tween parties. It is an important principle, that etymology 
does not of itself fix the meaning, except where usage is 
either doubtful or silent ;^and it is always, from the changes 
of meaning which words undergo, an uncertain guide. 

321. (2). Analogy fixes the meaning of one form of a 
word from the known meaning of the similar form 
of another w 7 ord, or of one word from the meaning 
of some opposite or corresponding one. 

If, in reading Hebrew, for example, we meet with a noun ending 
in (*•), we may conclude, from the general meaning of that ending, 
that it is probably an ordinal number or a patronymic : if we meet 
with a verbal noun beginning with (D), it indicates probably an act, 
or the place where some act is performed; such being, for the most 
part, the meaning of this preformative. 

Commonly, theHiphil forms of verbs are causative of the Kal, as 
&¥l' y atsa ' " to £° ou -t," and in Hiphil, "to bring out;" 1JN 
abhad, "to perish," and in Hiphil, "to destroy." If, therefore, we 
meet with a verb in Hiphil, it has probably a causative meaning; 
though there are exceptions to this rule. 

The Hiphil forms of the Old Testament the LXX found it diffi- 
cult to translate without a paraphrase, and hence that version 
sometimes uses a neuter verb in an active sense, Gen. 2. 9: 4. n: 
19. 24: iSTumb. 6. 25: 34. 17; and the "New Testament, as maybe 
supposed, often employs the same form for the same purpose. 



ORIGINAL SCKIPTUSES : COGNATE LANGUAGES. 187 

Matt. 5. 45, literally, "he rises," "he rains;" i.e., "he causes 
to rise," and '-'causes to rain. 1 Cor. 3. 6, "increased;" i.e., "gave 
the increase." Luke 11. 51, not "they began to speak off hand," 
or "to silence," but rather, "'they caused Christ to speak offhand;" 
i.e., "they provoked him to speak." 2 Cor. 2. 14, literally, "'to 
triumph," or "to lead captive," as in Col. 2. 15; rather, as in the 
English, "'to cause to triumph." 

That "' folly" means sin in Gen. 34. 7: Deut. 21.21: Josh. 7. 15 : 
2 Sam. 13. 15, may be gathered from the fact, that "'wisdom" 
means, in various parts of Scripture, "uprightness" or "'piety." 

Matt. 6. 2, 5, 16, oLv&x*™ T * v fuetov has been translated, "they 
hinder, or fail of their reward" (Gerard), and asrs^^a/ is used in 
the sense of abstaining from; asraxii, however, the noun, means a 
receipt in full, and hence the phrase may be taken to mean, "they 
have their reward;" that is, all they will ever get. 

In Matt. 6, 11. Ivixo-tov has been variously rendered; it does not 
occur in the LXX, and is a very rare word. It has been translated, 
"necessary for our subsistence" (Vulgate), " suitable for our sub- 
sistence ,; (Macknight), ' •' sufficient for the morrow, or for future 
life *'' (Grotius) : the meaning, however, is fixed by an analogous 
expression: vrspt&a'iov means more than enough, and as isr/ often indi- 
cates equality or adaptedness, iinwm means just enough; a transla- 
tion which agrees with the context. 

322. (3). We may compare the words in Scripture with 
Usage in cog- t ^ Le saine words in cognate languages. The value 
nate lan- of cognate languages, though sometimes underrated, 

' has been exaggerated. By modern lexicographers, 

they are applied within proper limits, and are of use chiefly 
when ancient versions differ, and where we have not, in 
Hebrew, materials sufficient for defining the meaning of 
terms. 

(a). They give the roots of words, the derivatives of which alone 
are found in Scripture, and thus aid to a consistent meaning. 

|JVN, aithan. for example, is a somewhat rare word, translated 

' t mighty stream " (i. e., ever-flowing), Amos 5.24; "mighty waters" 

(ever-flowing), Psa. 74. 15; « strength" (constant flowing), Exod. 14. 
27; "strong" (durable), Mcah6.2; " mighty " (prosperous), Job 12. 
19; so Numb. 24. 21: Jer. 49. 19. The Arabic root means "to 
continue running;" then, "to continue" generally, i.e., "to en- 
dure;" then, "to be inexhaustibly rich:" hence the apparently 
contradictory meanings of the texts in which the derivative is 
found. 



188 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : CLASSICAL USAGE. 

(b). They fix meanings which might otherwise have been only 
conjectural. 

2^2, balag, for example, occurs four times in Hiphil: Job 9. 27, 
"comfort myself;" 10. 20, "take rest;" Psa. 39. 13, "recover 
strength;" Amos 5. 9, "that strengthened :" the versions are 
altogether uncertain. The Arabic root means "to shine like the 
dawn;" "to be, or to render, clear and serene;" and that sense 
meets the requirements of all the passages. In the same way, 
many of the plants and minerals mentioned in Scripture are 
identified. 

(c). They discover the primary meaning of roots whose secondary 
senses only are found in Scripture, though the primary throws 
light on some texts. 

7*l2i, gadhal, for example, means "to be great," but, in Arabic, 
" to twist," and so "to make great or strong;" hence a noun formed 
from it means "fringes," Deut. 22. 12 ; "twisted thread," or 
"chain work," 1 Kings 7. 17. Another noun, similarly formed, 
means "brawniness," Exod. 15. 16; and the verb is used in its 
primitive sense in Job 7. 17, "to struggle," or "wrestle;" English, 
"magnify." So p7)£, Tsadak, means "to be just;" in Arabic, to 
be "stiff," "inexorable," "unbending:" hence, in Isa. 49. 24, 
"the lawful captive" ought to be "the captive of the inexorable 
ones;" see verse 25. 

(cf). They explain idiomatic phrases, the true sense of which can- 
not otherwise be determined. 

See on all this paragraph Gerard's ( Institutes.' These last 
examples are taken chiefly from Schultens. A large number 
may be found also in the Lexicon of Gesenius. 

In applying these principles to the New Testament, there 
are modifications of them which are rendered necessary by 
the nature of the Greek tongue, the large critical apparatus 
w r e already possess in classic authors, and the connection 
through the LXX between the New Testament and the 
language of the Old. 

323. iv. In the case of the New Testament, we may seek 
the meaning of its words and phrases in classic 

Classic usage. ,. 

authors. 

trims, which commonly means "faith," is used in the sense of 
proof, Acts 17.31; so Aristotle, Polyb. 

ixayyiXXopai means, by itself, "to announce," and so "to pro- 
mise:'* followed by certain nouns, it means to "profess" (1 Tim. 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : JOSEPHUS. 18$ 

2. ic). The word is regularly used for professing an art or science, 
Diog. Laert., Proem. 5, 12; Xen. Mem. i. 2, 7. 

<ra/>a, in composition, often means in the Greek Testament "hv 
the way," Eom. 5. 20; or " secretly," Gal. 2. 14: Jude 4; a usage 
found in classic authors, Polyb., Herodian, Plut. 

to InfjaXXov /x'spo;, Luke 15. 12, is a legal phrase, indicating the 
share which fell to a man as heir : the use of the word here shows 
how completely the prodigal son was estranged from all filial 
feeling. 

Wi£>a.\cov IzXaisr, Mark 14. 72, "when he thought thereon," rather, 
"having rushed out;" and so it agrees with Matthew and Luke, 
Polyb. 

'iy^ojv iv <rn dtrhvctez, John 5. 5, is classic Greek for "to be ill;" so 
that, when these words ere translated "there was a sick man thirty- 
eight years old" (Paulus), the rendering is contrary to Greek usage. 

The apjjarently-incomplete sentences in Luke 13. 9: 19. 42: 22. 
42 (Gr.), are all good Greek; the custom being, frequently, to omit 
the apodosis (or conclusion) of a sentence after d or lav, when the 
meaning is clear, Raphe 7 

Bos, Eisner, Kypk£, Grotius, Wolf, "Wetstein, Eaphel, have 
largely illustrated the phraseology of the Xew Testament from 
classic sources ; Kypke and Eaphel from particular authors, and 
the rest from classic authorities generally. 



324. v. Or we may turn to the works of Josephus and 
Philo, which in this respect are not unimportant. 

Josephus and ftirsupiZfifffai means, etymologically, to hang up in the 
air; but it is used both by Philo and Josephus for "to 
be of doubtful mind," as in the New Testament. 

vTrwia^uv, literally, to "hit under the eyes" (Luke 18. 5 : 1 Cor. 
9. 27), means, generally, "to harass," "to afflict." 

tyufcspia, Luke t. 5, translated "course," means the daily serri.ee 
of the temple, which was discharged by bands of priests in rotation 
(Jos.) 

xpitrts (judgment), Matt. 5. 51, was the name given to the court 
of seven magistrates, who had the power of punishing small 
offences (Jos.) 

zyxa.lv itz (the renewal), John 10. 22, is the term used by Philo as 
appropriate to express the feast of the Dedication held on the 2 5 
Ivisleu; as vya-rua. is the fast connected with the day of Atonement, 
10 Tisri. Acts 27. 9. 

All these phrases, and many others, are peculiar to Jewish writers. 
For ample illustration, see Ott. (Excerpta ex F. Josepho), Krebsii 
(Obs. ex F. Josepho), and Loesneri (Ob. ex Philone). 



190 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : GLOSSES. 

325. vi. Especially useful shall we find a reference to Semitic 
Use of He- languages, including the Hebrew, from which, 
plaining New indeed, many New Testament phrases are taken. 

Testament . 

phrases. Hebraisms may be seen in Heb. 1. 2, aw* = u?)$- olam ; 

upmn often = h?&, shalom, "all blessing," Mark 5. 34: Luke 7. 50; 

"peace to you" being the Hebrew form of "salutation," as x^ l p'- iV is 
the Greek, Jas. 1. 1: sometimes sirfvn is used in the Greek sense for 
peace, Luke 14. 32, and sometimes in the Christian sense, Rom. 2. 
10 : Luke 19. 42 : t?ouo/,oyu<r0xt (ilinn), "to acknowledge the 

qualities of another;" so as "to praise," Matt. 11. 25: vropzvurSai, 
to indicate a "mode of life:" u, after verbs of swearing, = not, 
Mark 8. 12 : Heb. 4. 3, 5 : * kvayiw means " straits, calamity," Luke 21. 
23 : Cor. 7. 26 : us rov alu»>cc, rov; u}a>va.$ = "for ever," "to taste 
death," Matt. 16. 28: heaven, for God, Dan. 4. 23: see 22: Matt. 
21. 25: Luke. 15. 21: *o$&ik'/ifiu ctiptivat — "to forgive sins:" lUiv 

m 

and Xvuv (*IDN R~)y, shere esar), "to forbid and to appoint:" "to 
die in sin," John 8. 21, 24 — "to perish because of sin" (Lev. 5.6): 
poixo;, used spiritually after the Hebrew (HJT, zone), not literally, 

as in Greek, Jas. 4. 4, are all Hebraisms: though some (*) marked 
are found in classic authors, and are therefore called imperfect 
Hebraisms. So Acts 19. 6: 24. 4: 2. 14: Jas. 2. 9: Matt. 15. 2: 
Mark 7. 22, "evil" is — envious. 

For other Aramaean expressions, see § 39. The Hebraisms of the 
New Testament are fully illustrated in the works of Lightfoot, the 
supplementary volumes of Schoetgenius, and in the Commentary of 
Gill. Koppe's Commentary on the New Testament (from Acts to 
Rev.) is very valuable for giving the results of the inquiries of his 
predecessors in this department. 

326. vii. Nor is it unimportant, in ascertaining the 
meaning of words, to consult ancient scholiasts and glosses, 
and the writings of the early fathers. The first two give the 
meaning generally, without supplying evidence or proof pas- 
sages, and the second give professed interpretations of 
Scripture language. 

Hesychius, for example, explains the "tittles" of the law, by 
calling them the marks made in beginning to write letters (<Lpx* 
ypufAfAaroi), Matt. 5. 18; and Suidas explains Pu,T<roXoyuv by "word- 
iness," or " much speaking " (*oXvXoyiu) , 6. 7. 

pe,v?"/;piov is explained by Clem. Rom. (1 Cor.) as a revealed secret. 

avB-ivrsTv dvloog, i Tim. 2. 12, means, etymological ly, to kill her 
husband; but Theophylact explains it, f 'to usurp authority over:" 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : GLOSSES AND THE LXX. 191 

so the English version. tu-Tpa.vnXia,, which means, properly, " lively 
discourse/' is explained by Chrysostom in his oration on this sub- 
ject, and by Jerome, as something said (generally foolish and sinful) 
to provoke a laugh; "foolish jesting" gives, therefore, the precise 
meaning. That ccvuXwtyi;, Luke 9. 51, lefers to our Lord's ascension 
may be gathered from Acts 1. 2, and it is proved by a similar use 
of this phrase in the Fathers. 

These are verbal illustrations ; doctrinal illustrations may be seen 
in a subsequent Section. 

The chief Greek glossaries are the lexicons of Hesychius (400), 
Suidas (980), and Phavorinus (1523); the Etymologicum Magnum 
(10th century), with the works of Zonaras (11 18) and Photius (850). 
The glosses, or explanations of the first four, so far as the New 
Testament is concerned, were edited by C. G. Ernesti, 1785-6, and 
those of Zonaras, in 16 18. Matthaei (Mosc. 1774-5, Lips. 1779) and 
Alberti (Lug. Bat. 1735) have also published glosses, selected from 
the margin of ancient manuscripts of the New Testament. 

For a view of the explanations, given in the Fathers, of New 
Testament terms, see by far the completest book on this subject, 
' Suiceri Thes. Eccl.' ii torn, 1728, or indexes of good editions of the 
Fathers themselves. For the teaching of the Fathers on books or 
parts of Scripture, see the compendious collections published under 
the name of Catenae : some of their comments are good, many trifling. 

327. viii. The chief help to the study of the New Testa- 
Version of nient, however, remains : the version of the LXX : 
the LXX. words and phrases, being often taken from that 
version, and used in an altogether peculiar sense. 

IhMx'a, for example, means in classic Greek, " a disposition of 
property," or <c a will," but in the LXX, it is frequently used to 
translate (]V"12, Berith), in the sense of " covenant" or " agreement 
between parties," which classic authors express by <tv\>Gym, Gen. 17. 
9, 10. It is applied to the agreement between Abraham and 
Abimelech, 21. 27-32: between Laban and Jacob, 31. 44: compare 
Deut. 7. 9: 17. 2: 29. 9: Psa. 131. 12: Christ is given u$ hufawv, 
Isa. 42. 6: 53. 3. 

oXnhia., " truth," is used for, and means, " all probity or holi- 
ness," Psa. 26. 3: 86. ir, and also " substance," as opposed to 
" type or shadow/' John 1. 17: Heb. 8. 2. 

vo'pos = rn IPi, the whole Mosaic economy, Deut. 4. 8, 44: Matt. 
5. 17: 7. 12: John 1. 17. 

c-vyKpUuv means in classic Greek, "to confound, or mix;" in the 
LXX, it is "to interpret, or explain," Gen. 40. 8, and hence 



192 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES : THE LXX. 

1 Cor. 2. 13, " expounding spiritual things by spiritual, or to 
spiritual." 

W) 70 ccvro = 1HIT, yachdav, "together," Matt. 22. 34: Acts 1. 15 : 

2 Sam. 2. 13 : 19. 10. 

fraera cdfex— "no flesh shall," == N? - /3, kol lo, Exod. 12. 15, 43 : 
sometimes the LXX use the classic phrase, »x vhis, Exod. 10. 15. 
The LXX translate n^LDil, in the sense of te sin offering," 70 77,; 

xfcu,p7iog, Lev. 1 8. 25: to tfipi a. [£,0.0710,;, Lev. 5» 8: to ^'^ o/u,op7 ia;, 

Lev. 8. 2: Ikutrpos, Ezek. 44. 27, and hence the use of these phrases 
in the New Testament. On the other hand, it may be noticed, that 
riKtOn, chatath, means both "an act of sin" and "a sinful dispo- 
sition," as does a/u,op7io. The New Testament has no distinct 
phrase, corresponding to the Latin "vitium," which is the act, 
and " vitiositas," which is the disposition. Compare "a sin" and 
" depravity." 

e O ip%opsvo;, " the coming one," is the LXX translation of various 
passages, which refer to our Lord, and hence it is applied frequently 
in the New Testament to him, Luke 3. 19: Heb. 10. 37: not "shall 
come," but " is coming," or " is to come," Rev. 1. 8. 

The New Testament also abounds in Hellenistic constructions: 
Nouns absolute for example, Eev. 1. 4, 5: 2. 20: 3. 12: unusual 
governments, adj. with gen. cases, where good Greek requires no 
prep., John 6. 45, and the contrary, Matt. 27. 24: a,<*o in the sense 
of "by" or "because," JD, min, Matt. 11. 19: 18. 7: Gal. 1. 1: 
2 Cor. 3. 18: Acts 22. 11. 

328. The reference to Hellenistic usage, may, however, be 
carried to an extreme : ^lkcuocjvvi^ for example, has been 
translated " mercy " in Eom. 3. 25, 26 ; and the rendering is 
defended by an appeal to the LXX, where it is used for HDD, 
chesedh. The LXX, however, itself corrects this translation. 
Nine times in the Old Testament, it is so used : but seven of 
these are in the Pentateuch, and many hundred times, i. e., 
nearly always, it translates righteousness (pH¥, Tsedek). 

329. Perhaps we may best illustrate the connection between 
Rules ap- the Hebrew, the LXX, and the New Testament, 
plied to ex- ^y explaining the meaning of the various Greek 

plain recon- * x ° . . ° 

ciimtion, etc. words applied in Scripture to the work of our Lord ; 
reconciliation, propitiation, expiation, atonement, redemption, 
satisfaction, substitution, and salvation. 

(a.) Looking into the English New Testament, we find ' ' recon- 
ciliation " and " reconcile " in several passages, in all of which (ex- 
cept one,) the Greek word is some form of oXXxa-o-eo, *' to produce 
a change between parties " (when for example, they have been at 



THE LXX : ATONEMENT, ETC. 193 

variance) : in turning to the LXX, we find this word never used in 
this sense at all, nor have the many passages in the Old Testament, 
which speak of " making reconciliation," any verbal reference to 
these passages in the New Testament : The idea is involved in several 
passages, but it is never expressed by this word, nor by any single 
word. "To turn away anger," "to restore to favour," "to accept," are 
the common expressions; generally forms of H^Tl, ratsa, and hzrov, 
Isa. 56. 7: 60. 7: Jer. 6. 20: Lev. 19. 7. Hence the important con- 
elusion, that in the word of the New Testament translated "recon- 
cile/' there is reference only to the change or effect produced by 
some measure of mercy, and not to the nature of that measure itself: 
it describes merely the change produced in our relation to God, his 
moral sentiment of displeasure against sin (called his " wrath,") is 
appeased, and the sinner's enmity and misgivings are removed. That 
there is this double change, may be gathered from the following pas- 
sages, Heb. 10. 26, 27: Rom. 5. 9: Heb. 9. 26, 28: 2 Cor. 5. 18-20: 
Eph. 2. 16: 1 Cor. 7. 11 : Col. 1. 20, 21. 

(6.) In one passage, however, Heb. 2. 17, we have in Greek 
another word Ikeurxopui, translated also "make reconciliation." Its 
meaning ma^y be gathered from an examination of the passages in the 
Old Testament, in which it occurs. It is, in fact, the constant ren- 
dering of a word translated in the English version, " to make re- 
conciliation," or "'to atone for," Lev. 6. 30: 8. 15: Ezek. 45. 20: 
Dan. 9. 24, etc. 

(c.) But it would excite surprise, if this were the only passage in 
the New Testament, where this phrase is found. It occurs again, 
in fact, in Rom. 3. 25 : 1 John 2.2: 4.10, but in each of these pas- 
sages it is translated propitiation, a word which does not occur in 
the Old Testament. Expiation, again, does not occur in the New, 
and but once in the Old, Numb. n. 35; it is the same word, how- 
ever, as is translated elsewhere, " to make reconciliation," or " to 
atone for." Atonement, itself, does not occur in the New Testa- 
ment, except in Rom. 5. 2, and there it has no connection with the 
Old Testament phrase, but is the same word as is translated " re- 
conciliation" in the first sense above indicated, a change, that is, of 
state, between parties previously at variance. 

(d.) Thus far, therefore, the result is clear. Reconciliation and 
atonement are, in all the New Testament, except Heb. 2. 17, translations 
of the same word, and mean the state of friendship and acceptance 
into which the gospel introduces us. " Reconciliation," in the sense 
in which it is used in Heb. 2. 17, and " atonement," in the uniform 
sense of the Old Testament, " propitiation " in the New Testament, 
and " expiation " in the Old, are all different renderings of one and 
the same Hebrew and Greek words 133, kipper, and [|d^x^a/, in 

K 



194 THE LXX : ATONEMENT, ETC. 

some of their forms. These words, which may be regarded as one, 
have two senses, each involving the other. They mean to appease, 
pacify, or propitiate, Gen. 33. 20: Prov. 16. 14: Ezek. 16. 63; and also 
to clear from guilt, 1 Sam. 3. 14: Psa. 65. 3: Prov. 16. 6: Isa. 6. 7, 
etc. In propitiation, we have prominence given to the first idea, in 
expiation , to the second; in atonement, we have a distinct reference 
to both. 

(e.) The thing which atones, propitiates, or expiates, is called in 
Greek, Ixccc-p'os, kZikdo-ftos, and kvrpov, all translations of two derivates 
of the Hebrew word *IS3 (D'HplD, kephurim, and ")£3, kopher), s. e., 
price or covering. 

(/.) The use of kvrpov for *1D3, introduces another form of ex- 
pression, " redemption." This word, as a noun, always represents 
in the New Testament, Xv-rpcoin; or cc^oXurpuffis. Both are descriptive 
of the act of procuring the liberation of another, by paying some 
kt/rpov or oLvoivu., i. e., M ransom," or " forfeit," and hence always in 
the New Testament, of the state of being ransomed in this way. 

These words mean (1,) to buy back, by paying the price, what 
has been sold, Lev. 25. 25, and (2,) to redeem what has been de- 
voted, by substituting something else in its place, Lev. 27. 27: 
Exod. 13. 13: Psa. 72. 14: Psa. 130. 8: Isa. 63. 9. 

The price paid is called Xurpov, (Matt. 20. 28: Mark 10. 45,) 
a.vr'iXurpov, (i Tim. 2. 6,) the Hebrew terms being HpfcO, Geulla, 

and j'lHS, Phidyon, answering precisely to Xvrpov and "IS3, which 
again answers to lXeurfto$. In i Tim. 2. 6, this ransom is said to be 
Christ himself. 

" Redemption," therefore, is generally a state of deliverance, by 
means of ransom. Hence it is used to indicate deliverance from 
punishment or guilt, Eph. 1. 7: Col. 1. 14; sanctification, which is de- 
liverance from the dominion of sin, 1 Pet. 1. 18; the resurrection, 
which is the actual deliverance of the body from the grave, the con- 
sequence of sin, Rom. 8. 23; completed salvation, which is actual 
deliverance from all evil, Eph. 1. 14: 4. 30: 1 Cor. 1. 30: Tit. 2. 14. 

Once it is used without reference to sin, Heb. 11. 35, and perhaps 
in Luke 21. 28. 

(#.) Another word, translated " redemption " (JcyopaZ^u), Gal. 3. 
13 : 4. 5 : Rev. 5.9: 14. 3, 4, means, as it is everywhere else trans- 
lated, to buy, referring to a purchase made in the market. What is 
paid in this case, is called n^n (price,) and this price is said to be 
Christ, Gal. 3. 13; or his blood, Rom. 5. 9. In Acts 20. 28, the 
word rendered " purchase" (*tptyroit7a'0cti), has no reference to re- 
demption, or to price, but means simply (< acquired for himself:" 
the following words, however, indicate that the sense is not ma- 
terially different from purchasing, as that term is used elsewhere. 



THE LXX: THE ATONEMENT, ETC. 195 

(h.) The word " satisfaction," is not found in the New Testament, 
but it occurs twice in the Old, Xumb. 35* 3 x, 32. It is there a 

translation of TEO or Xvrpcc, "that which expiates/' or "ransoms." 
The use of these terms in reference to the New Testament doctrine, 
implies, that what was done and paid in the death of our Lord, was 
in every respect, sufficient: it accomplished our pardon, and 
answered all the moral purposes which God deemed necessary, 
under a system of holy law. 

(t.) The word " substizution" is not found in either Testament, 
but the idea is frequently expressed in both: " it shall be accepted 
for him," Lev. 1. 4: 7. 18, is the Old Testament phrase, and the 
New corresponds. There we find in frequent use, b^ip and avri 3 the 
former meaning " on behalf of/' "for," and "instead," and the 
latter, meaning undoubtedly, "instead of." Much stress ought 
not to be laid upon the first of these terms, as it is frequently used 
where it may mean " for the advantage of," Rom. 8. 26, 31 : 2 Cor. 
1. 2: yet in John 15. 13, and 1 John 3. 16, it seems to mean, "in- 
stead of:" and this is certainly the meaning of a vr/, Matt. 20. 28: 
Mark 10. 45: see Matt. 2. 22, "in the room of ." Apart, however, 
from particular prepositions, three sets of phrases clearly teach this 
doctrine. 

(1.) Christ was made a curse for us, Gal. 3 . 13 ; so a similar phrase, 
2 Cor. 5. 21. 

(2.) He gave himself as a sacrifice for our sins, 1 Cor. 15. 3 : Eph. 
5= 2: Gal. 1. 4: i Tim. 2. 6, 14: Heb. 7. 27: 5. 1, 3: 10. 12: Rom. 
5. 6, 7, 8: 1 Cor. 1. 13: 5. 7: 11. 24: 1 Pet. 3. 18: 4. 1. 

(3.) Christ gave his life for our life, or we live by his death, 
Gal. 2. 20: Rom. 14. 15: 2 Cor. 5. 15. Compare Rom. 16. 4: Isa. 
53. 45. The idea of substitution is in all these passages, and the 
phrase, though not Scriptural, is a convenient summary of them all. 
(j.) "Salvation" is everywhere in the Xew Testament, the repre- 
sentative of ffwTvpia, or G-uT'/ioiov. ffuT'/jp'ia is always translated "salva- 
tion," except in three passages (Acts 7. 25 : 27. 34, and Heb. ri. 7, 
where it refers to temporal deliverance,) and the idea included in 
the term, is whatever blessings redemption includes, — but without 
any reference to Xvrpov, or anything else as the ground of them. It 
includes preset deliverance, Luke 19,9, or future, Phil. 1. 19: Rom. 
13. 11. " Salvation," therefore, is the state into which the gospel 
introduces all who believe, and without reference to the means 
used, a price paid. Such is the conclusion to which etymology and 
New Testament usage leads. 

On turning to the LXX, however, we find that the idea of propi- 
tiation is involved even here. rurvpiov is very frequently the trans- 
lation of D/t^, shelem (fll?, zebhach), pe:<ce-oi?Gvmg, Bwria rarr.pis, 

K 2 



\ 

h 



196 THE LXX : THE ATONEMENT, ETC. 

Lev. 3. 1-3 : 4. 10: 7. 20: 11. 4. Judg. 20. 26: 21. 4. D?$ (shelem 

is the sacrifice or retribution, restoring peace ; and thus the meaning 

of trurvptov, touches upon the meaning of propitiation. 

(/;.) From this comparison, therefore, of the New Testament, the 

LXX, and the Hebrew, we gather the following con- 
Conclusions. -, 

elusions. 

Propitiation, giving prominence to the secondary meaning of 
153 Kipper, and the primary meaning of zhxdo-xo/xat, is an act 
prompting to the exercise of mercy, and providing for its exercise 
in a way consistent with justice: 

Expiation, giving prominence to the primary meaning of ^ISS 
and the secondary meaning of IhXa.G'xopa.i, is an act winch provides 
for the removal of sin, and cancels the obligation to punishment : 

Atonement, giving prominence to both, and meaning expiation and 
propitiation combined. 

Christ's atonement is said to be by substitution, for he suffered 
in our stead, and he bears our sin; and it is by satisfaction, for the 
broken law is vindicated, all the purposes of punishment are 
answered with honour to the Lawgiver, and eventual holiness to the 
Christian. Its result is reconciliation (zaruXXay/i) ; the moral senti- 
ment of justice in God is reconciled to the sinner, and provision is 
made for the removal of our enmity; and it is 'redemption, or actual 
deliverance, for a price, from sin in its guilt and dominion, from all 
misery, and from death. Salvation is also actual deliverance, but 
without a distinct reference to a price paid. Atonement, there- 
fore, is something offered to God; redemption or salvation is some- 
thing bestowed upon man : atonement is the ground of redemption, 
and redemption is the result of atonement (Isa. 53. 4-9, 10, 12). The 
design of the first is to satisfy God's justice, the design of the second 
to make man blessed; the first was finished upon the cross, the 
second is in daily operation, and will not be completed in the case 
of the whole church, till the consummation of all things, Dan. 9. 
24: Eph. 4. 30. 

In studying the Hellenisms of the New Testament, and tracing 
their connection with the Old, the Nov. Test. Grsec., Editio 
Hellenistica, Lond., 1843, will be found of value : it consists of 
the New Testament text, and illustrations from the LXX, of the 
phraseology of every verse. For further helps see below § 331. 

330. These illustrations and remarks refer chiefly to the 
meaning of words. Other rules of interpretation have been 
already illustrated — the words in connection with the sen- 
tence, the context, the scope, and parallel passages — and are the 
same, whether we be interpreting the original, or a version, 



ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES \ CONCORDANCES. 197 

and do not need further illustration. They apply with equal 
force to the study of the original Scriptures. 

331. In reference to parallel passages, it must be remem- 
bered, that verbal parallels in a version, are available only 
when the version is strictly accurate, and that comparison 
and investigation of the original must be made through the 
medium, not of a translation, but of the original itself. The 
importance of this remark may be seen in § 329, where the 
use of the Enghsh version, even on the important subject ot 
the work of Christ, will certainly mislead, the Xew Testament 
itself not translating uniformly, and still less agreeing in its 
translation with the corresponding expressions of the Old. 
Happily, this difficulty, which to an Enghsh reader would 
have been a few years since insuperable, is to a great degree 
removed by the helps mentioned below. 

For the study of Hebrew verbal parallels, the best Concordance 
is Furst's: for New Testament Greek, Binder's. To ascertain the 
usage of the version of the LXX, and to compare it with the Xew 
Testament, consult the Concordance of Tronrmius, which gives the 
Creek word, with the passages in which it is found, arranged under 
the different Hebrew words, of which it is the translation : a second 
table in the same book gives the Hebrew word first, with its different 
Greek renderings. The English student will obtain very considerable 
help from the " Englishman's Greek Concordance," which gives 
the Greek words of the Xew Testament, with their English ren- 
derings; and from the "Englishman's Hebrew Concordance," which 
gives the same information for the Hebrew Scriptures. The second 
tables in each, give the English word, and its various Greek and 
Hebrew representatives. Taylor's Concordance is formed on the 
same plan. Wilson makes the English word the basis of his Con- 
cordance, giving the Hebrew representatives; the plan of the Eng- 
lishman's Greek and Hebrew Concordances, however, is the more 
useful. A comparison of the Xew Testament Greek and the LXX, 
can be made only through Trommius and Bruder, or by the help of 
the Lexicon of Schleusner, or the Thesaurus of Biel. 

332. The peculiarities of the Greek tongue, are nowhere 
Usage of more instructive or beautiful, than in the use of 
Greek. the article : and as the rules in reference to it 
afford important help in interpreting Scripture, it may be 
convenient to give them. 

333. The Greek language has but one article, the definite ; 



198 THE GREEK ARTICLE. 



Article. 



the indefinite is expressed in the New Testament 

by rig, " a certain ;" very occasionally by 6 and a 

participle, 6 airzLpwv, "a sower;" or generally by the omis- 
sion of the definite article. 

The general idea involved in the use of the definite 
General idea article, both in Greek and in English, is, that the 
article. 6 1€ object to which it is prefixed is familiar; but the 
Familiarity, grounds of familiarity are different, as are, in some 
respects, the usages of the two tongues, Familiarity arises 
from different causes. 

(a). When things are in themselves well known, or are re- 
Origin of this g ar ded as present to the senses. 

Different I * ^e names °f persons well known generally take 

cases. the article ; but because they are well known, their 

names also dispense with it. Hence 'I^s? and o 'I>?<rS; : see Matt. i. 
I -i 6 : 2. 1 6, 19. On the first mention of a name the article is 
generally omitted. The names of persons not well known also take 
the article when mentioned a second time. 

2. If the proper name is followed by a description which has the 
article, the name is without it unless the person is very eminent. 
" John the Baptist " is the common form. 

3. Objects present to the parties concerned have the article 
attached to their names, Matt. 26. 23, in the dish. John 13. 26, the 
sop. Mark 11. 5, loosing the colt. 1 Thess. 5. 27, this epistle. 
Matt. 13. 27, these tares. Hence the nominative, with the article, 
to express the vocative, Eph. 5. 22: Heb. 1. 8. 

4. The possessive pronoun, in Greek, with a noun, takes the 
article; not my will — the will of me — but " the thy will" be done. 

The second and third of these rules are in accordance with 
English usage, the others are not. We can say, indeed, the Christ; 
but then Christ is not a name, but a description, and means " the 
anointed." 

(b). Familiarity may arise from something in the context, 
as from 

1. Previous mention. Luke 2. 16, the child: in verse 12, a child. 
John 4. 43, after the two days: verse 40, two days. The English 
adopts this rule whenever it can be adopted without violating 
another. 

2. Implication in some preceding expression, Mark 2. 4, the roof, 
verse 1. Luke 15. 4, the ninety and nine; one out of a hundred 
being lost. Luke 11.38, before the dinner or meal : verse 3 7, to dine 



THE GREEK ARTICLE. 199 

with Ldm. Matt. i. 24, from the sleep, in which, he had a dream,, 
verse 20. Matt. 10. 12, into the house, i.e., where they receive 
you, verse 11: Acts 20. 13: 2 Thess. 2. 11: see 9. 10. 

3. Association, when the noun, without being implied in any- 
thing previously expressed, is connected with it. John 21. 8 ; came 
in the small boat, i. e., of the fishing vessel: see verse 3. So Acts 
27. 16: Luke 11. 7: John 13. 5: Mark 4. 38: Acts 20. 9, the win- 
dow, the only one of the chamber; Acts 21. 26, 27, until the offering, 
and so throughout referring to the law on vows. The article thus 
rendered necessary by the context is often to be expressed by the 
possessive pronoun, "putting his (Gr. the) hands upon him," Acts 
9. 17. 

The difference between Greek and English rules will be seen 
from the examples. 

(c). Familiarity arises from something neither mentioned 
nor suggested, of which there are several kinds. 

1. Abstract nouns generally take the article, and always when 
they are personified. 1 Cor. 15. 26, death (0 3.) John 7. 22, 23, 
circumcision. 1 Cor. it. 14, nature, Matt. pi. 19 : Phil. 3. 3. 
Numbers in the abstract (<™ %v, unity, the state of being one), and 
the infinitive used as a noun, belong to this class, to tnrrsuuv == 
believing. This usage is not frequent in English. 

2. Nouns representing objects in nature which exist singly, and 
entire natural substances, generally take the article. Matt. 5. 18, 
heaven and earth: 24. 29, the sun. Mark 13. 28, summer (= the 
hot season); light; salt; water. Generally, we omit the article in 
these cases, whenever, at least, the use of it would indicate some 
particular thing, rather than the universal substance. 

3. "Words indicating entire species, either of animals or objects, 
generally take the article. Matt. 6. 1, men, as men: 7. 6, dogs, as 
dogs. Matt. 10. 16, serpents. Luke 21. 29, fig-tree. James 3. 4 
(the) ships. The omission of the article would indicate that the 
statement made is true only of some, and not of the class as a 
whole. The English generally omits the article in these cases. 

4. Whole classes of agents generally take it. Matt. 10. 10, the 
labourer. Matt. 18. 17, the publican. Matt. 25. 32, the shep- 
herd. 

5 . Many words in all languages express ideas familiar to classes 
of readfers, and properly take the article; and generally it is best to 
retain it, even in a translation, though the translation be not quite 
clear. Matt. 17. 24, t« VthgoL^^a., the half-shekel temple-tax : 21. 12, 
the doves used, viz., in the temple service. John 18. 3, h ffvetpa., the 
detachment on duty. John 1. 21, art thou the prophet. Luke 21. 8, 



200 THE GREEK ARTICLE. 

o xcttgos, the time (so long expected), i Cor. 3, 13, the day shall 
show it, Heb. 10. 25. h; rov diuva, — for ever, to eternity, Matt. 21. 
19: Mark .11. 14: John 4. 14. So h ofe, that way, 1. <?., the gospel, 
Acts 9. 2: 19. 9, 23: 24. 22: so in proverbial expressions, Matt. 23. 
24, the camel, the gnat: so ro 000; — the mountain district of Galilee, 
or of Palestine, Matt. 14. 23, Mark 3. 13. * xgvpvos, the precipice 
(surrounding the lake), Matt. 8. 32. to xXotov, Matt. 13. 2, Mark 4. 
1, the vessel generally used by our Lord and his apostles. ->, hixia, 
the house to which he resorted when at Capernaum, Matt. 13. 1, 36: 
Mark 9. n % 

For obvious reasons, Luke and John, the former writing for those 
who knew nothing of Palestine, and the latter writing after the 
whole aspect of the country had been changed, never use these 
latter expressions. 

Exceptions 334- The exceptions to these rules are numerous, 

classified. "bxit easily classified. 

. (a). Generally, it may be said that it is often 

trinsicmean- dispensed with where the intrinsic meaning is so 

mg is clear. c i ear that perspicuity is not affected by the omis- 
sion. 

Proper names are often without it, 1 Cor. 3. 22. Abstract nouns 
are often without it. Certain principal objects of nature are without 
it, Matt. 13. 6: 1 Cor. 15. 41: 2 Pet. 3. 10: James 1. 6. Superlatives 
and ordinal numbers take it or are without it, Mark 15. H\ Matt. 
14. 25 : 22. 38. So to a certain extent in English. 

(b). Nouns not in themselves definite are often without it, 
"Where it is especially if in very common use. In these cases, 
Jj learfr ° m they are made definite by the context, or usage, 
text. and are unambiguous. 

(latrtXws means, in classic Greek, a king; fiatriXivs alone, the 
Persian king; and in later Greek, (Zatrttevg itself has that meaning. 
So, in the New Testament, ho$ is applied, without the article, to 
God, and Kvgtos to Jehovah, both in the New Testament and in the 
LXX, 1 Thess. 2. 5: see verse 10: see Matt. 10. 28, 37. 

(c). Nouns used adverbially, i.e., with prepositions, often 
Nouns used dispense with the article. 

adverbially. j ohn r I: Eom> 8# 4> 

335. An accurate application of these rules will solve many 
difficulties, and is essential to the right under- 
pp ie ' standing of portions of Scripture. 
In Mat. 1. 17, for example, it is said that all the generations 



IKE GREEK ARTICLE. 201 

from Abraham to David are fourteen. Probably the article here 
refers rather to the generations just enumerated. 

In Rom., vofi'oc, without the article, refers to any revelation or 
written rule of moral duty; 'O vouc i} either to the Mosaic law, or to 
some law just named. 

336. A very striking use of the omission of the article is 
Omission of to call attention to the idea in the anarthrous — 
article. unarticled — word. 

Heb. 1. 1, 2, of old, God spake by the prophets, now oy one who 
is Son, iv via: so 7. 23. 1 Cor. 14. 4, one man — a church. John 3. 6, 
that which is born of the flesh (article) is flesh (no article). Rom. 
11. 6, grace (article) is no longer grace (no article), 7. 13. 

337. In the collocation of words, the following rules are 
-p, . ., important. 

Rules on the L 

coiiocatioa of (a). TYnen two or more words are connected, 
and are descriptive of a single object, or of objects 
regarded as single, the article is prefixed (as in English) to 
the first only. 

Matt. 12. 22, the blind and dumb. Luke 11. 28, he that heareth 
and keepeth. John 6. 40: Rom. 2. 3 ; 1 John 2. 4: Eph. 5. 20. 

(b). Xor is the article repeated, when a single class of 
things or Qualities is described, bv an enumeration of its 
parts. 

Eph. 3. 1 3, what is the breadth and length, etc., describing the 
extent. Matt. 20. 19, to mock (article), and scourge, and crucify — 
the sufferings. So Acts 3. 6: 1 Cor. 11. 22. 

(c). Xor when the words used express one idea, though a 
complex one. 

Phil. 2.17, upon the sacrifice and service of your faith. 2 Cor. 
13. 11, the God of love and peace (not and of peace), 2 Pet. 1. ic. 

(d). Nor when two or more persons make one agency, or a 
single act is directed against two or more objects. 

Matt. 17. 1, Peter (article), and John, and James, Luke 19. 11: 
Acts 3. n: 17. 15. 

(e). On the contrary, the article is repeated when distinct- 
ness is given to each of the things named. 

Matt. 23. 23 : Tit. 3. 4, the goodness and the philanthropy of God 
our Saviour appeared. 

K 3 



202 EXTERNAL HELPS : THEIR VALUE. 

(/). And when the words employed are not descriptive of a 
single object, or of what is regarded as such. 

Heb. ii. 20, Isaac blessed rov lxxe*@ and rov Herccu. 2 Thess. 1 3, 
to those who know not . . . and to those who do not obey. 

(g). Apply these rules to explain the following. 

Tit. *. 13: 2 Thess. 1. 12: Eph. 5. 5: 1 Tim. 5. 21: 
Examples. ^ . T -, 

* 2 Pet. 1. 11: Jude 4. 

338. The doctrine of the Greek article was first formally 
Literature f examme d in modern times by Granville Sharp ; 
the Greek afterwards, at greater length, and with more accu- 

5jT"tiplp 

racy, by Dr. Middleton, some of whose conclusions, 
however, have been overthrown by more recent investiga- 
tion. The above rules are in harmony with such of Middle- 
ton's as have stood the test, and are most of them taken sub- 
stantially from "Winer's " Idioms," and from Green's " Gram- 
mar of the ISTew Testament Dialect," 1842. 

Sec. 6. Of the use of External Helps in the interpretation of 

the Bible. 

" The Bible resembles an extensive garden, where there is a vast variety and 
profusion of fruits and flowers, some of which are more essential or more splendid 
than others ; but there is not a blade suffered to grow in it, which has not its use 
and beauty in the system. Salvation for sinners is the grand truth presented every- 
where, and in all points of light : but the pure in heart sees a thousand traits of the 
Divine character, of himself, and of the world ; some striking and bold, others cast 
as it were into the shade, and designed to be searched for and examined." — Cecil, 
Remains, (p. 198). 

339. Thoroughly to understand the Scriptures, to har- 
monize apparent contradictions, to gather up all the truth it 
contains, and sometimes even to enable us to select out of 
several meanings, the one which is most consistent with the 
Divine will, it is often necessary to seek some external or col- 
lateral help. We need to know the opinions and ideas preva- 
lent among the people to whom the various parts of Scripture 
were addressed ; facts of general history, of chronology, of 
natural history, of geography, and especially the manners and 
customs of eastern nations. 

340. The estimation in which these external helps have 
Estimation been held, has been singularly subject to deprecia- 
te which such tions in some cases, and to excess in others. 

neips are m 

held. With many they are the chief study, and it is 



EXTERNAL HELPS I OPINIONS AMONG THE JEWS. 203 

thought that no one is qualified to understand the Bible until 
he is in a position to use them. By others they are despised. 
The first class forget that these helps are of value chiefly in 
confirming a sense, which is already discovered, or in expound- 
ing less important texts ; the statements of Scripture on all 
knowledge essential to salvation, being, when compared with 
one another, abundantly plain. The second forget, that these 
helps are often needful to determine the sense when it re- 
mains doubtful, and that if we neglect them, much of the 
significance of Scripture in particular passages, many of them 
impressive, is concealed. 

341. (i.) Some knowledge of the ideas and opinions pre- 
valent among the people to whom the inspired writings were 
addressed, or among surrounding nations, is often important. 

At the time, for example, when our Lord appeared, there was a 
Kino-dom of general expectation among the Jews of the coming of 
Heaven. the Messiah, and his reign was called, " the world to 

come," <l the heavenly Jerusalem," a " the kingdom of heaven," or 
" of God." b To enter that kingdom was to become his disciple. 
The Jews had very .erroneous conceptions of its nature : and it was 
necessary that our Lord should correct them. This he does in the 
teaching of himself, and his apostles. The nature of the kingdom 
of God must be learned, therefore, from the New Testament : and the 
fact (which we learn from external sources,) that the name was 
given by the Jews to the reign of the Messiah completes our know- 
ledge, and confirms the interpretation. 

" He is born again," was the Jewish description of a proselyte; 
and this use of the expression confirms the common interpretation 
of the language of our Lord, John 3 . 

tl To bind and loose," meant among the Jews, as Lightfoot has 
shown, to forbid as unlawful, and to allow as lawful: (as "bound 
not to ' ; is still used among us). Hence the true explanation of 
Matt. 18. 8: (Wetstein). 

The precepts of the sermon on the Mount, become more impres- 
sive from the following facts. The Pharisees held that the thoughts 
of the heart are never sinful (See Matt. 5. 28); the Scribes, that the 
gifts which Jewish worshippers were required to place upon the 
altar, expiated all offences which were not amenable to the Judge, 
Tver. 24). All maintained, says Maimonides, that oaths by heaven 

a Schoetgenii, Horse Heb. i., Diss, v., Chap. vi. 
h See Lyall's Propgedia Prophetica, p. 270. 



204 OPINIONS AMONG THE HEATHENS. 

or by earth, might be taken collusively, and had not the solemn 
obligation of oaths in which the name of God occurred (v. 34). It 
was also maintained (Buxtorf,) that the prayer which is long shall 
not return empty (6, 7). 

342. The chief sources of information on the opinions of 
the ancient Jews, are the Targums and the Talmud. Next 
in importance, is the Sohar of E. Simeon ben Joshai, who 
flourished early in the second century. This book is held in 
the highest veneration, and is the foundation of the Cabbala, 
See Part ii., " Intro, to the Gospels." Its subject is the 
coming of the Messiah, and the events foretold concerning 
his reign. It illustrates both the meaning of Scripture, and 
the unbelief of the Jews, that the sense which was put upon 
the several prophecies quoted by the apostles in the New 
Testament, is the same (with two or three remarkable excep- 
tions,) as had been put upon them by the Jews generally? 
All the Psalms for example, and all the predictions of Isaiah 
quoted in the New Testament, are applied by the authorities 
just named to the Messiah. And yet in a Messiah, who so 
remarkably fulfilled them, they do not believe. 

The student will find the views of Jewish authors largely quoted 
in the Horee Hebraicse of Lightfoot and Schoetgenius ; in the com- 
mentaries of Dr. Gill and Koppe, and in the notes of Wetstein's 
Greek Testament. 

343. It is important to observe, however, that while a 

knowledge of the opinions held in early times may 
often suggest the original meaning of the w T ords 
employed in Scripture, that meaning is only an auxiliary help 
in ascertaining their Scripture use. " A regenerate man ,; 
meant to a Jew, a proselyte ; one made a Jew by circumcision 
or baptism. But it is plain that though this use of the term 
accounts for the adoption of it by our Lord, and to a great 
extent even explains its meaning, yet the true and complete 
meaning can be gathered only from Scripture itself. 

344. A knowledge of the religious opinions of the nations 
by whom the Israelites were surrounded, is also often useful. 

Among the Egyptians, for example, a lamb or kid, was an object 
of veneration, and the male, as the representative of Ammon, was 
worshipped. 

The plagues of Egypt were all inflicted on objects of Egj^ptian 



EXTERNAL HELPS : HISTORY. 20<3 

worship, and thus they became a rebuke to idolatry, as well as an 
evidence of Divine power. 

At solemn festivals, the PJiccnicians ate of the raw flesh of their 
offerings; part of it they roasted in the sun, and part was sodden for 
magical purposes, the intestines being used- for divination, and the 
fragments for charms and enchantments. All these practices were 
forbidden to the Jews, and though no doubt other solemn lessons 
were taught by the burning of the victim in the fire, it was also 
intended to teach them to avoid the rites of the heathen. 

See also Lev. 19. 28: Lev. 11. n : Psa. 16. 4: Jer. 44. 17, ife< 

Among the ancient Persians it was held that there were two 
deities, of equal power Ormuzd and Ahrihman. Jehovah in his 
address to Cyrus, claims authority over them both. " /form light 
and darkness — peace and evil," Isa. 45. 7. 

Many who had embraced the oriental philosophy, became Chris- 
tians, and attempted to blend their former tenets with the doctrines 
of Christ. Some of them (the Gnostics for example,) held the 
opinion that there were several emanations of the Godhead, called 
the Word, the Life, the Light, etc. : and it is supposed that the 
apostle John refers to their opinions in John 1. i-i3, where he 
claims all those titles for our Lord. 

From their principles, many of them deduced a loose morality, 
and others justified the imposition of unreasonable austerities. To 
the speculative opinions of those sects, are opposed such passages as 
these, 1 John 1. 1, 2, 7: 2. 22, 23: 4. 2, 3, 9, 14, 15: 5. 1-5, 9-20; 
and to their practice, 1 John r. 5, 6: 2. 2, 6: 3. 4-10: 5. 18, 21. 
The deeds of the Nicolaitanes were probably of the same order, 
Rev. 2. 6. 

In Europe, the Greek philosophy was most prevalen i and the 
Greek character showed its tendency in subtle disquisition. Two 
only of the Grecian sects are mentioned in Scripture, the Epicureans 
and the Stoics. The first held that God took no concern in the 
affairs of the universe, but dwelt in some distant region : and the 
second held that he was the soul of the world. They agreed, how- 
ever, in maintaining that the Greeks were superior to all other 
nations. The apostle Paul rebuked both, Acts 17. 18-32, alter- 
nately correcting their errors, and revealing to them the great doc- 
trines of the resurrection, and the atonement of Christ. A know- 
ledge of their views explains his appeal, rebukes " reserve" in the 
exhibition of the gospel, and illustrates the simplicity and dignity 
of truth. 

The Divinity of our Lord, and the inutility of the ceremonial law, 
are both taught in the Epistles of Paul. It is a confirmation of this 
view that the Ebionites who observed the law, and maintained the 



206 EXTERNAL HELPS: HISTORY. 

simple humanity of Christ, rejected those Epistles, and received only 
a mutilated copy of the Gospel of Matthew. "Wilson, p. 283. 

Many of the discourses of our Lord contain special reference to 
the views of the various Jewish sects. The reader will find those 
views noticed at length in the introduction to the Gospels. 

345. Here, again, a caution is needed. The errors referred 

to in the passages which are thus made clear by 
this knowledge were often local and temporary. 
They generally sprang, however, from some deep-seated 
tendency of human natvire, and are apt to show themselves 
under different forms ; and the refutation of them, given 
in Scripture, always embodies truths of permanent and unr 
versal application. 

346. (ii.) A knowledge of ancient profane history, often aids 
in the study of the Bible. 

In Gen. 46, it is said, u every shepherd is an abomination to the 
Egyptians." This fact explains the assignment of the land of 
Goshen (on the extreme border of Egypt,) to the Israelites; an 
arrangement which preserved them from too intimate a connection 
with the Egyptians : and it is itself explained by the investigations 
of Dr. Hales, and Mr. Faber. They tell us, from a fragment of 
Manetho's, that about the year 2159, b. c, Egypt was invaded by a 
band of Cushite shepherds from Arabia, who after many years of 
cruel domination, were expelled by the general revolt of the princes 
of Upper Egypt, and then withdrew to Palestine (the land of shep- 
herds,) and are known in Scripture as the Philistines. This event, 
which occurred some time before the commencement of Joseph's 
administration, accounts for the suspicion with which the Israelites, 
coming from the same quarter, were received, and for the abhor- 
rence in which their occupation as nomade or wandering shepherds, 
was held. 

It may be added, that while Egyptian archaeologists, Champollion, 
Rosellini, and Wilkinson, agree in this view of a shepherd invasion, 
Hengstenberg has thrown doubts upon the whole of this part of 
Manetho's narrative, though -without sufficient reason. See Tables 
of Egyptian Chronology (Part ii). 

It is instructive to remark, that the history of Assyria and the 
antiquities of Egypt, which were once the favourite resort of infi- 
delity, now supply some of the most decisive external evidences of 
the truth of Scripture. 

So again, the best commentary on Deut. 28, and on our Lord's 
prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem, is found in the history of 



EXTERNAL HELPS : HISTORY. 207 

the Jewish wars by Josephus. He was himself a Jew by birth, born 
at Jerusalem, about A. D. 37, and was an eye witness of the siege of 
that city. The truth of his narrative is confirmed both by contem- 
porary writers, and by the testimony of the emperor Titus. 

Matt. 2. 2, 3, is explained by the fact, that there was a general im- 
pression at that time throughout the East, that a great prince was 
about to appear and govern the world, Tac. Hist. 1.5: Suet. Vit. 
Vesp. c. 4. 

In Matt. 24. 15, 16, our Saviour warns his disciples to quit Jeru- 
salem before the siege began; and profane history tells us that they 
profited by his instructions, for before the city was surrounded by the 
Eoman armies, they retired to Pella, on the eastern side of the Jordan. 

The rest spoken of in Acts 9. 31, is explained in contemporary 
historv. It must not be ascribed to the conversion of Saul, for the 
persecution continued three years after; but to the circumstance, 
that at that time (a. d. 40,) Caligula attempted to set up his statue 
in the Holy of Holies. The consternation of the Jews at this 
threatened profanation, diverted their attention from the Christians, 
and so ' i the churches had rest." 

In Acts 17. 16, Athens is said to be "full of idols" (margin). 
-^Elian (a. d. 140,) calls it the altar of Greece, and Pausanias, another 
historian (a. d. 170,) tells us that this city had more images than 
all Greece besides. All antiquity agrees in representing it as the 
seat of Grecian learning, and as the school of the world. How 
instructive is this combination of secular enlightenment and gross 
idolatry ! 

The nobleness of Paul's conduct in his address to Felix (Acts 24. 
25), is evident even upon the surface of the narrative. Josephus tells 
us that Felix was notorious for oppression, and that he had been 
living in adultery with Drusilla, the wife of the late king of Edessa. 
Paul neither defended himself, nor attacked the vices with which 
Felix was chargeable; but with admirable tact he reasoned on the 
virtues of righteousness and temperance, and on the solemn truth 
of future judgment. Felix had no excuse for interrupting him, and 
yet it is evident that he felt his appeals. 

347. (iii.) Ecclesiastical history is also of value in interpret- 
ing Scripture : sometimes by supplying facts on which the 
sacred writers are silent ; sometimes by giving the history of 
opinion in the church itself. 

We learn, for instance, that before the destruction of Jerusalem, 
Labours of an d within thirty years of the death of our Lord, the 
the apostles, gospel had been preached in Macedonia and Syria, by 



208 EXTERNAL HELPS : HISTORY. 

Jude ; in Egypt and parts of Africa, by Mark, Simon, and Jude ; in 
Ethiopia, by the Eunuch of Candace, and by Matthias ; in Pontus, 
by Peter; in the territories of the seven churches, by John; in 
Parthia, by Matthew; in Scythia, by Philip and Andrew; in Persia, 
by Simon and Jude ; in Media, by Thomas ; in Italy and Greece, by 
Paul. In most of these regions, churches were formed about the 
same time. So rapidly did the seed of the kingdom spring up and 
fill the earth, Mark 16. 15-20. 

348. The history of the sound opinions of good men, and 
of the origin of errone^s ones, is also of great moment. 

In a letter still extant, drawn up by the Christians of Smyrna, 
and giving an account of the martyrdom of Poly carp, they say, in 
reply to an accusation of the Jews that they were ready to worship 
Polycarp instead of Christ, " This is impossible, for Christ only is, 
or can be the object of worship: to him alone we offer adoration: 
and the martyrs (they add,) are objects only of gratitude and love." 
The Fathers of the first three centuries all deliver the same doctrine 
in relation to our Lord; and (l hence (adds Eusebius,) the hymns 
and psalms written from the beginning by the faithful, celebrate the 
praises of Christ, and attribute Divinity to him," Eccl. Hist. v. c. 
27, 28: Matt. 28. 17. 

The duty of all classes to search the Scriptures, is clearly implied 
in various passages of the Bible : a and it is interesting to know that 
the early writers of the church enforce this duty in the strongest 
terms. Chrysostom and Jerome, and Origen and Augustine, all 
agree on this question. They even affirm, that the cause of the 
evils of their times, is to be found in the fact " that the Scriptures 
are not known." (See § 144). 

349. These opinions are not authority, but they are evidence. 
These They prove that the interpretation now attached 

authority 1101 ^° ^ ne P assa g es °f Scripture, which speak of these 
but evidence, truths, is such as commended itself to the judg- 
ment of good men, who had peculiar facilities for ascertaining 
the meaning of the inspired volume. 

350. Nor less important is the history of erroneous opinions 
on questions of truth. 

"We first read, for example, of the title of universal Bishop (at 
Rome,) A. D. 606; of the canonical authority of the Apocrypha, and 
Vulgate, and traditions as articles of faith, at the Council of 

a 2 Tim. 3. 15: John 5. 39: Acts 17. 11, 12: Luke 16. 29: Matt. 
22. 29: John 2i. 30, 31: 2 Pet. 1. 19: 1 Thess. 5. 27: Rev. 1. 3. 



EXTERNAL HELPS I CHRONOLOGY. 209 

Trent, in the 16th century; of the use of the Latin tongue in wor- 
ship, to the exclusion of the vernacular in the 7th century (666). 
Transubstantiation was first taught in the 3th century. In the 1 ith, 
the Lord's supper was mutilated by the establishment of communion 
of one kind. In the 12th, the doctrine of Seven Sacraments was 
first taught. The doctrines of the meritorious virtue of penance, 
of purgatory, and prayers for the dead, date no earlier than the 7th 
century, and were not positively affirmed till the year 1140, The 
power of granting indulgences, was not claimed by the popes till 
the 12th century. Auricular confession was first enjoined by the 
4th Lateran Council, in the 13th century. The celibacy of the 
clergy as universal and compulsory, was ordained at the end of the 
4th, and was confirmed by Gregory vn. at the end of the nth. 
Col. 2. 23: 2 Thess. 2. 7-12. 

351. The comparatively recent origin of all these errors is 
not authoritative against them, but it is evidence of the 
meaning of the Bible. It proves that Popery is a novelty, and 
that its dogmas were not taught by those who lived nearest 
to the times of our Lord, and who had most facility for as- 
certaining the meaning of Scripture. 

352. It is an important canon in reference to the help which 

we thus- receive from history, that the historical 
no part of * fact which is gathered only from profane or eccle- 
Scnpture. s i a stical writers, is not part of the Bible. It may 
embody a truth which is taught in Scripture, and then we 
believe that truth, because it is found there : or it mav ex- 
plain a Scripture statement, but without being itself anywhere 
revealed. In that case, we believe it according to its evidence 
but never as a truth taught of God. 

353- (i y -) A knowledge of the order of events, and of the 
intervals between them, is essential to an understanding of 
parts of Scripture : and such knowledge is supplied by chrono- 
logy, the science of computing and adjusting the epochs a,nd 
periods of time. 

It illustrates the depravity of human nature, for example, to know 
that in the second generation from Adam, all flesh had so corrupted 
its way, that it repented the Lord that he had made man. 

It is an aggravation of the guilt of Sodom and Gomorrah, that 
when they became so utterly wicked, their progenitor Xoah had not 
been dead a hundred years. 

The judgment against the house of Eli, in Shiloh, was first exe- 



210 EXTERNAL HELPS I CHRONOLOGY. 

cuted in the death of his sons, but it was not completed till eighty 
years afterwards, in the forfeiture of office by Abiathar, (i Kings 
2. 26, 27). God visits surely though slowly. 

The sin that most dishonoured David's character was committed 
when he was fifty years of age. An instructive illustration of the 
power of temptation, and the inefficiency of even long religious ex- 
perience to preserve the Christian. 

From 2 Bangs 23. 13, we learn that the places built to Ashtaroth, 
remained till the days of Josiah, or for 350 years: Solomon pro- 
bably died penitent, and yd the consequences of his sin were felt 
for several generations. 

The earliest of the apostolical epistles, is the First Epistle to the 
Thessalonians, and it contains a special direction that the Epistle 
should be read to the churches. This direction, given at such a 
time, shows that this class of writings, is part of the canon of Scrip- 
ture. 

The date of the Epistle to Timothy, a. d. 64, nearly thirty years 
after the conversion of St. Paul, adds great weight to his declaration, 
that he was the chief of sinners. He never ceased, it is plain, to 
cherish a deep sense of his sinfulness. We may measure our pro- 
gress in holiness by the degree of our humility, 1 Tim. 1. 15. 

Some commentators have supposed that 2 Cor. n. 25, refers to 
the events recorded in Acts 2 7, but in fact, the Epistle was written 
before those events took place. 

The man of sin mentioned in 2 Thess. 2. 3, has been referred by 
Grotius and others, to Caligula; but the Epistle was not written 
till twelve years after his death. 

The precept of Peter, 1 Pet. 2. 17, "Honour the king/' derives 
additional force from the fact, that the tyrant Nero was then em- 
peror of the Roman world. 

An examination of the 5th chapter of Genesis, will show that 
Noah might have received the account of the Creation from Adam, 
through Enos only, or from Lamech, his own father. Lamech was 
56 years contemporary with Adam, and 100 years with Shem. 
Shem was contemporary for several years with Abraham and Isaac. 
The communication from Adam to Isaac may only have been 
through Lamech and Shem." So easy is it to account for the trans- 
mission of Divine truth from the earliest times. 

More than 4000 years elapsed between the time of the first pro- 
mise and its fulfilment: more than 400 between the promise given 
to Abraham, and its accomplishment under Joshua : and not less than 
400 between the prophecy of Malachi, and its fulfilment in John the 
Baptist. " A thousand years are with the Lord as one day:" though 
the promise tarry long, we are to wait for it. 



CHRONOLOGY : ERAS. 211 

This knowledge is especially important in interpreting pro- 
phecy, both to enable us to ascertain the event 
Pn)p foretold, and to perceive the accomplishment. 

The meaning of Isa. 3 7. 22-34, is fixed, for example, by a reference 
to chapter 36. The former is a prediction of a remarkable deliver- 
ance from impending danger, and the latter points to Hezekiah and 
Sennacherib, as the persons in whom the prediction was fulfilled. 

354. In the chronology of all nations some remarkable date 
Chronological is fixed upon, from which they begin their compu- 
epochs. tations. Christians reckon from the birth of Christ, 
A. D. The Eomans reckoned from the foundation of their city, 
A. u. c. The Greeks by Olympiads, the first of which dates 
776 years before Christ, about 55 years before the captivity, 
in the days of Uzziah. These points are called epochs or 
eras, though the former is the more usual term. The follow- 
in ar are the chief : 

The Grecian year of the world from - Sept. 1, b. c. 5598. 

The era of Constantinople, ecclesi- 
astical and civil - Apr. 1, Sept. 1, b. c. 5508. 

The Jewish era, ecclesiastical and 

civil, a.m. - - - - - - Apr. Sept. b. c. 3761. 

The era of Abraham, or Eusebian era Oct. 1, b. c. 2015. 

The era of the destruction of Troy - June 12, or 24, b. c. 1184. 

The era of Solomon's temple - - May, b. c. 1015. 

The Olympiads, 01. - New Mo on of Midsummer, 

B. c. 776. 

The Eoman era (the Consular year 

from Jan. 1), a. u. c. - - - Apr. 21, b. c. 753. 

The era of ISTabonassar - Feb. 26, b. c. 747. 

The era of the SeleucidaB - Sept. 1, B.C. 312. 

The Pontifical and Constantinopolitan 

era ------ - Jan. 1, Sept. 1, B.C. 3. 

The common Christian era, a. d. - Jan. 1, a. d. i. 

The Hegira, the Mohammedan era - July 16, a. d. 622. 

The Persian. era ----- June 16, A. D. 632. 

355. As several remarkable events are recorded in Scripture, 
each of general or of national importance, there are various 
divisions of sacred chronology. The Jews reckon from the 
Creation (a.m.), from the Flood, from the Exode, Numb. 
33. 38 : 1 Kings 6. 1 ; or from the building of the temple, 
? Chron. 8. 1. 

The first epoch begins with the Creation, and ends at the 



212 



CHRONOLOGY : PERIODS. 



Flood. Its duration can be gathered only from Scripture, by 
summing up the ages of the patriarchs on the birth of the son 
whose name is placed on the record (not always the eldest,) 
See Gen. 5. This number amounts according to the common 
Hebrew Text to 1656 years : according to the Samaritan text 
to 1307, and according to the Septuagint, to 2262, or to 2256 
years. 

In the English version, the dates ascertained from the He- 
brew text are generally used, and the adjustment of them 
which is adopted, is tks one which was completed by Arch- 
bishop Usher, slightly modified by Bishop Lloyd. 



Whence 
taken. 


Period. 


Usher. 


Septu- 
agint. 


Josephus, 
by Hales. 


Gen. 5 

Gen. j 1. 10-32: 

12. 4. 
Gen. 21.5: 25. 

26: 47. 9,28. 
1 Kings 6. 1 . 


1 . From the creation to the flood . 

2. From the flood to the call of Abraham 

3. From the call of Abraham to the 

4. From the Exode to the foundation of 

Solomon's temple .... 

5. From the foundation of Solomons 

temple to the restoration of Cyrus. 

6. From the restoration of the Jews to 

the birth of our Lord .... 


1,656 

427 

430 

479 
476 

5J6 


2,262 

1,207 

425 

601 

476 

537 
5,508 


2,256 
1,062 

445 
621 

493 

534 




4,004 


5,4 !I 



The modern Jews reckon the age of the world at the coming 
of Christ, 3760 ; 244 years less than Usher. 

356. The difference between the LXX and the Hebrew in 
these chronological statements, will be seen in part from the 
following tables ; the origin of the differences being easily 
explained. 

To six of the patriarchs he/ore the Flood, the LXX gives 
an additional hundred years, on the birth of his son. It also 
adds six years to Lamech, though in the corrected text of 
Josephus, those six years are taken off. Immediately after 
the Flood, the LXX adds 100 years to the ages of the six first 
patriarchs. It inserts also, as does Luke 3. 36, the name of 
Cainan, making him 130 years old on the birth of Salah ; 
and it calls Serug eighty years old instead of thirty. The total 

difference, therefore, in the second period is 780 years 

The Samaritan text agrees with the LXX in this period, 
except that it omits Cainan. Before the Flood it reckons 
1307 years. 



CHRONOLOGY : DIFFERENT SYSTEilS. 



213 



The difference in the date of the third period arises from the 
fact, that the chronology founded on the LXX reckons 
Abraham's call as given in Haran, while Usher and the Eng- 
lish version regard it as given five years before in Ur (Gen. 
12. i. See also Acts 7. 2, 3.) 

I. From the Creation to the Deluge. 



Froof. 




Hebrew. 


Septua- 

gint. 


Sarn. 






Years. 


Years. 


Years. 


Gen. 5. 3 


Adam lived 


130 and begat 


2JO 


130 




6 


Seth lived . 








105 » 


205 


IC5 




9 


Enos lived . . , 








9° >» 


190 


90 




, 12 


Cainan ;. lived . , 








7° 


170 


70 




» 15 


3Iahalaleel lived 








65 


165 


65 




, 13 


Jared lived . . 








162 


162 


62 




» 21 


Enoch lived . 








65 


165 


65 




, 25 


Methuselah lived 






> 


137 


187* 


67 




, 28 


Lamech lived . 








182 


i83f 


53 


Gen 


. 7. II 


Noah at the Deluge , 






600 years. 


600 


600 














1656 

J 


2262 


1307 



Josephus makes the total 2256, agreeing in Lamech with the Hebrew, and else 
where with the LXX. 

* Some copies, 167. 



f Jos. 182. 





II. and III. From the Deluge to the Exode. 




Proof. 


• 


Hebrew. 


Septuagint. 


Sam. 






Years. 




Years. 


Years. 


Gen. 11. io< 


Shem after the ") 
Flood, lived . j 


2 


and begat 




2 


2 


12 


Arphaxed lived 


35 


>> 




135 


135 


LXX, and) 
Luke 3. 363 


Cainan n. lived . ' 




• • 




130 and begat 


* • 


Gen. 11. 14 


Salah lived . 


30 


and begat 




130 


130 


„ 16 


Heber lived . 


34 






134 


134 


18 


Peleg lived . . 


30 






130 


133 


20 


Eeu lived . . . 


32 






132 


132 


22 


Serug lived . . . 


30 






130 


130 


*} A 

» ^4 


Xahor lived . . . 


29 






79 


79 


Gen. 11.26, 7 
32: 12. 4. (* 


Terah lived . . . 


130 






130 


130 


Gen. 12. 4 


Abraham lived . . 


P 


and had the 

promise. 


} 


75 


75 


„ 21. 5 


„ after that lived 


2? 


and begat 




20 


20 


» 25. 26 


Isaac lived . . . 


6o 


>> 




60 


60 


» 47- 9 


Jacob aged . . . 


C130 


and went tc 

Egypt. 


'} 


130 


130 


Exod. I2.\ 














40, 41 : Sep- j 














tuagint, 
Gal. 3. 17: / 


Israelites in Egypt. 


215 


years. 




215 


215 (?) 


See Xumb. i 
26. 59. J 
















857 






1637 


1502 


The Exode th 


erefore occurred a. it. 
or b. c. 




2513 
1491 




3899 


2749 



214 CHRONOLOGY : TIMES OF THE JUDGES. 

The differences in the fourth period are not owing so much 
to various readings, as to the authenticity of one passage, 
and the meaning of others. Nor is the subject free from 
grave difficulties. 

Usher makes the fourth period 480 years (479 years 16 days,) 
taking as his guide 1 Kings 6. 1. If the reading of that passage is 
correct, the question is decided. But there are strong doubts 
concerning it. The LXX indicates by various readings the uncer- 
tainty of the text. In 2 Chron. 3. 2, (the parallel passage,) there 
is no date. Josephus, Theo-philus, and others who have left systems 
of chronology, seem to have been ignorant of this computation, 
which is first mentioned in the 4th century by Eusebius, and he 
does not adopt it. St. Paul, again, seems to assign 450 years as the 
time from the division of Canaan "till Samuel," (Acts 13. 20,) and 
if so, the whole period must have been 5 79 years at least. a Usher, 
however, supposes the 450 years to refer to the time between the 
birth of Isaac, and the entry upon Canaan: a somewhat forced 
construction. Josephus mentions for the whole period 592 years 
(Ant. 8. 3, 1): 632 (10. 8, 5): and 612 (20. 10, 1): and Dr. Hales 
supposes his true reckoning to be, after obvious corrections, 621 
years. Petavius reckons 519 years; Greswell, 549 years; Jackson, 
579 years; Clinton and Cuningham, 612 years. 

In turning to the history in Judges, and reckoning up the periods 
named, the questions raised by these different views are not solved. 
Six servitudes are mentioned, extending over n 1 years; and four- 
teen Judges (not including Joshua, Eli, or Samuel,) extending over 
279 years, or 390 in all: adding to this number 46 and 83 as in the 
note a , we have an entire period of 519 years. But here ore 
various elements of uncertainty. Are these servitudes and judge- 
ships to any extent contemporaneous? Usher thinks they ?re. 
Hales, supposing that Judges 2. 18, applies to all, concludes that 
they are not. Again, nothing is told us of the length of Joshua's 
government, or of the government of the Elders, who survived him, 
except in the case of Othniel, his son-in-law. Nor further, is it 
clear whether Eli was a political ruler, or simply a civil judge, as 
Usher describes him. If the latter, he is not to be reckoned 
chronologically among the judges. And lastly, we cannot gather 

a viz. In the wilderness, and till the land was divided 46 years. 
Judges to Samuel - - - - 45 ° 

Saul 40: David 40: 3rd Sol. 3- - -83 






579 



CHRONOLOGY : THE LXX. 215 

from Scripture, what time elapsed between the death of Samson 
and Saul. Eli judged Israel forty years, but Usher makes him a 
contemporary of Samson, and not his successor. He reckons be- 
tween Eli's death and Saul's election, twenty-one years: though 
Samuel could hardly have been in that case, l ' old and gray-headed," 
(i Sam. 12. 2). Eusebius reckons Eli at forty, and includes Samuel 
in Saul's reign, while Josephus reckons fifty -two years for Eli and 
Samuel; Hales allowing for them seventy-two. Clinton supposes 
St. Paul's reckoning to end with the beginning of Samuel's judge- 
ship, and adds for that thirty-two years. On the whole, therefore, 
it may be said, that if we set aside the reading in 1 Kings 6. 1, and 
are uncertain of the precise meaning of Acts 13. 2 c, we have not 
materials for solving the difficulties which this fourth, period in- 
volves. 

The dates of the fifth and sixth periods nearly agree, and 
are gathered, the first from Scripture, and the second almost 
wholly from profane authors. 

357. The comparative claims of these systems are not easily 
settled. The longer chronology, is by many, considered to be 
best entitled to confidence ; and among other reasons, for the 
following : — 

1. The Hebrew is deemed the more likely to have been altered, 
as, for some time after the Christian era, its use was very much 
confined to the Jews (and chiefly to the more learned amongst 
them), who had a motive for shortening the period between the 
creation and the birth of Jesus, in order to make it appear that the 
time which then* expositors had fixed for the appearance of the 
Messiah was not yet passed; whilst, on the other hand, no motive 
so strong can be supposed to have existed on the part of the Jewish 
translators of the Septuagint : nor could there have been an oppor- 
tunity to alter the Greek version after it was made: for it was in 
extensive circulation, and in constant public use, both among Jews 
and Christians. 

2. The length of time assigned by the Septuagint, the Samaritan 
text, and Josephus, to the period between the deluge and the birth 
of Abraham (about n 00 years), is deemed more consistent with 
historical facts than the shorter time assigned by the Hebrew (about 
350 years), which appears insufficient for the great multiplication 
and extended dispersion of Xoah's descendants over immense tracts 
of country, extending from India and Assyria to Ethiopia, Egypt, 
and Greece: and for the establishment of the organized and pow- 
erful monarchies of Babylon, Xineveh, and Egypt ; besides the 



216 CHRONOLOGY: LXX AND HEBREW. 

lesser chieftaincies of Canaan, which seem to have been founded by 
descendants of Ham, after the expulsion of earlier settlers. 

3. The longer chronology appears to bring the age of each pa- 
triarch, on the birth of his eldest son, into better proportion to the 
gradually diminished length of human life. 

Those who adhere to the shorter computation urge, principally, 
the following considerations : — 

1. The general accuracy of the original Hebrew text, which was 
preserved by the Jews with most jealous care. 

2 . The facilities afforded by the shorter chronology for the safe 
and rapid transmission cxF revealed truth in the earliest ages; 
Lamech being contemporary both with Adam and with Shem, 
whilst Shem was contemporary with Abraham. 

3 . The coincidence (at least, within a few years) of the date fixed 
for the creation with a remarkable astronomical epoch, when the 
major axis of the earth's orbit coincided with the line of the 
equinoxes. 

4. The objection drawn from the shortness of the interval between 
the deluge and the birth of Abraham, compared with the apparent 
populousness of the earth, is more than met by the increase of man- 
kind in newly-peopled districts in modern times, and by the fact, that 
the Hebrew text gives at least as many generations as the LXX; 
while, on the supposition that men generally married as early as the 
ages assigned in the Hebrew text, it implies a larger population. 

On the whole, therefore, the longer chronology is not established; 
and, without accepting all the reckonings of Usher, we may safely 
deem it to be as probable as any opposite system. 

358. In addition to all the difficulties created by facility of 
mistake in copying figures, and consequent different readings, 
there are difficulties in chronology which arise from different 
modes of reckoning. 

The principal eras begin, as we have seen, in different 
. months. Many nations have two or more modes 

these discre- of reckoning the beginning of the year itself, civil, 
pancies. ecclesiastical ; civil, consular ; and above all, the 
year of chronology does not agree with the year of actual time. 
The Julian year, for instance, consisted of 365 days, 6 hours, 
which was 11 minutes, 9 seconds, too much. From A. D. 1, 
to A. D. 1836, therefore, the Julian year would be 143 days in 
advance. The Council of jSTice, however, struck out 2^ days, 
and in 1582, Gregory xill corrected the Calender, by ordering 
the 5th of October to be called the 15th, thus disposing of 



CHRONOLOGY : DISCREPANCIES. 217 

10 days more. In England, the 3rd of September, 1751, was 
reckoned as the 14th, and in 1800, the usual 29th of February 
was omitted, We therefore have corrected accurately the 
overreckoning of the Julian era, so that from a.d. 30, to A. D. 
1836, is, within a few hours, exactly 1806 years. 

Other eras are more erroneous than the Julian, and it is 
Different obvious that the absence of the necessary corfec- 
eras - tions in each, must give rise to many errors. 

Other peculiarities of reckoning add further to our diffi- 
culties. 

(a). Jewish historians, for example, speak of the reign of a king 
T-vj-pp . t which is continued through one whole year and parts of 
modes of two others as a three years' reign. It may he two years 
ie oning. and ten months, or it may be one year and two months. 

(5). They sometimes set down the principal number, the odd, or 
smaller number, being omitted; as in Judges 20. ^j : see ver. 46. 

(c). As sons frequently reigned with their fathers in ancient 
monarchies, the time of the reign of each is sometimes made to 
include the time of the other, and sometimes to exclude it. 

Thus Jotham is said to have reigned sixteen years, 2 Bangs 15. 
33 ; and yet, in ver. 3 c, mention is made of his twentieth year. For 
four years he seems to have reigned with Uzziah, who was a leper. 
So 2 Kings 13. 1, ic: 2 Kings 24. 8, compared with 2 Chron. 36. 9. 

A similar principle explains Dan. 1.1: Jer. 25. 1: Nebuchad- 
nezzar being king with his father when Jerusalem was besieged. 

This peculiarity of reckoning has been applied, with great advan- 
tage, to explain the chronological tables of Egypt and other eastern 
countries. 

id). It not unfrequently happens that different mcdes of reckoning 
are adopted in reference to the same transaction. 

See Gen. 15, 13 and Gal. 3. 17; Moses speaking of 400 years 
from the birth of Isaac to the Exode; Paul, of 430 years from the 
call of Abram to the giving of the law, which occurred three months 
after the Exode. See Exod. 12. 40. 

The same remark applies to other numbers. 

In Gen. 46. 26, 27, it is said that all the souls that went with 
Jacob into Egypt (not including his sons' wives) were sixty-six, or 
(adding Jacob, Joseph, and his two sons) seventy. In Acts 7. 14, it 
is said that Joseph sent and called Jacob, and all his kindred, 
seventy-five persons. This last includes the nine wives of Jacob's 
sons (for Judah's and Simeon's wives were dead, and Joseph's was 
already in Egypt). These nine, added to the sixty-six, make the 
seventy- five mentioned in the Acts. These passages were long 
supposed to involve a contradiction. 

L 



218 HOW TO FRAME A SYSTEM. 

Comparing Ezra 2, and Neh. 7., we find that 42,360 persons re- 
turned from Babylon, of whom the numbers of the tribes of Ben- 
jamin and Judah, and of the priests, are given. The numbers in 
Neheniiah amount to 31,089; in Ezra, to 29,818. Add to Nehe- 
miah's number 494 names, mentioned only in Ezra; and to Ezra's, 
1,765 names, mentioned only in Nehemiah, the results agree — 
31,583. The difference, 10,777, represents the number of persons 
belonging to other tribes. This apparent discrepancy was long 
regarded as an objection to the narrative. 

In reference, generally, to these apparent contradictions, it be- 
comes us rather to suspect our own ignorance than the writer's accu- 
racy. No passage can appear more contradictory than Ezek. 12. 13, 
and yet it was literally fulfilled: Zedekiah did not see Babylon, 
though he died there. 

In framing a chronological system, two rules are of great 
value. 

1. Ascertain important epochs, and reckon onwards or up- 
Euies for wards from them. The epoch of the birth of our 
framing a Lord is of course the centre point of all modern 

system of L 

ciironoiogy. chronology, and of much of ancient. The year of 
the. Council at Jerusalem, or of the death of Herod, is the key 
to the chronology of the Acts : as the date of Paul's conversion 
is the key to his Epistles. The return from the captivity, the 
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the building 
of the first temple, are all (reckoning upwards from a. d. i,) 
epochs of Old Testament History. Clinton in different parts 
of his Fasti, has well illustrated this rule, 

2. Wherever practicable, test chronological conclusions by 
astronomical facts. 

The Jewish Passover, for example, was commenced on the 
day preceding that on which the moon was full, between the 
1 8th of March, and the 16th of April. As the moon can be 
eclipsed only at the full, the day of the Passover for any year, 
will be the day preceding any eclipse that occurs between 
those dates. The Passover day, was the 14th of Nisan, and 
reckoning backwards, we ascertain the first day of each year. 
Fifty clear days after the 14th of Nisan came Pentecost : and 
177 clear days from the full of the moon of Nisan — six luna- 
tions that is— came the feast of Tabernacles. The Great Day 
of Atonement was five days earlier, the 10th of Tisri. 

Mr. Greswell applies this rule to coDfirm his chronology. 
Supposing the date of our Lord's crucifixion to be April 5th, 



EXTERNAL HELPS I NATURAL HISTORY. 219 

30, a. d., he reckons that an eclipse mentioned by Dion must 
have occurred August 1st, 45, a. d., and another by Pliny, 
April 30th, 59. a. D. a Pingre's tables, based on astronomical 
calculations show that eclipses did, in fact, take place on these 
days. 

Eecorded eclipses may be found in Pingre's tables, and in 
Playfair's Chronology. See also Kales' Chronology, i., p. 74. 

Tables have also been framed for correcting errors conse- 
quent upon the difference between the chronological and 
astronomical vear. 

359. v. Many of the allusions and expressions of Scripture 
can be explained only by the aid of knowledge of natural 
history. 

In Psa. 92. 12, for example, it is said that "the righteous shall 
flourish like the palm/"' and the habits of this tree beautifully illus- 
trate the character of the righteous. The palm grows not in the 
depths of the forest, or in a fertile loam, but in the desert. Its 
verdure often springs apparently from the scorching dust. "It is 
in this respect," says Laborde, "as a friendly lighthouse, guiding 
the traveller to the spot where water is to be found." The tree is 
remarkable for its beauty, its erect aspiring growth, its leafy canopy, 
its waving plumes, the emblem of praise in all ages. Its very 
foliage is the symbol of joy and exultation. It never fades, and 
the dust never settles upon it. It was therefore twisted into the 
booths of the feast of tabernacles (Lev. 23. 40), was borne aloft by 
the multitude that accompanied the Messiah to Jerusalem (John 
12. 13), and it is represented as in the hands of the redeemed in 
heaven (Rev. 7. 9). For usefulness, the tree is unrivalled. Gibbon 
says that the natives of Syria speak of 360 uses to which the palm 
is applied. Its shade refreshes the traveller. Its fruit restores his 
strength. "When his soul fails for thirst, it announces water. Its 
stones are ground for his camels. Its leaves are made into couches, 
its boughs into fences and vails, and its fibres into ropes or rigging. 
Its best fruit, moreover, is borne in old age; the finest dates being 
often gathered when the tree has reached a hundred years. It 
sends, too, from the same root a large number of suckers, which, in 
time, form a forest by then growth (Judges 4. 5). What an emblem 
of the righteous in the desert of a guilty world ! It is not unin- 
structive to add that this tree, once the symbol of Palestine, is now 
rarely seen in that country. 

' Mr. Gresweil's reasonings on these facts, however, are not very 
complete. He fails to supply the links which connect the dates of 
the eclipses with the date of the crucifixion of our Lord. 

L2 



220 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Another beautiful tree found in Palestine, and also an emblem of 
the Christian, • is the cedar. "The righteous shall grow like the 
cedar." This tree strikes its roots into the cloven rock. Like the 
palm, it loves the water; and if the wells near which it grows are 
dried, it withers, or ceases to grow. As its roots stretch away into 
the mountain, its boughs are spread abroad. Like the palm, it is 
an evergreen; though used to wintry weather, it is always covered 
with leaves. Its bark and leaves are highly aromatic, and the 
" smell of Lebanon" has become a proverb for fragrance. The cedar 
is sound to the very core. It adorns the mountain's brow, and 
then does service in the temple. After living a thousand years, 
it preserves all it touches, and gives beauty to the lintels and ceiling 
of the house of the Lord. Such is the character and influence of a 
resolute and consistent Christian ! 

In Deut. 32. 11, God is said to have taught Israel as the eagle 
trains her young. When the eaglets are old enough to fly, she stirs 
up her nest, separates its parts, and compels the young birds to fly 
to some neighbouring crag; she then flutters over them, teaching 
them to move their wings and to sustain and guide themselves by 
their movements. Finding them weary or unwilling, she spreads 
her wings, takes her brood upon her back, and soars with them 
aloft. In order to exercise their strength, she then shakes them 
off"; and when she perceives that their pinions flag, or that an 
enemy is near, she darts beneath them with surprising skill, and at 
once restores then strength, or places her own body between her 
young and the danger that threatens them. The eagle is the only 
bird endowed with this instinct, and the whole of her procedure is 
suggestive of instructive lessons in relation to the dealings of God. 
In the history of ancient Israel, and in the history of the church, it 
is found that He weans his people from their resting-place — in 
Egypt, in the world, and in their own righteousness — by means of 
affliction: He stirs up the nest. By the example of good men, by 
the exhibition of his perfections, by the life and character of his 
Son, he flutters over them; while his promise and spirit sustain 
their hearts, and make their happiness and safety as sure and un- 
changing as his own. 

In mountainous countries like Palestine, the ass, or mule, was 
often preferred for domestic uses even to the horse. Asses are con- 
sequently enumerated among the riches of Abraham and Job, Gen. 
12. 16 : Job 42. 12. Mephibosheth, the grandson of Saul, rode 
upon an ass; as did Ahithophel, the prime minister of David; and 
as late as the reign of Jehoram, the son of Ahab, the services of this 
animal were required by the wealthy. The Shunammite, for example, 
a person of high rank, saddled her ass and rode to Carmel, the 



EXTERNAL HELPS : NATURAL HISTORY. 221 

residence of Elisha, 2 Kings 4. S, 24. In later times, however, and 
even from the reign of Solomon, the paces of the horse began to he 
regarded as more stately and noble. Solomon himself introduced a 
numerous stud of the finest horses — horses of Arabia; and after the 
return of the Jews from Babylon, their great men rode for the most 
part on horses or mules. It soon became, therefore, a mark of 
poverty or of humility to appear in public on an ass, and this was 
the impression generally prevalent in the time of our Lord. (Com- 
pare Zech. 9. 9 with Matt. 21. 45). 

The Hebrews employed both the ox and the ass in ploughing the 
ground, Isa. 30. 24; 32. 20; but they were forbidden to yoke them 
to the same plough, partly because of their unequal step, and partly 
because the animals never associated happily together. This prohi- 
bition was perhaps intended to suggest the impropriety of an inter- 
course between Christians and idolaters in social and religious life; 
but it was also intended in the first instance, and chiefly, to protect 
the animals from cruel treatment. 

Issachar is compared to an ass ; and vigour and bodily strength 
are suggested by -the comparison. It is said also that he should 
bow his shoulder to bear, and prefer the yoke of bondage to the 
difficult issues of war, and inglorious ease to just freedom, Gen. 49. 
14 : a prophecy fulfilled in the history of that tribe, who submitted 
successively to the Phoenicians on the one hand, and to the 
Canaanites on the othei . 

The tail of the Syrian sheep is much larger than in other breeds. 
In a sheep weighing seventy pounds, the tail will often weigh 
fifteen; and it is deemed the most delicate part of the animal. 
Hence, in the religious ritual of the Hebrews, the priest is com- 
manded to take the ram and the tail (or the rump, as it is called in 
our version, Lev. 3. 9), and present them in sacrifice to Jehovah. 
Both were to be placed on the altar, to indicate the completeness 
and the value of the offering ... In its domesticated state, the sheep 
is a weak and defenceless animal. It is therefore dependent upon 
the shepherd both for protection and support. To the disposition 
of these animals to wander from the fold, and thus to abandon 
themselves (in a country like Judaea) to destruction, there are many 
touching allusions in Scripture, Psa. 119. 176 : Isa. 53. 6. . . . The 
eastern shepherd calls his sheep, and they recognise his voice and 
follow him. His care of them, and their security under his pro- 
tection, are beautifully set forth in John 10. it. It is plain that a 
knowledge of their habits is essential to a right appreciation of the 
imagery of Scripture. 

The lion is remarkable for courage and strength. If he retreats 
from an enemy, he retreats with his face towards him. After he 



222 NATURAL HISTORY. 

has killed his victim, he tears it in pieces, and, devours it with the 
utmost greediness, Psa. 17. 12: Hos. 13. 8. The young lion sub- 
sists according to ancient naturalists, by hunting, and seldom quits 
the deserts ; but when he has grown old he visits more frequented 
places, and becomes mOre dangerous to man. This fact explains the 
language of God by Hosea. " I will be unto Ephraim (or the ten 
tribes,) as a great (or old) lion," most therefore to be dreaded; 
" and to the house of Judah as a young lion," Chap. 5. 14, In ac- 
cordance with this prophecy, Ephraim was driven into a distant 
land, where this tribe suffered a protracted exile, while Judah re- 
tained its position for 133 years longer, and was then carried into 
captivity for the shorter term of seventy years. . . . One of the 
coverts of this animal was in the low ground in the neighbourhood 
of the Jordan, which, like the Nile, overflows its banks every spring. 
At that season, therefore, the coverts were laid under water, and 
the wild beasts were all driven to the hills, where they often com- 
mitted great ravages, Jer. 49. 19. " Like a lion from the swellings 
of Jordan," thus became a proverb in Judgea, which comparatively 
recent discovery has enabled us to understand. The energy of the 
gospel in striking terror into the hearts of the impenitent, and in 
imparting comfort to the church, is compared to the roaring of the 
lion, Joel 3. 16. The savage disposition of the lion is sometimes 
referred to, and then always in a bad sense. In 1 Pet. 5. 8, Satan 
is compared to a lion, and the enemies of the church generally are 
represented under the same name, Isa. 5. 29. 

Many other expressions and figures are borrowed from natural 
history. The " oil " of the olive berry soothes pain, and by closing 
the pores of the body against noxious exhalations, promotes health. 
It was thought peculiarly successful in counteracting the effect of 
poison, and hence it is often used to describe the power of the 
gospel. Its medicinal properties (See James 5.) made it of great 
commercial value : hence it is said, that "he that loveth oil, shall 
not be rich." 

The " myrrh " and " balm " (or balsam) of the East are strongly 
aromatic gums, which flow spontaneously, or by means of incision 
from the trees, and were in great request as articles of commerce. 
The balm of Gilead, Jer. 8. 22, was deemed a very valuable medi- 
cine, and the expression is often used figuratively to indicate any 
great remedy or restorative. 

The habits of the ant, of the locust, of the camel, of the dove, 
are all interesting, but they are generally sufficiently known, or are 
referred to with sufficient minuteness in the Scriptures themselves. 

360. Since the English Bible was completed, our knowledge 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 223 

of eastern botany, especially, has largely increased, and as the 
force of the imagery of Scripture frequently depends upon a 
knowledge of the plants which are named, we append a table 
of all the plants referred to in the Eible, with such a descrip- 
tion as will enable the reader to identify them. In some 
instances, the results are rather conjectural than certainly ac- 
curate, but these are few, and even in these, there is no doubt 
as to the general accuracy of the renderings proposed. The 
table is drawn up from various documents, and chiefly from 
the very elaborate articles on this subject, prepared by Dr. 
Royle. for Kitto's Biblical Cyclopaedia. 

Almond is the name of two trees mentioned in Scripture; the one, Luz, 
translated " hazel/' Gen. 30. 37, is the wild almond (Boch. 
Jer. Bosenm.), and the other, Snaked, the cultivated almond. 
The flowers are like the bloom of the apple-tree, at first rose- 
coloured, and then white. It is hence a symbol of old age, 
Eccl. 12. 5, and from its early blossoming, of any sudden 
interposition, Jer. 1. 11: rTumb. 17. 8: Gen. 43. 11. 

Almug, or .Algurn, is not known. Sandal wood, which is yellow or 
white, and fragrant, answers the description given in 1 Kings 
10. 11, 12. The name given in 2 Chron. 2. 8, is probably an 
error of the transcribers, see 1 Kings 10. 11, and 2 Chron. 9. 
10, 11. 

Aloes, properly lign-aloes, must be carefully distinguished from 
the aloe, which emits no agreeable odour, see Bsa. 45. 8: 
ISTumb. 24. 6. This tree is still known in India by the name of 
Aghil, and in Europe as the Eagle-tree (Aquilarici). The wood 
is highly odoriferous, and the tree is said in Eastern tradition 
to have been one of the trees of Paradise. The wood was very 
. costly, and was used to impart fragrance to the linen in which 
dead bodies were wrapped, John 19. 40. Heb. Ahalim. 

Anise, or Dill, occurs only in Matt. 23 (oiv/itiov). It is an herb of 
small value. Its seeds are aromatic and carminative, yielding 
an oil much used in flatulency. 

Apple of Scripture, is probably the quince, which is in the East 
more highly scented, and much sweeter than in Europe (Cels. 
Bay,) or it may be the citron, a rich golden-coloured fruit, 
Prov. 25. 11: Joel 1. 12: Cant. 2. 3, 5: 7. 8. Keb. Tappuach. 

Bay-tree occurs only in Psa. 37. 35, and is the laurus nobilis, an 
evergreen with an agreeable spicy odour. Heb. Ezrach. 

Bean occurs in 2 Sam. 17. 28: Eze. 4. 9, and is rightly translated. 
There are various speciss, but not widely different from each 
other. Heb. Pol. 



224 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 

Box-tree of the East, is the same as that of Europe, though in the 
East it grows wild and large, Isa. 41. 19 : 60. 13. It is specially 
adapted to mountainous districts, and a calcareous limestone 
soil, like Lebanon. Heb. Teashur. 

Briers. — The thorny plants of Palestine are very numerous, and 
Rabbinical writers say, that as many as twenty-two words are 
used in Scripture to express this species. The particular plants 
indicated by these words are generally not known, but they are 
nearly all thorny and useless. 

Brier, D'Op^U* Barkaoim, Judg. 8. 7, 16, some thorny prickly 
plant Rosen, translates "flails." pHH, Chedek, Prov. 15. 
19, " thorns," and Mic. 7. 4, "a brier/' a species of night- 
shade, Solanum spinosum (Royle). 

ppp, Ez. 28. 24: ^ETlp, Isa. 55. 13: "VD£>, Isa. 32. 13; and 

everywhere else in Isa., except 55. ii\ thorny plants not 
now known. Heb. Sillon: Sirpad: Shamir. 
Bramble, Judg. 9. 14, 15, etc., ^ftK, properly thorns, which 

• IT 

see : mil, thorn or thistle, which see. 

Nettle, Prov. 24. 31: Job ^o. 7: Zeph. 2. 9, p-IIPI, Charul. 
Royle thinks wild mustard. It is destructive to other- 
vegetation; common to the East, and known by the name 
of Chardul, or in English, Curlock. The nettle is probably 
the plant mentioned in Isa. 34. 13 : Hos. 9. 6 : Prov. 
24. 31 (£>!£>p, Kimmosh), where it is so translated. 

Bush (npD, faros), Exod. 3. 2: Deut. n. 16. The Greek 
word means bramble: and the Rvhris sanctus is common 
in Palestine. Pococke thinks the hawthorn the more pro- 
bable. Heb. Sene. 

Thistles ("H*n)> Gen. 3- J %> ^fioXes in lxx and New Testa- 
ment, Matt. 7. 16: Heb. 6. 8; a common prickly plant, 
spreading over the ground. Tribulus (PI in), probably a 
thorn-bush, Job 41. 2: Prov. 26. 9: Isa. 34, 13. 

Thorns, a general name, p^PI, JTin, ^*1p, pSgl TV&, &W 
(pricks,) DH^D, D^V- Gr. olxctvfa in the lxx, and in 
Matt. 7. 16: 13. 7, 22: 27. 27: John 19. 2, 5. All these 
words are translated thorns, and there is nothing in the 
terms to lead to a more minute knowledge of the species to 
which they refer: another name is HLDtf, Atad, Judg. 9. 
14, 15 : Psa. 58. 9, translated " bramble," probably a kind 
of buckthorn. It puts forth long, slender, thorned switches, 
and is by many supposed to be the thorn with which 
Christ was crowned, Zizyphus Spina Christi. 

Thorns, thistles, and brambles, are to this day very numerous 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 225 

in Palestine. The common bramble and the holy bramble 
(Bubris sanctus), abound : and thistles cover large tracts of 
ground, and grow to a prodigious size; among others, travellers 
mention the white Syrian thistle, with the Egyptian or purple 
variety, and the musk-scented thistle {Carduus mollis.') 

Calamus or Sweet Cane, Exod. 30. 23: Cant. 4. 14: Eze. 27. T9: 
Isa. 43. 24: Jer. 6. 20. This plant is found in Asia and Egypt, 
though the most fragrant are said in Jer. to come from a far 
country. Dr. Royle thinks that a species found in the Himalayas 
(and which he calls Andropogon Calamus aromaticus), best 
answers the description of Scripture. It was one of the ingre- 
dients of the anointing oil of the Sanctuary. Heb. Kana. 

Camphine, old English for Camphor, is probably the Alhenna (Gr. 
Kupros), of the East : a very fragrant shrub, with flowers 
growing like those of the lilac. The leaves form a powder used 
for dying the nails and eyebrows, — both in Syria and Egypt, 
Cant. 1. 14: 4. 13. Heb. Kopher. 

Cassia, Exod. 30. 24: Eze. 27. 19, an inferior kind of cinnamon. 
The bark yields an essential oil, less aromatic than cinnamon, 
but in larger quantities, and of a more pungent taste. Heb. 
Kida. 

Cedar, the name probably of the pine-tribe of trees, and especially 
of the noblest of the tribe, the cedar of Lebanon. The Hebrew 
word was probably used with the same extent as the English, 
hence we have the red, or pencil cedar, which is a Juniper, 
and indeed the cedar of the Pentateuch (Lev. 14. 4, 6,) was 
probably a Juniper, which tree is common in the desert of 
Sinai. Heb. Erez. 

Chesnut-tree, Gen. 30. 37: Eze. 31. 8, probably the plane, one of 
the most magnificent of trees. Those of Assyria were especially 
fine, see Eze. 31. 

Cinnamon, Ex. 30. 23: Prov. 7. 17: Cant. 4. 14: Rev. 18. 13, the 
bark of the laurus kinnamomum. The plant is found in India 
and China: but the best kind is from Malabar and Cevlon. 

Cockle, Job 31. 40, perhaps the English plant so called: but more 
probably a species of night-shade (Solanum nigrum), or Aconite. 
The plural of this word is translated " wild grapes," Isa. 
5 . 2 : the nightshade referred to grows largely in the East, 
and the Arabic name resembles the Hebrew. The fruit is nar- 
cotic and poisonous. Heb. Beushim. 

Coriander, an umbelliferous plant, yielding a fruit (called seed), the 
size of a pepper-corn, globular and greyish. It is common 
in the south of Europe, and is cultivated in Essex. The fruit 
is used by distillers, etc., as a good stomachic, Exod. 16. 31: 
Numb. 11. 7. Heb. Gad. 

L 3 



226 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 



* 



Cucumber, Numb. n. 5: Isa. 1. 8; rightly translated. The plant is 
called Kissa by the Arabs, and is extensively cultivated m the 
East. Heb. Kishuim. 

Desire, Eccl. 12. 5. The word so translated is generally regarded 
as the Caper plant (see 2 Sam. 19. 34, 35,) which yields a 
pungent pickle, stimulating to the appetite. The flower-buds, 
and in some species the unripe pod, in others the berry, are 
used for this purpose. Heb. Ebiyona. 

Doves-Dung, 2 Kings 6. 25, is probably the chick-pea, a vetch com- 
mon in the East. The same name is still applied in Arabic to 
the dung of pigeons, and -Jo these peas (Bochart, Taylor). Some 
suppose that the root of a wild-flower, the star of Bethlehem, 
is the article here mentioned. Heb. Dibhyonim. 

Ebony, Eze. 27. 15, wood greatly prized for its colour and hardness. 
It is the heart-wood of a date-tree, which grows in great 
abundance in the East, and especially in Ceylon. Heb. 
Hobhnim, 

Fig-tree, Arab, teen: properly translated: a native of the East; 
with broad shady leaves (1 Kings 4. 25). The fig sprouts at 
the vernal equinox, and yields three crops of fruit. The 
first ripening about the end of June, having a fine flavour, and 
generally eaten green (Jer. 24. 2). The others are often pre- 
served in masses or cakes, 1 Sam. 25. 18, etc. Heb. Teena. 

Fir-tree (JtfYXl, Berosh), is frequently mentioned in Scripture, 
2 Sam. 6, 5 : Cant. 1. 17, etc., and probably includes various 
trees of the pine tribe. Some regard the cypress and juniper as 
the true representatives of Berosh; others the cedar, and others 
the common pine. All are found in Palestine ; and as cedar and 
'fir constantly occur together in Scripture, they probably in- 
clude the whole genus. 

Flax (Hfi^S, Pishta, once translated tow, Isa. 43 . 17, more pro- 
perly a wick) : the common plant, so called, used to make linen, 
cord, and torches; extensively cultivated in Egypt and Syria. 
Gr. xlvov, Matt. 12. 20. 

WU, Shesh, translated fine linen and silk, was probably the 
hemp plant, in Arabic husheesh, yielding an intoxicating drink 
(whence assassin), now known as the bang of the East. The 
plant is cultivated in Persia, Europe, and India. 

Two other words are translated linen in the English version, 
*D; Bad; V-"D, Butz, the former is used in the Pentateuch, 
etc., and is probably the linen made from flax; the latter is 
used only in Chron. and the Prophets, and is probably cotton 
cloth, a product not mentioned till after the captivity : it is 
generally translated fine linen, and was probably of finer fibre 
than the flax. The fiu<r<ro; of the New Testament was proba- 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 227 

bly linen. In the lxx, fivcro-o; translates both words. The 
word cotton does not occur in Scripture, but the Hebrew name 
(Karpas), is found in Esth. i. 6, where it is translated green. 
The cotton plant seems not to have been known in Palestine, 
before the captivity. The cotton is the lining of the seed 
pods, and is gathered by hand, as the pods ripen and burst. 

Flag (translated meadow, in Gen. 41. 2, 18), Job 8. 11, probably 
any green herbaceous plants of luxuriant growth. Heb. Achu. 

Fitches, i.e., vetches, occurs only in Isa. 28. 25, 27, and is probably 
a species of Nigella. The seeds are black, and are used in the 
East, like carraway seeds, for the purpose of imparting to food 
an aromatic, acrid taste. Heb. Ketzach. 

Galbanum, Ex. 30. 34 only, a very powerful and not very fragrant 
gum, exuded by a shrub belonging to the family o^Umbel- 
lifersB (Bubon Galbanum). It was used in preparing incense. 

Garlick, Numb. 11. 5 only. This plant is now known by the name 
of Eschalot, or Shalot, and is common in Europe (Allium Esca- 
lonium, i.e., of Ascalon). Herodotus states, that it was supplied 
in large quantities to the labourers engaged in the erection of 
the Pyramids. Heb. Shum. 

Gopher is mentioned only in Gen. 6. 14. Probably a tree of the 
pine tribe, perhaps Cypress (Bochart, Celsius), which is very 
abundant in Assyria. Heb. Gopher. 

Gourd, Jonah 4. 6-10, is now generally admitted to be the Palma 
Christi, or Castor- oil plant. It is of very rapid growth, with 
broad palmate leaves, 1 and giving, especially when young, an 
ample shade. The oil is obtained from the seeds of the tree. 

Gourd, Wild, 2 Kings 4. 39. The wild cucumber, whose leaves are 
like those of the vine, but of a poisonous quality and bitter 
taste. Heb. Kikayon and Pakuoth. 

Hemlock, Hos. 10. 4: Amos 6. 12, translated "gall" in Deut. 29. 18 : 
Lam. 3. 19. Tremellius and Celsius regard hemlock as the 
true meaning : others think it a general name for any bitter 
herb (Royle). Heb. Eosh. 

Hyssop, Exod. 12. 22, etc, either marjoram, a small shrub, its leaves 
covered with soft woolly down, adapted to retain fluid; or the 
thorny caper (Royle), which grows wild in Syria, and is pos- 
sessed of detergent properties. Arab. Asaf. Heb. Ezov. 

Husks (zsparia), Luke 15, the pods (probably) of the Carob-tree, a 
tree which is called St. John's Tree, is of middle size, the fruit 
consisting of flat pods, six inches long, and an inch broad. 
The seeds are hard, bitter, and useless, but the pods are used 
for feeding swine. The tree is common in Spain, and its pods 
were the chief food of the horses of the British cavalry there 
in 8ii, 1812. 



228 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 

Juniper, I Kings 19. 4, 5: Job 30. 4: Psa. 120. 4; is probably tiie 
Spanish broom. The wood of this tree burns with a remarkably- 
light flame, giving out great heat: hence coals of juniper in 
Psa. 120. This fact is noticed by various Eastern travellers. 

Leeks (TVn, vpatrov), Numb. 11. 5. The word so translated, is ren- 
dered grass, 1 Kings 18. 5: herb, Job 8. 12: and hay, Prov. 
27. 25. It properly means anything green. But it is trans- 
lated leeks in these passages by most of the versions ; and the 
plant has been known (and indeed worshipped), in Egypt from 
very early times. 

Lentiles, a kind of pulse, from a small annual, and used for making 
soups and pottage. It is of the colour of chocolate (reddish- 
brown), and is compared by Pliny to the colour of the reddish 
sand around the pyramids. Wilkinson (Anct. Egypt), has 
given a picture of Lentile-pottage making, taken from an 
ancient slab, Gen. 25, 34: 2 Sam. 17. 28. Heb. Adashim. 

Lily, this word is probably applicable to several plants common in 
Palestine. In most passages of Scripture where the word is 
used, there is reference to the lotus, or water-lily of the Nile. 
This species was eaten as food : the roots, stalks, and seeds are 
all very grateful, both fresh and dried. Hence the allusion to 
feeding among lilies. The " lily of the valley," i.e., of the 
water-courses, belongs also to this species, Cant. 2. 2, 16: 4. 5, 
etc. The flower was worn on festive occasions, and formed one 
of the ornaments of the temple, 1 Kings 7. 19. Heb. Shushan. 
The lily of the New Testament (xplvov), is the scarlet marta- 
gon lily (LiL Chalcedonium), a stately turban-like flower. It 
flowers in April and May, when the sermon on the Mount was 
probably delivered, and is indigenous throughout Galilee. It 
is called in the New Testament the " lily of the field/' 
Matt. 6. 28. 

Mallows, only in Job 30. 4, is probably what we understand by the 
name. It is still used by the poor as a common dish. Others 
suppose that a kind of salt- wort (or ache), is meant; so Bochart 
and Dr. M. Good. . Heb. Malluach. 

Mandrakes, Gen. 30. 14. 16: Cant. 7. 13, Atropa Mandragora, a plant 
like lettuce in size and shape, but of dark green leaves. The 
fruit is of the size of a small apple, and ripens in wheat-harvest 
(May). It is noted for its exhilarating and genial virtues. 

Melon, Numb, 11. 5. The gourd tribe, to which cucumbers and 
melons belong, are great favourites in the East, and abound in 
Egypt and India. There are different kinds, — the Egyptian 
(Cucumis Chate), the common water-melon, etc., all of which 
are probably included in the Scripture name. Heb. Abattichim. 

Millet j Eze. 4. 9, the panicum miliaceum of botanists, a small grain, 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 229 

sometimes cultivated in England for feeding poultry, and 
grown throughout the East. It is used for food in Persia, and 
in India. Heb. Dochan. 

Mulberry, in the New Testament Sycamine-tree, Luke 17. 6, (very 
different from the Syconiore, which is a kind of fig), is the 
mulberry of Europe, very common in Palestine. The word 
translated mulberry in 2 Sam. 5. 23, 24: 1 Chr. 14, 14, 15, pro- 
bably means poplar. The rustling of its leaves answers the des- 
cription given in these passages. The same word occurs in 
Psa. 84. 6, and is there regarded as a proper name (Baca), but 
most of the versions translate it " weeping:" Valley of Baca 
equalling "vale of tears." 

Mustard (2/va*n), is either a species of the plant known in England 
under this name, which has one of the smallest seeds, and is 
itself among the tallest of herbaceous plants, or the Sahadora 
Persica, a shrub or tree, whose seeds are used for the same 
purpose as mustard (Boyle, Irby). 

Myrrh, is the representative of two words XT, Hebrew, of which the 
first ("lb o-ftupvcc), is properly translated, Exod. 30. 23 : Psa. 45. 
8, etc.: Mark 15. 23, 36. It is a gum exuded by the Balsamo- 
dendron Myrrlia, and other plants. It is highly aromatic and 
medicinal, and moderately stimulating. The Greeks used it to 
drug their wine. The shrub is found in Arabia and Africa. 

TwMi, Bedolach, Gen. 2. 12 : Numb. n. 7, is probably a 
gum, still known as bdellium. The gum exudes from more 
than one tree, and is found in both India and Africa. 

ty\7 } Lot, is properly labdanum. It is a gum exuded by the 
Cistus, and is now used chiefly in fumigation, Gen. 37. 25 ; 
43. it. Other similar gums mentioned in Scripture, are 

Balm (yy£), Gen. 37, 25: Jer. 8. 22. It is probably the 
balm or balsam of Gilead (the Hebrew of which word, however, 
D£/% is generally translated spice, or sweet odours). This tree 
is common in Arabia and Africa. The gum is obtained in small 
quantities, and is highly aromatic and medicinal. 

Frankincense (i131T?), is a gum taken from a species of Storax, 
and is highly fragrant. It was employed chiefly for fumigation, 
and was largely used in the service of the temple. It was 
regarded as an emblem of prayer, Lev. 2. 1: Psa. 145. 1, 2: 
Rev. 8. 3, 4. Heb. Lebona. 

Spicery (JTDJ), Gen. 37, 25 : 43. 11, is a kind of gum, per- 
haps taken from the tragacunth tree. Heb. Xecoth. 

Stacte (S)tp3); occurs only in Exod. 30. 34, and is another 
gum, not now certainly known. Celsius thinks it an inferior 
kind of myrrh. Heb. Neteph. 



230 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 

Myrtle grows wild in Palestine, and reaches the height of twenty 
feet. Its leaves are dark and glossy, and its white flowers 
highly aromatic. Its branches were used at the Feast of Taber- 
nacles, ISTeh. 8. 15: Isa. 41. 17-19- Heb. Hadas. 

Nard } Mark 14. 3 mj, nerd, translated Spikenard in the Old Testa- 
ment), the plant Nardostachys Jatamansi, from which a deli- 
cious and costly perfume is made. The root and the leaves 
th?,t grow out of it have the appearance of spikes, hence the 
name (stachys = spike), Cant. 1. 12: 4. 13. 14: John 12. 3. 

JSlui is the translation of two Hebrew words. 

d^pn, Botnim, Gen. 43. 11, the pistacliio-nut tree, .well 
known in Syria and India, but not in Egypt, and flSfj! Egoz, 
the vxdnut-tree, which is called in Pers. and Arab, "gouz," 
Cant. 2. 

Oah (f)?K), Gen. 35. 8: Isa. 2. 13: 6. 13: 44. 14: Eze. 27. 6: 
Hos. 4. 13 : Amos 2. 9: Zech. 11. 2. In other passages where 
the word ' ' oak " is found, the word ought to be turpentine-tree 
(see tcil.) The oak is not common in Palestine, nor is the 
English oak (Q. robur), found there. Oaks of Bashan are still 
of large size; but they are chiefly either the evergreen oak 
(Q. ilex), the prickly- cupped oak (Q. Valonia), or the Kermes 
oak (see Scarlet Oak). Heb. Allon. 

Olive, an evergreen, common from Italy to Caubul. The unripe 
fruit is preserved in a solution of salt, and is used at desserts ; 
when ripe, it is bruised in mills, and yields an oil of peculiar 
purity and value. Both the oil and the tree were used in the 
feast of tabernacles. In Judaea it was an emblem of prosperity, 
Psa. 52. 8, and in all ages it has been an emblem of peace. 

The wild olive, (Horn. 11. 17, 24), was probably a wild 
species of the Olea Europaa. It was a common mode of graft- 
ing in Italy, to insert a branch of the wild olive on the stock of 
the cultivated plant (Columella). Heb. Zaith. 

Onion, a plant well known in this country and in the East. In hot 
climates it loses its acrid taste, and is highly agreeable and 
nutritious, Numb. 11. 5. Heb. Betzal. 

Palm, or date-tree, Arab, tamr, is one of the most valuable eastern 
trees, Exod. 15. 27. It flourished especially in the valley of 
Jordan (hence Jericho, the City of Palm-trees) and in the 
deserts of Syria (Tamar = Palmyra). It was considered 
characteristic of Judsea, being first met with there by nations 
travelling southward from Europe. Heb. Taman. 

Pomegranate (" grained-apple"), a tree of great value in hot 
climates. Its fruit is globular, and as large as a good-sized 
apple. The interior contains a quantity of purple or rosy seeds, 
with a sweet juice, of a slightly acid taste, 1 Sam. 14. 2. The 



BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 231 

tree is not unlike the common hawthorn, but larger It ia 
cultivated in North Africa and throughout Asia, Hag. 2. 19: 
Deut. 8. 3: Cant. 8. 2: Joel 1. 12. Heb. Kimmon. 

Carved pomegranates were placed on the capitals of the 
columns of the temple. 

Poplar, Gen. 30. 37: Hos. 4. 13, is either the white poplar or the 
storax-tree. The latter yields the fragrant resin of frankincense. 
Either tree answers the description given in Genesis and Hosea. 
In the former, the lxx translate storax, and in the latter, 
poplar. The version of Genesis is the more ancient and 
authoritative. Heb. Libna. 

Meed, of the East, is a tall, grassy plant, consisting of a long, 
hollow-jointed stem, with sharp-cutting leaves. The plant 
grows on the banks of rivers and in moist places, 1 Kings 14. 
15: Job 40. 21: Isa. 19. 6, 7: 36. 6: Ez. 40. 5: Matt. 11. 7, 
and was used for measuring, fishing, walking, etc. 

A small kind was used for writing, 3 John 13. This reed is 
very abundant in the marshes between the Tigris and the 
Euphrates. Heb. Kane. 

Rose, Cant. 2. 1: Isa. 35. i, Though the rose was known in Syria, 
and one species (the Damask rose) takes its name from Damascus, 
it is not mentioned in Scripture. The word so translated being 
(as its name implies) a bulbous-rooted plant. It is probably 
the Narcissus, which is found throughout Syria, and is both 
very fragrant and beautiful. Heb. Chavatzeleth. 

Eue, only in Luke 11. 42, is the common garden-plant so called. 
Its leaves emit a strong and bitter odour, and were formerly 
used medicinally. 

Rush, Isa. 9. 14, translated also "hook," Job 4.1. 2 : and bulrush, 
Isa. 58. 5, ought to be translated reed, or rush, in all these 
passages. fc$DJ, (Gome,) translated, also, bulrush, Exod. 2. 3: 
Isa. 35. 7: 18. 2, is the Egyptian papyrus, which belongs to the 
tribe, not of rushes, but of sedges. It grows eight or ten feet 
high. The stem is triangular, and without leaves, but is 
adorned with a large, flocculent, bushy top. The plant was 
used for making boats, sails, mats, and ropes ; the stem itself 
yielding the celebrated paper of Egypt. The plant is found in 
all parts of the Nile, near Babylon, and in India. Heb. Agmon. 

Saffron, x^ozos, part of the yellow crocus, Cant. 4. 14. The stigmas 
and style of the flower formed this fragrant perfume, which 
was used to flavour both meat and wine, and as a powerful 
stimulative medicine. It is very common throughout Asia, 
and derives its English name (saffron) from the Arabic * zafran." 

Scarlet oak, of Palestine, is not mentioned in Scripture, but the 



232 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 

insect living upon it is mentioned (fij}?fl, Tolaath), ExocL 
25. 4: Lev. 14. 4, 6, etc. The tree is the kermes (hence 
crimson), or quercus coccifera (holm-oak), and the insects, a 
worm (vermes, hence vermilion), seem to grow on the branches, 
and were long thought to be vegetable excrescences of the tree 
itself. These insects are a lively red, and formed in early 
times the common scarlet dye. This was superseded in part by 
the Tyrian purple, and in later times by cochineal, the product 
of another insect {Coccus cactus), indigenous to South America. 
Shittah-tree, the acacia, or Egyptian thorn, Exod. 25. 5, etc. The 
stem is straight and thorny, the bark is a greyish-black, the 
wood very light and durable, and therefore well adapted for a 
moveable structure like the tabernacle. All this species bear 
flowers, and are remarkable for their fragrance and beauty. 
Soap, of Scripture, Jer. 2. 22: Mai. 3. 2, was a carbonate of soda, 
obtained from a kind of salt- wort. The ashes of this species of 
plants is called in commerce barilla, and is used in the manu- 
facture of glass. Probably, the carbonate of potash (pearlash), 
which is obtained hj burning poplar and other plants, is in- 
cluded under this name. Heb. Bor, or Borith. 
Sycomore, 1 Kings ro. 27: Psa. 78.47, etc., erroneously translated 
by the lxx o-uKoiptvo; (see Mulberry). In its leases it resembles 
the mulberry, but is really a fig-tree, bearing a coarse, inferior 
fruit (Ficus sycomorus). It is lofty and shady (Luke 19. 4), 
with wood of no great value (1 Kings 10. 27: 2 Chron. 1. 15). 
The mummy-cases of Egypt were generally made of it. This 
tree must be distinguished from the English sycamore, which 
is a kind of maple. 
Tares (£<£av/a), Matt. 13. 25, the Lolium temulentum, a kind of 
darnell, or grass, resembling wheat. It impoverishes the soil, 
and bears a seed of deleterious properties. 
Teil-tree, Isa. 6. 13, is the linden-tree of botanists {Tilia Eurcp.): 
called also the turpentine-tree {Pistachio, terebinthus). The 
word so rendered is translated elsewhere elm, Hos. 4. 13, and 
oak, Gen. 35. 4. It grows to a great size, and yields a kind 
of turpentine, of agreeable odour and taste. Heb. Ela. 
Thyine-ii'ood (Rev. 18. 12), was in great demand among the Romans, 
who called it thya, of citron- wood. It grows only in the 
neighbourhood of Mount Atlas, in Africa, and yields the 
sanderach rosin of commerce. It is highly balsamic and 
odoriferous. 
Vine (!5?.> Gephen, oipviAoi), Gen. 9. 20, etc., a well-known tree, and 
highly esteemed throughout the East. The vines of Eshcol, 
and of Sorek, were especially celebrated. The vine was grown 



EXTERNAL HELPS : MINERALOGY. 233 

en terraces on the hills of Palestine, Isa. 5. i: Micah 1. 6, or 
elsewhere on the ground, Eze. 17. 6, 7. Sometimes it formed 
an arbour, 1 Kings 4. 25: Hos. 2. 12, propped up and trained. 
A noble vine = men of generous disposition, Jer. 2.21: Isa. 5,2. 
A strange, or wild vine = men ignoble and degenerate, Dent. 
32. 32: Gen. 40. 9, 10, etc. 

Willow, Psa. 137: Isa. 44. 4, was well known in Judaea, and one 
species, the weeping willow, is the Salix Babylonica. (flDUS)?), 
Tsaphtsapha, £z. 17. 5, is probably the Egyptian willow {Salic 
uEgypt.) 

Wormwood (Hj>v, Laana, a^Udiov), " root of bitterness," Deut. 29. 
17: Rev. 8. 10, 11, an emblem of trouble. There are various 
species of this tribe (Artemisia), of which the English plant 
(J., absinthium*) is a specimen. There are several kinds found 
in Judaea, all of which are exceedingly bitter. The wormwood 
of commerce consists of the tops of the plants, flowers, and 
young seeds intermixed. 

361. For the same reason (§ 360.) we append tables of 
the minerals mentioned in Scripture. They will be found to 
throw light on several passages. 

1. Earths and other Mineral Substances. 

Bitumen, or asphalt, translated slime, is an earth-resin, abounding 
in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea and elsewhere. It was 
used as cement, Gen. 11. 3, as it still is in Zante and in some 
parts of the East. Pliny states that the Egyptians used it for 
making the papyrus boats of the Xile water-tight : (see Exod. 
2. 3). Heb. Chamar. 

Brimstone, or sulphur, a mineral found in a natural state, and ob- 
tained by art from pyrites and various rock formations. It is 
found in Palestine in both states, Gen. 19. 24, 25: Psa. 11. 6: 
Ezek. 38. 22: Isa. 10. 33: 34. 9: Rev. 14. 10. Heb. Gophrith. 
Xaphtha is also found in Palestine, and is, with the fore- 
going, highly combustible. The word occurs only, or rather, 
this earth-oil is mentioned only in Theodotion's version of part 
of Daniel. 

Clay, an unctuous earth, used in making earthenware, Isa. 29. 16: 
45. 9: Jer. 18. 4, 6, and, when mixed with sand — then called 
mud — for building, Job 4. 19. D^D, Tit (properly, dirt), has also 
the meaning of clay in Isa. 41. 25. 

Earth has three representatives in Hebrew: r 4 !X, Eretz, = the 
earth, habitable and uninhabited; nft'ltf, Adama, properly, 



334 MINERALOGY : STONES AND ROCKS. 

red earth, cultivable land, and sometimes the whole earth; 
*15JJ, aphar, dry earth, or dust. There are also words for very 
fine dust (Deut. 28. 24: Nahum 1. 3), and a dust-particle, or 
atom (Isa. 40. 15). Clods of earth have three names, Job 7.5: 
31. 33: Joel 1. 17. 
Nitre (soda), natrum, "IfO, Nether, a mineral alkali (as JW2, Borith, 
translated soap, is a vegetable alkali), found in a natural 
state in Egypt, etc. It occurs only, Jer. 2. 22, and in Prov. 

25. 22. Vinegar (any acid) makes it emit a disagreeable odour, 
and destroys its qualities; hence the last passage. 

Salt abounds in Palestine. The Dead Sea is strongly impregnated 
with it. The salt-valley of 2 Sam. 8. 13: 1 Chron. 18. 12: 
Psa. 60, is a large plain, still existing, south-west of the Dead 
Sea. The salt-pits of Zeph. 2. 9, were probably such as are 
still dug in the borders of the Dead Sea, into which the water 
runs, and where a thick crust of salt is soon deposited. Figu- 
ratively, salt expresses permanence, friendship, payment or sup- 
port, sterility; pure, salutary, healthy influence; preserving 
from decay. Hence a covenant of salt, 2 Chron. 13. 5 : Rosenm. 
on Lev. 2. 13: Ez. 4. 14, marg. : Psa. 107. 34 (because nothing 
can grow in a soil covered with salt, Jer. 17. 6: Judg. 19. 45): 
Col. 4. 6 (where it refers to apposite pure discourse): Matt. 
5. 13: Mark 9. 50. Heb. Melach. 

Sand abounds in Palestine, and is often used as a comparison, to 
express abundance, extensiveness, weight, etc. Heb. Choi. 

2. Stones and Rocks. 

Alabaster (from the Coptic, the whitish stone) of the moderns, is a 
kind of gypsum: among the ancients, the word was applied to 
a box, made of a kind of onyx (Pliny, lib. 36, chap. 1), Matt. 

26. 7: Mark 14. 3 : Luke 7. 37. Pliny states that it was much 
used for perfumery-boxes, as it still is in Egypt. 

Chalk-stones, Isa. 27. 9, lime-stone, the chief material of the hills of 
Syria and Palestine. It is hard and whitish; sometimes yellow 
or grey. Heb. Gir. 

Crystal (Ezek. 1. 22: Job 28. 18) means literally in Hebrew and 
Greek, ice, a transparent, glass-like stone, of the flint family, 
Rev. 4. 6: 22. 1. Heb. Kerach, Gabhish. 

Flint, Deut. 8. 15: 32. 13: Psa. 114. 8: Isa. 50. 7: Job 28. 9, 
translated also rock. The rocks of Sinai, to which in Deut. 8r 
the word is applied, are granite, porphyry, and green-stone, 
and such rocks are no doubt intended. Heb. Chalamish. 

Lime (Tb, Seed, Isa. 33. 12: Amos 2. 1: translated plaster, Deut. 
27 24), is more properly gypsum, which was more suitable for 



MINERALOGY : PRECIOUS STONES. 235 

the purpose named in Deut. 27. Lime, or gypsum, was early 
used for plastering, Can. 5.5. 

Marble (&*&, Shesh) is limestone of a close texture. The name iii 
Hebrew means whiteness, and this was probably the common 
colour, 1 Chron. 29. 2: Esther 1. 6: Cant. 5. 15. It is very 
common in Arabia and Persia. Josephus states that the second 
temple was rebuilt by Herod with white marble, either from 
Arabia, or, possibly, from the hills of Syria. 

Ji0ck/ K 1^, Tsur) is the generic name. High precipitous rocks, fit 

for refuge, are called p/p, Sela, Judg. 15. 8, 11: 1 Sam. 14. 4: 
Psa. 18. 3. 
Stone (}3& Even), is generic. The Hebrew has distinct names for 
pebbles and gravel, J^Ti, n'tyft, T1X. 

3. Precious Stones. 

Agate, a common compound mineral, of flint and various gems, so 
called from the river Achates in Sicily (Pliny), Exod. 28. 19: 
39. 22. The word in Isa. 54. 12 : Ez. 27. 16, is different 
(*Un5)« -^ similar Arabic word means vivid redness, and the 
stone referred to is probably the oriental ruby. 

Amethyst, a kind of blue transparent quartz, sometimes purple or 
greyish; supposed by the Greeks to have the power of chiving 
away drunkenness, hence its Greek name; by the Hebrews, of 
procuring dreams (Djn, Chelem, a dream), Eev. 21. 20. 

Beryl, Tarshish stone, or clirysolith, properly, a gem of yellow gold 
lustre, sometimes verging to yellow green, Exod. 28, 20: 
39. 13: Cant. 5. 14: Ezek. 1. 16, etc.: Eev. 21. 20: see Onyx. 

Carbuncle (flashing as lightning); the word so translated is rather 
the oriental emerald (jrp.uoa.yhoi), a beautiful green, of different 
shades, Exod. 28. 17: Ezek. 28. 13: so lxx: Jos. 

Other words are used in Isa. 54. 12, meaning "sparkling 
stones." Carbuncle is derived, etymologicaliy, from carbo, a 
glowing coal. See Emerald. 

Diamond, upTV^ Yahalom, and"tfp2?, Shemir. The first is the onyx, 
a kind of chalcedony, of various tints. When red, called 
sardonyx (see Sardms) ; reddish grey, chalcedonyx ; tawny, 
memphitonyx. This gem, the onyx, was semi-transparent (like 
the human nail, hence its name), and was much used for cameos 
and seals, Exod. 28, 18: Ezek. 28. 13. 

The second is found Jer. 17. 1 (also Ezek. 3. 9: Zee. 7. 12, 
translated adamant), and probably means emery, an aluminous 
mineral, very hard, used for polishing glass. 

Emerald, rather, carbuncle, under which name several brilliant red 



236 MINERALOGY: METALS. 

stones were included; especially the ruby, garnet, etc, Exod 
28. 18: Ezek. 28. 13. 

Jasper, an opaque gem, of various tints, green, red, and yellow, 
Exod. 28. 20: Ezek. 28. 13: Rev. 4. 3: 21. 11, 18, 19. 

Ligure, hyacinth, or jacinth, a transparent gem, orange -yellow-red, 
found in Ceylon and India, Exod. 28. 19: Rev. 21. 20: 9. 17. 

Onyx, probably the beryl or chrysoprase, Gen. 2. 12: Eev. 21. 20 
(«. e., a leek-green stone), generally transparent, and a pale 
green colour, Exod. 25. 7: Ezek. 28. 13. 

Sapphire, a transparent geoi, generally sky-blue, and very hard; 
hence the floor of the chrone of God in heaven is compared to 
it, Exod. 24. 10: Ezek. 1. 26: Rev. 21. 19. The sapphire of 
the Greeks was our lapis lazuli ; the same colour as the Scrip- 
ture sapphire, but much softer. 

Sardius (DHk, Odem, red stone), properly carnelian (a came), a 
flesh-coloured gem, of the chalcedony family. It abounds in 
Arabia, and was found largely at Sa?^dis, in Lydia, Exod. 28. 
17: Ezek. 28. 13: Rev. 4. 3: 21. 28. 

Topaz, a yellow gem, with red, grey, or green tinge, found in 
South Arabia. Hence the topaz of Cush ; an island of the Arabic 
Gulf being called Topaz island (Diod.* Sic. Pliny), Job. 28. 19; 
Exod. 28. 17: Ezek. 28. 13: Rev. 21. 29. 

The descriptions in Revelation, it will be noticed, are closely 
connected with those in Exodus, and in Ezekiel. 

4. Metals. 

Amber, Ezek. 1. 4, 27: 8. 2, properly, a metal composed of copper 
and gold. Electron, which is used by the lxx to translate 
it, meant amber, and also a similar composition (Pliny). 
The corresponding Greek word is found in Rev. 1. 15, "fine 
shining brass." 

Antimony, or stibium, occurs in the Hebrew, but is translated paint 
(viz., the eyes) literally, with antimony, 2 Kings 9. 30: Jer. 
4. 30: Ezek. 23. 40. The verb is ?rp, Kachal, to colour with 
al-kohol, a fine black powder made from the metal. The name 
(t. e., 'H, al-kohol), was ultimately applied (in Europe) to the 
purely spirituous part of liquors. The stones of Jerusalem are 
said to be set in stibium " fair colours," Isa. 54. 11. 

Copper, or brass : the former word is derived from Cyprus, where it 
was largely found. Brass is copper mixed with zinc or tin. In 
early times, this metal was generally used instead of iron. 
Wherever the word steel occurs in our version, the original is 



MINERALOGY : METALS. 237 

brass. There is ample evidence from classic and Egyptian 
authorities that brass was extensively used, and it is said that 
the Egyptians had the art of tempering it. It wasyeinployed in 
making bows, and arms of all kinds. The columns of the 
temple, i Kings 7. 13-21, the bath, or sea. in the priests' vesti- 
bule, the forks used in sacrifice, the mirrors, were all of this 
material, Exod. 38. 8: 2 Kings 25. 13. The "copper shining 
like gold," Ezra 8. 27, was probably a mixture of the two 
metals. See Amber. 
£oM(~)op, Segor, DTD* Kethem, properly, what is barely concealed; 

* • * 

^"In, Charuts, what is strongly lustrous; T3, Paz, pure gold; and 

UilT, Zahab, gold itself, its mineral name) is found pure, and in 

combination with, silver or iron. The Jews obtained their gold 
chiefly from Sheba and Ophir, both, in Arabia, 1 Kings 9. 28: 
Psa. 45. 9. At present, no gold is found there, but ancient 
writers (Artemid. Diod. Sic.) affirm that it was formerly found 
in considerable quantities. The places named in Dan. 10. 5, 
and 2 Chron. 3. 6, are not known. Beaten, or perhaps alloyed 
(Ges.) gold is mentioned in 1 Kings 10. 16, 17. Gold and silver 
were sometimes purified by fire, Pro v. 17. 3 ; lead, antimony, 
salt, tin, and bran, being used for this purpose. Gold orna- 
ments were early used. The first mention of gold money is 
in David's age, 1 Chron. 21. 25. 

Iron was largely found in Syria, even in -the earliest times, Deut. 
8. 9. Instruments and tools were made of it, Numb. 35. 16: 
Deut. 27. 5. Steel is called in Jer. 15. 12, "northern iron." 
The tribe celebrated in ancient times for making it were called 
Chalybes, and resided near the Black Sea. Hence Jer. descrip- 
tion: and its Greek name. Another name for steel (TH^S 
Palda, from the Arabic) is translated torches, Xahum 2. 4: 
steel scythes. See Copper. 

Lead is first mentioned, Exod. 15. 10. Before quicksilver was 
known, it was used to purify silver. Hence several expressions, 
Jer. 6. 29: Ezek. 22. 18. In Amos 7. 7, a weight of lead, or 
plummet, is mentioned. The word is the Arabic for lead 
(1g& Anak). 

Ore of gold or of silver has in Hebrew a separate name. It means 
properly (Arabic similar), something broken off. It is variously 
translated in our version. Heb. Ta3, Betzar. 

Silver (P|D3, Keseph, literally, as in Greek, white metal) is found 
native, and combined with sulphur and acids. It often lies in 
veins, Job 28.1, and was purified by lead and heat (see Lead). 
Lead and silver combined is called silver dross; the separated 



238 EXTERNAL HELPS : MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 

silver, purified silver, P.^i. 12. 6. It was brought (among other 
places) from Spain, Ezek. 27. 12: Jer. 10. 9. In very early 
times we find it in use, Gen. 23. 15, 16. Many utensils were 
made of it, Gen. 44. 2: Exod. 12. 35: Numb. 7. 13: 10. 2. 
The earliest mention of it as money is in Gen. 20. 16. The 
shekels were not coins, however, but pieces weighed out; see 
Gen. 23. 16: so even in the days of Jeremiah, Jer. 32. 9. The 
first coinage in Palestine was in the days of the Maccabees : see 
p. 248. The word rendered pieces of silver in Josh. 24. 32 is, 
properly, a kesitah, i. e., a piece equal to four shekels, as 
Gesenius gathers from Gen. 33. 19, and 23. 16. 
Tin is first mentioned, Numb. 31. 22. Later, the Tyrians imported 
it from Tarshish, Ezek. 27. 12: a levelling instrument of tin 
is mentioned, Zech. 4. 10. This word is also used for a refuse 
of lead and silver (see Lead), in Isa. 1. 25. 

For further information on the foregoing, consult Kosen- 
muller on the mineralogy of Scripture, and Gesenius's Lex. 

362. vi. A knowledge of the manners and customs of the 
Jews is of great service in interpreting Scripture. 

363. Habitations, (a.) The founders of the Israelitish 
nation were a tent-dwelling people. Tents were invented 
before the deluge, and seem naturally associated with pastoral 
life, Gen. 4. 20. The first tents were covered with skins, 
Ex. 26. 14, but the coverings of most of those mentioned in 
Scripture were of goat's hair, spun and woven by the women 
(Ex. 35. 26) : hence their black colour (Sol. Song, 1. 5) : tents 
of linen were used only occasionally for holiday or travelling 
purposes. The early tent was probably such as is still seen in 
Arabia, of an oblong shape, and eight or ten feet high in the 
middle. Sometimes a person of consequence had three or four 
tents ; one for himself, another for his wives, a third and 
fourth for his servants and strangers, Gen. 24. 67 ; more com- 
monly, however, a very large tent was divided by curtains 
into two or three compartments. The Holy Tabernacle was 
formed on this model, Ex. 26. 31-37. 

(b.) Of huts, the intermediate erection between the tent and 
the house, we read but little in Scripture. Jacob seems to 
have used them to shelter his cattle (Gen. 33. 17), and we 
find them in later times erected in vineyards to protect those 
who watched the ripening produce (Job 27. 18 : Isa. 1. 8), 

(c.) The Israelites probably saw good houses in Egypt ; on 



MANNERS : HABITATIONS. 239 

entering Palestine, however, they occupied the houses which 
their predecessors had built, and afterwards constructed their 
own on the same model. Domestic architecture must have 
made progress during the monarchy. Solomon's palace, -built 
by the aid of Phoenicians, no doubt suggested improvements. 
Jeremiah (22. 14) indicates some grandeur in building, and 
in the days of our Lord, the upper classes at all events had 
gathered instruction from the rules even of Grecian art. 

364. (a.) The houses of the poor in the east, were generally 

^ built of mud, and thus became appropriate images 

of the frailty of human life. The walls were easily 

broken through, and the houses as easily destroyed (Job 24. 

16 : Ezek. 12. 5 : Matt. 6. 19. 

(b.) The houses of 'the rich were of a different order. They 
had generally four sides, of which one fronted the street, 
having only a door, and one or two small windows above. 
The door opened into a porch, and the porch led by a side 
door into a waiting-room, and the waiting-room into a four- 
sided court, open at the top, and surrounded by the inner 
walls of the house. Covered walks often running along by the 
walls on the ground-floor, while above them was a gallery of 
the same dimensions. ■ Opposite the passage leading from the 
waiting-room into the court, was the guest-chamber (Luke 
22. 11), where the master received visitors, and occasionally 
transacted business. The roof was flat, surrounded on the 
outside by a breast-work or battlement : and on the side next 
the court, by a balustrade of lattice-work. The stairs to the 
roof, and to each storey of the building, were generally in a 
corner of the quadrangle nearest the entrance, so that each 
visitor ascended to the roof, and to each of the rooms, without 
passing through the rooms below. In summer, the people 
slept on the roof, and at aU times it was used as a place of 
devotion, of mourning, and of rest. At the Feast of Taber- 
nacles tents were erected here, and during festivals or public 
rejoicings, the guests often assembled in the square below, 
which was sometimes covered. 

These facts explain the following passages, and many others : 
Deut. 22. 8 : 1 Sam. 9. 25 : 2 Sam. 11. 2 : Isa. 22. 1 : Acts 
10. 9 : Mark 13. 15 : Mark 2. 4. 

(c.) The doors of eastern houses were double, and moved on 
pivots : they were secured by bars (Deut. 3.5: Judges 16. 3), 



240 MANNERS : HABITATIONS. 

of wood, or of metal, Isa. 45. 2. Ancient locks were merely 
wooden slides, secured by teeth or catches. Sol. Song 5. 4. 
The street-doors, as well as the gates of towns, were adorned 
with inscriptions taken from the Law (Deut. 6. 9). The 
windows had no glass, but were latticed : in winter they were 
covered with thin veils, or with shutters having holes suffi- 
cient to admit light, 1 Kings 7. 17 : Sol. Song 2. 9. 

(d.) No ancient houses had chimneys, though holes were 
sometimes made, through which the smoke escaped, Hos. 
13. 3. In the better class of houses, the rooms were warmed 
by charcoal, as is still the practice in the East (Jer. 36. 22) : 
John 18. 18. 

(e.) The articles of household furniture in use in the East, 
have always been few and small. In sitting rooms, little 
chairs or seats, and sometimes tables appear, Mark 14. 54. 
The seat was either a rug or mat, on which the people sat 
cross-legged, or with their knees bent under them, or a legged 
seat, such as chairs and stools (1 Kings 2. 19 : 1 Sam. 1. 9 : 
Prov. 9. 14 : Matt. 21. 12). The beds consisted generally of 
mattresses and quilted coverlets ; sheets, blankets, and bed- 
steads were not known, though on the house-tops a settee of 
wood, or a legged frame of palm branches was used, on 
which to place the bed (Psa. 132. 3 : Amos 6. 4). 

(/.) The common domestic utensils were of earthenware, 
or of copper, and a few were of leather : they consisted of pots, 
kettles, leather bottles, plates, cups, etc. ; lamps fed with olive 
oil were used for giving light at night, and were of earth or of 
metal : in the houses of the rich they were placed upon 
stands, called candlesticks, and those had occasionally branches 
for several lamps (Gen. 15. 17 : Ex. 25. 31-40). A lamp was 
always kept burning at night (Job 18. 6 : Pro v. 20. 20.) 

(g.) The towns of Palestine were small in size, but very 
numerous. Jerusalem, Samaria, and afterwards Ceesarea, 
seem to have been the only exceptions : from the want of 
temples and public buildings (except at Jerusalem), they must 
have had but a mean appearance, the streets being exceedingly 
narrow, dull, and unpaved. Even in the time of Moses, those 
towns had many of them high walls (Numb. 13. 25-33,) and 
gates implying walls are mentioned as early as the days of 
Abraham (Gen. 19. 1.) At the gates most of the public bu- 
siness was transacted (Gen. 23. 10, 18: Deut. 21. 19: Ruth 



MANNERS : DRESS. 241 

4. i) : there also the markets were held so long as the "business 
of the Israelites was confined chiefly to the sale of their pro- 
duce, or flocks (2 Chron. 18. 9 : Neh. 8. 1, 3) ; but afterwards, 
they had in the large towns, bazaars, or covered streets of 
shops, such as are now usual in the East. 

365. The dress of the Jews consisted commonly of two gar* 
ments : the one a close-bodied frock or shirt 
generally with long sleeves, and reaching to a little 
below the knees, though later to the ankle : and the other, a 
loose robe of some yards in length, fastened over the shoulders, 
and thrown around the body. Within doors, the first dress 
only was often worn. It was regarded, however, as a kind of 
undress, in which it was not usual to pay visits, or to walk 
out. Hence persons clothed in it alone, are said in Scripture 
to be naked (Isa. 20. 2, 4 : John 21.7: John 13, 4,) or to have 
laid aside their garments. 

The sleeves were generally sufficiently long to cover the 
hands, and were used during visits of ceremony to conceal 
them. On occasions when great or continued effort was 
required or implied, the arm was " made bare,*' and the 
sleeve tucked up or removed, Isa. 52. 10 : Eze. 4. 7. 

The outer garment (a kind of mantle or plaid), sometimes 
served as a covering by night, or' as a bed (Deut. 24. 13 : 
Exocl. 22. 27). The Israelites on leaving Egypt, folded their 
kneading troughs in it. Prophets and others wrapped it 
round their heads as an expression of reverence or of grief 
(1 Kings 19. 13: 2 Sam. 15. 30: Esth. 6. 12), or sometimes 
as a protection from the rain or wind. When gathered 
round the middle of the body, the garment is called the 
lap (2 Kings 4. 39), when gathered round the shoulders, 
the bosom (Psa. 79. 12 : Luke 6. 38). A considerable part of 
the wealth of eastern nations consisted in these garments, 
which were easily exchanged, and were often given and worn 
as expressions of affection and respect, Gen. 45. 22 : 2 Kings 

Eor a single shirt, the wealthy classes sometimes substituted 
a shirt of fine linen, and an outer one of coarser material, the 
mantle being worn as an additional garment. The beauty of 
these garments consisted not in their shape, which never 
varied, but in their whiteness, Eccles. 9. 8, and they were 

M 



242 MANNERS: DRESS. 

torn or rent in token of sorrow or repentance, Gen. 37. 34 , 
Job 1. 20. 

The inner garment was made of either linen or cotton, the 
outer garment generally of wool, or of wool and hair. The art 
of embroidery was evidently somewhat known, Exod. 35. 35 : 
Judges 5. 30 ; and one family seems to have been peculiarly 
famous in the manufacture of fine linen, 1 Chron. 4. 21. 
White, blue, and various shades of red and purple, were the 
favourite colours for clothes, and no others indeed are men- 
tioned in Scripture. 

Around the shirt, or inner garment, a girdle was sometimes 
worn, made of leather, fastened with clasps, 2 Kings 1. 8, 
or of muslin, wound in many folds around the waist, Jer. 
13. 1 : Matt. 3. 4 ; and still more commonly around the mantle. 
To have the loins girt in this way was especially necessary 
in travelling, or when engaged in strenuous effort of any 
kind. In the girdle a knife or sword was sometimes carried, 
or in the case of literary men, an inkhorn and pens, 2 Sam. 
20. 8 : Ezek, 9.2: other valuables were often put into it too, 
1 Sam. 25. 13 : 2 Sam. 18. 11 : Matt. 10. 9 (Greek). 

Drawers were a part of the dress of the High Priest, and 
were perhaps used in later times by the people generally 
(Exod. 28. 42). They were worn next the person. 

The feet were covered with sandals, consisting of soles of 
leather, or of wood, bound to the foot by thongs or latchets 
(Matt. 3. 11). In transferring property, or in passing to the 
next of kin any personal obligation, it was customary to delive 
a sandal (Ruth 4. 7), as in the middle ages, a glove. To throw 
a shoe or a sandal over a country was a symbol of possession 
(Psa. 60. 8). To remove the sandals was an expression of 
reverence (Exod. 3. 5 : Deut. 25. 9). The operation being 
often performed by servants, to loose or to carry them was a 
familiar symbol of a servile or degraded condition, Mark 1.7: 
Acts 13. 25: Matt. 3. 11 : Isa. 20. 4. Stockings were never iu 
use, and the mass of the people went altogether barefoot, 
except in winter, or during a journey. 

The neck was generally left bare, and very frequently the 
head; when covered, it was protected among the higher 
classes by a kind of turban, and among the common peoxole 
by a piece of cloth confined by a fillet around the brows : in 



r 




CUSTOMS : FOOD AND MEALS. 243 

the case of women, this turban was connected with a veil 
covering the upper part of the person. 

The Israelites allowed the hair of the head and beard to 
grow ; the former was occasionally cut, and the partial use of 
the razor in trimming the beard was not unlawful. Baldness 
was rare, and was despised, 2 Kings 2. 23 : Isa. 3. 24 : Jer. 
47. 5. The beard as the sign of manhood was much respected ; 
to shave it, to spit upon it, to pull it, even to touch it, except 
as .a salutation, was a gross insult (2 Sam. 10. 4-6 : 1 Chron. 
19. 3-6 : Isa. 7. 20), and for a man to neglect or maltreat his 
own beard, was a sign of madness or of extreme grief (1 Sam. 
21. 13 : 2 Sam. 19. 24 . Isa. 15. 2.) 

366. All the Easterns generally, and the Israelites, were 
Food and simple and plain in their food, which consisted 
Meals. largely of bread, fruits, honey, milk, butter, and 

cheese. Meat was but little used, animal food being in some 
degree restricted bv the law which allowed the flesh of no 
beasts to be eaten, but such as chewed the cud and parted 
the hoof, nor any fish but such as had both fins and scales 
(Lev. 11. 1-28). It was in this general way that the hog was 
forbidden, but as it was commonly eaten in the East, this 
application of the prohibition of the law attracted more atten- 
tion than the rest. Blood and fat,- the large lobe of the liver 
and the kidneys, were also forbidden. Poultry was used but 
sparingly, pigeons and the common fowl being the only do- 
mestic birds kept in Palestine, except " the fatted fowl," pro- 
vided for the tables of Solomon and Nehemiah (1 Kings 
4. 23: Neh. 5. 18). Eggs are only twice mentioned as articles 
of food. Though fish with fins and scales were allowed, it- 
does not seem that much use was made of this indulgence 1 
the operations of fishing were clearly well known however, 
(Job 19. 6: Isa. 51. 20: Job 41. 1 : Isa. 19. 8) : fish-ponds 
are mentioned in Sol. Song, (7. 4) : fish were even brought by 
the Phoenicians across the countrv, from the Mediterranean 
to Jerusalem (Xeh. 13. 16), and one of the gates of the city 
called the Fish-gate, seems to have been appropriated as the 
place of sale (2 Chron. 33. 14 : Keh. 3. 3). 

Among insects, it may be noticed, that locusts were per- 
mitted to be eaten, Lev. 11. 22, and were a common article of 
food in the East, Matt. 3. 4. 

Bread was not baked as with us, in loaves, but in cakes, 

m 9. 



244 customs : food and meals. 

rolls, and large tliin biscuits, each family baking its own, 
and that daily. The modes of baking were various ; the 
thicker roll or cake was baked upon the heated hearth ; the 
thin bread upon metal plates, or around the sides of earthen- 
ware vessels, or of a pit in the floor, Gen. 18. 6 : Lev. 2. 2, 
4, 5. This work, like that of grinding corn, was at first 
performed by the wives and daughters of families, Gen. 18. 6 : 
2 Sam. 13. 6, 8 : Jer. 7. 18 ; but was in time abandoned in 
some cases to servants, 1 Sam. 8. 13. The bread in common 
use needed not to be cut, but was broken, Isa. 58. 7 : Lam. 
4. 4 : Matt. 14. 19. 

The Jews had generally two meals a day ; one in the morn- 
ing, between the third and sixth hours, and the other, their 
principal meal, about the eleventh hour, or five o'clock, in the 
oool of the day. At this meal, the guests all reclined on their 
left sides on couches, placed around a circular table. In this 
posture, the head of one guest approached the breast of his 
neighbour, upon whose bosom, therefore, he was said to lean. 
Hence Christ told John who was to betray him, without the 
other disciples hearing his description, John 13. 23 : Pro v. 
26. 15. The feet were stretched out from the table, and were 
of course first reached by any one entering the room (Luke 
7. 38). Hence it is said that the woman who washed our 
Lord's feet stood behind him. This practice was borrowed 
from the Persians : in earlier times, the Jews probably used 
seats, or sat, as is the present custom in the East, round a 
table raised only a few inches from the ground. 

The food was taken by the hand, without aid of knife or 
fork, and hence the practice of washing before and after 
meals, Mark 7. 5. In very early times, each guest had his 
own portion, Gen. 43. 34 ; see 1 Sam. 1.5: but later, all ate 
from the same dish. 

The ordinary beverage taken, not during the meal, but 
afterwards, was water, or wine diluted with water. A common 
acid wine diluted in this way, is called in our English version, 
vinegar, and was the usual drink of labourers and soldiers, 
Euth 2. 14 : Matt. 27. 48. This was what the soldiers gave 
our Lord when he cried " I thirst," The beverage previously 
offered him, vinegar and gall, or wine and myrrh, Matt. 27. 34 : 
Mark 15. 23, was given to persons about to be executed, in 
order to stupify them. Our blessed Lord refused to drink it. 



CUSTOMS : TAXATION. 245 

In full consciousness he endured the cross, despising the 
shame. 

The beverage with which each guest was supplied, was in 
ancient times handed to him in a separate cup, ready mixed 
by the host : and hence the word cup is frequently used to 
signify a man's lot or portion, Psa. n. 6: Isa. 51. 22 : Matt. 
26. 39. "Mixed wine" in the English version, was not wine 
and water, but wine made stronger by spices, Prov. 23. 30. 
" Strong drink " including a very inebriating liquor, made from;, 
dates aud various seeds, Lev. 10. 9 : 1 Sam. 1. ig. 

Not unfrequently, precious oils were used at banquets for 
anointing the guests, Psa. 23. 5 : 45. 7 : Amos 6. 6. Christ- 
was thus honoured by the woman, Matt. 26. 7. She broke 
the box or jar in proof of the purity of the oil ; the neck being, 
sealed, to show that it was an imported perfume, Mark 14. 3. 

The principal meal being in the evening of the day, was 
generally called supper. The light and joy within the house 
on such occasions, were often employed to represent the hap- 
piness of heaven, while the darkness without, the "outer 
darkness," was employed to shadow forth the misery of the 
lost, Matt. 8. 12. 

367. The system of taxation employed in Palestine before 
„ the days of the Romans is not clearly denned. The- 

andTaxa- royal revenue, however, consisted in part in pre- 
sents, 1 Sam. 10. 27 : 16. 20: 2 Chron. 17. g; in 
the produce of the royal flocks, 1 Sam. 21.7: 2 Chron. 26. 10 : 
32. 28, 29 ; in lands and vineyards either confiscated or re- 
claimed from a state of nature by the sovereign, 1 Kings 21. 
9-16: 1 Chron. 27. 28; in tribute, probably a tenth of the 
income of the people, 1 Sam. 8. 15 : 17. 25 (see Gesenius) ; in 
the plunder of conquered nations, 2 Chron. 27. 5 ; and in pay- 
ments imposed upon merchants passing through the terri- 
tory, 1 Kings 10. 15. Later still we find, probably in the 
place of some of the above, a toll and a tax on articles of con- 
sumption, corresponding to our excise, Ezra 4. 14, 19, 20. 
Both these were of Persian or Assyrian origin. Of the system 
of taxation prevalent in the time of our Lord, we have more 
accurate information. 

Soon after Judoea was reduced to a province of the Roman 
empire, an enrolment was made of the names and fortunes of 
the citizens, and on this enrolment was founded a capitation 



246 CUSTOMS : MODES of reckoning. 

"tax or tribute." This tax was laid by the magistrates of 
each city. It occasioned much division of opinion in Judooa, 
and gave rise to more than one insurrection, Acts 5. 37. Our 
Lord was urged to identify himself with its advocates or 
opponents, Matt. 22. 17. The tax was paid to collectors, 
either in Eoman money (the denarius, or penny), or in Grecian 
(the drachma). If paid in the latter, however, the coin had 
to be changed by the traders, or u money-changers," as Roman 
money only was received at the Roman treasury. 

Besides this census or head tax, there were custom duties, 
or taxes on exports and imports, Matt. 9. 9. These were 
fixed by law, and were levied by revenue farmers through 
their servants. These servants are called Publicans in the 
New Testament, and the farmers of the revenue, Chiefs of the 
Publicans. This system of farming the revenue, proved a 
strong temptation to the Publicans, who were generally un- 
popular. 

The third public tax in Judaea was the half shekel required 
by the law, to be paid by every Jew into the temple treasury. 
It was always paid in Jewish money, and by all Jews, even 
by those who lived out of Palestine. The money-changers 
who sat in the temple, procured this Jewish money in ex- 
change for Greek and Roman coins, Matt. 21. 12 : John 2. 16. 
This tax was regarded as paid to God : when therefore our 
Lord intimates to Peter, that the children of kings are exempt 
from tribute, he implied that He himself was the son of the 
Father, Matt. 17. 26. 

This distinction between the different kinds of taxes is 
always preserved in the original of the New Testament, and 
generally in the English translation. 

368. A knowledge of the modes of reckoning employed by 
Weights and the Jews will often aid us in gathering lessons 
Money. from Scripture, and is sometimes essential to an 

intelligent interpretation of Scripture language. 

The following are tables of the weights, measures, and 
money, mentioned in the Bible. They are taken from Ar- 
buthnot's work, as quoted by Home. 



CUSTOMS : WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



247 



369. (1). Jewish weights, reduced to English troy weight :- 



The gerah, one-twentieth of a shekel 
Bekah : half a shekel - - - - - 
The shekel 

The rnaneh, 60 shekels - - - - ■ 
The talent, 50 maneh, 3000 shekels • 



lbs. 


oz. 


pen. 


gr- 











12 








5 











10 





2 


6 








25 












370. (2). Scripture measures of length, reduced to English 

measure: — 

in. 

0-91 2 



Eng. ft. 



A digit, Jer. 52. 21 



12 



24 



96 I 24 j 6 



144 I 36 I 12 



192 I 48 j 16 



1920 I 480 [ 160 



4 I A p alm, Exod 25. 25 - - - 

l\ span, Exod. 28. 16 -------- 

A cubit, Gen. 6. 15 ------- 

2 j A fathom, Acts 27. 28 - - - - 
6j 1-5 1 Ezek iel's reed, Ezek. 40. 3-5 * 
8 1 2 I 1-3 I An Arabian pole - - - 



80 j 20 1 13-3 [ 10 j Measuring line, Ezek. 40. 3 



o 

o 
o 

1 

7 
10 

14 
145 



371. (3). The long Scripture measures :- 



Eng. miles, paces. 



400 



•2000 



A cubit ------------------ o 

A_stadium, or furlong, Luke 24. 13 - - - - 

5 [ a A sabbath day's journey, Acts 1. 12 - - 
An eastern mile, Matt. 5. 41 - - - 
3 I A parasang ------- 

A days journey - - - - - 



^4000 
12000 



10 | 2 
30 I 6 



96000 l 240 j 48 j 24 I 8 



o 
o 

1 

4 
33 



o 

145 

729 

403 
153 

172 



3-648 
10-944 

9-888 

3*552 
11-328 

7-104 
11-04 

ft. 

1-824 

4'6 

3-0 

i-o 

yo 

4-0 



.1 So called, because this was the distance between the tabernacle and the extreme 
point of the camp. 

372. (4). Scripture measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to 

English wine measure: — 

Gal. 
A caph --------_-...__.---_- o 

A log, Lev. 14. 10 - - o 



i'3 



5'3 



A cab ---------------- o 



;i6 



12 



3 1 A hin, Exod. 30. 24 -- 1 

6 I 2 I A seah ------ - 2 

96 72 j 18 j 6 I 3 I. A bath, or ephah, 1 Kings 7. 26: John 2.6 7 



32 



24 



960 I 720 I 180 j 60 j 20 I 10 I A kor or homer, Ezek. 45. i4:Isa.5.io 75 



pints. 
0-625 
0-833 
3'333 
2 

4 
4 
5 



373. (5). Scripture measures of capacity for things dry, reduced 

to English corn measure : — 

Peck 
A gachal 



20 



36 



120 



360 



1800 



A cab or choenix 2 Kings 6. 25 : Hev. 6. 6 



i-8 I Anomer, Exod. 16. 36: 29. 40 



18 



3'3 \ A seah, Matt. 13. 33 - - ■ 
3 j An ephah, Ezek. 45. 11 



10 



90 



5o 



3600 



180 



100 



I 15 I 5 I A l etech, Hos. 3. 2- - - - 
C A homer or kor, Numb. 
I I 



- o 

- o 

- o 

- I 

- 3 

- 16 



gal. pints, 

o 0-1416 

o 2*8333 

o 5-1 

o 1 

o 3 

o o 



30 10 



11. 32: Hos. 3. 2- 



} 



32 



24S CUSTOMS : WEIGHTS and money. 

374. (6). Jewish money, and its value in English coin: 
A gerah, Exod. 30. 13 - ------------- 



10 I A bekak, Exod. 38. 26 



20 I 2 I * A shekel, Exod. 30. 13 : Isa. 7. 23 : Matt. 17. 27 



1200 I 120 J 50 I A maneh or minah Hebraica, Luke 19. 13 - 



60000 I 6000 j 3000 I 60 I A talent 



*. s. 


d. 





1-2687 


I 


1-6875 


2 


3'31> 


5 14 


0.75 


i42 3 


9 


12 


0-5 


1 16 


6 


5475 






£. 


s. d.far. 





of 





00 i£ 





072 


3 


260 



A solidus aureus, or sextula, was worth -------- 

A siculus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth 

A talent of gold was worth 

a First coined by Simon Maccabaeus, 1 Mac. 15. 6. 

In the preceding table, silver is valued at 55. and gold at 4Z. per oz. In ancient 
times, gold and silver were much scarcer than now, and therefore of higher relative 
value. A shekel would probably purchase nearly ten times as much as the same 
nominal amount will now purchase. 

375. (7). Koman money mentioned in the iSTew Testament, and 
its value in English money : — 

A mite (kerrTov or acrcraptov), Mark 12. 42 -------- - 

A farthing ^KoSpdvTrjg'), Mark 12. 42 about 

A penny, or denarius (Srjvapt.ov'), Matt. 22. 19 ------- - 

A pound, or mina ---- --. 

The Grecian drachma in common use was of about the same value as the denarius. 
The Tersian daric is the first coin mentioned in Scripture, and is the most ancient 
history makes known to us. It was rather heavier than a guinea. See 1 Chron. 
29. 7 : Ezra 2. 69: 8. 27: Neh. 7. 70-72, where the word is translated dram. 

376. Many passages may be explained by these Tables. 
From Table 3, we learn that the sabbath day's journey was 

less than a mile. How suggestive of the saeredness of the 
day, when everything approaching to bodily fatigue was for- 
bidden ! 

From Table 6, we learn to admire the noble disinterestedness 
of Elisha. Naaman offered him 6,000 pieces or shekels of 
gold, or more than ten thousand pounds. This was the 
temptation under which Gehazi fell, and yet it did not excuse 
his guilt. 

The same Table illustrates strikingly the unreasonableness 
of an unforgiving spirit and the aggravations of our own 
guilt. The debtor, who threw his fellow- servant into prison 
because he owed him a hundred pence, about 3?., had himself 
been forgiven 10,000 talents, or, if these were silver, upwards 
of three millions sterling, Matt. 18. 24. 

How clearly does it illustrate the prophecy of Isaiah, u He 
was despised and rejected of men," to find that Judas be- 



CUSTOMS : MODES OF RECKONING. 249 

trayed our Lord for thirty pieces of silver, or 3/. 10s. 8d., the 
price paid for a slave when killed by a beast. 

From Tables 4 and 5, we learn the displeasure of God 
against covetousness. 

" Ten acres of vineyard (says the prophet) shall yield one bath, 
and the seed of an homer shall yield an ephah," Isa. 5. 10. 

That is, one acre of land shall yield less than a gallon of wine, 
and nine-tenths of the seed shall perish. Unfaithfulness and 
irreligion are real folly. The fear of the Lord is, in all 
senses, the beginning of wisdom. 

377. The Jewish mode of reckoning time was peculiar. 
Time and They nao ^ two years ; the sacred and the civil, 
modes of The sacred began in March or April (according to 
the moon), the month of deliverance of the 
children of Israel from Egypt ; and the civil in September or 
October, the commencement of seed-time. a The prophets use 
the former ; those engaged in civil and agricultural concerns, 
the latter. The year was divided into twelve lunar months, 
with every third year, a thirteenth. Till the return from 
captivity, these months had no separate name, except the first, 
which was called Abib (the month of "the green ears of 
corn "), or Nisan, the month of "the flight," Esth, 3. 7. (See 
Exod. 12. 33 : Heb.) After the captivity, Babylonish names 
were employed. 

The natural day was from sun- rise to sun-set (as with the 
Romans), and was divided (after the captivity) into twelve 
hours of unequal length. The civil day (the day used in 
common reckoning) was from six in the evening to six in the 
next evening ; differing in this respect from the Roman civil 
day, which, like ours, was from midnight to midnight. 
This was divided again into night and day of equal length. 

The night was divided, in very early times, into three 
watches. The first (Lam. 2. 19) till twelve o'clock ; the 
middle till three in the morning (Judg. 7. 19) ; and the 
morning watch till six (Exod. 14. 24). In the time of our 
Lord, however, the night was divided, as among the Romans, 

a The Rabbins say that the year began in March, as did the 
Roman year, and in September; but the probability is, that in 
earlier times it began with the new moon of April and October res- 
pectively. See Jahn Archseologia Bib., § 103. 

M 3 



250 CUSTOMS : MODES of reckoning. 

into four watches, of three hours each (Mark 13. 35) ; the 
third of which was called cock-crowing (Matt. 26. 34). The 
day, properly so called (from six in the morning till six at 
night), was divided into twelve hours, of which the third, the 
sixth, and the ninth, were devoted to the public services of 
worship. This division is still retained among the Jews. In 
very early times, and till the Babylonish captivity, the day 
was divided into the following parts : — 

The break of day. Mid-day at 12 o'clock. 

The morning. The cool of the day, from 3 

The heat of the day, from 9 o'clock till 6. 

o'clock till 12. And the evening. 

From the sixth hour (or twelve o'clock), till the close of the 
day, was called evening. This part of the day was divided 
into two portions, called evenings, Exod. 12. 6 : Levit. 23. 5 
(original). 

378. These distinctions explain several passages. 

About the eleventh hour, the husbandman said to the labourers, 
"why stand ye here all the day idle?" (Matt. 20. 6). With us, the 
eleventh hour is not yet noon: with the Jews, it was about an hour 
from sunset. . . . Peter's reasoning is rendered forcible by these facts. 
It is (said he) but the third hour of the day (nine o'clock), Acts 2. 
15, the time of the morning sacrifice, before which time the Jews 
did not eat or drink. 

On the day of the crucifixion there was darkness over all the land 
from the sixth to the ninth hour, i. e., from twelve o'clock to three. 
The passover was always kept at the full moon : this darkness, 
therefore, could not have taken place in the ordinary course of 
nature from an eclipse of the sun. ... It was at the ninth hour, Jesus 
cried with a loud voice, and shortly afterwards (or "between the 
evening," the time of offering the customary sacrifice) he expired. 
.... John says that Pilate brought Jesus forth to the people at the 
sixth hour (John 19. 14), probably reckoning from midnight, the 
commencement of the Roman civil day. After the overthrow of 
the Jewish state, the adoption of the civil day of Europe and Egypt 
for reckoning was the more natural. 

It was at the fourth watch of the night, or about dawn, that 
Jesus w T ent to the disciples on the sea. He had spent the whole 
night, therefore, in prayer, Mark 6. 48. 

The highest praise was bestowed upon the servant whom his 
Lord found watching in the second or third watch, i. c, from nine 
till three, Luke 12. 38. 



CUSTOMS : MISCELLANEOUS. 251 

It is to be observed, that the Jews and other Orientals 
generally speak of any part of a day, or of a period of time, as 
if it were the whole. 

Thus Jesus said, "After three days I will rise again/' Matt. 27 
63; though he was in the grave only a day and a half, from sunset 
on Friday to the earliest morning on Sunday. He intimated, also, 
quoting from Jonah, that he would be in the grave three days and 
three nights, i. e., part of three separate civil days ; day and night 
meaning a day of twenty-four hours, Matt. 12. 40; 1 Sam. 30. 
12, 13. In the same way, a week is called eight days in John 20. 
26, as it often is in German. 

379. There are many other customs referred to in Scripture 

Miscel- on wn i° n ft i s impossible to enlarge. 

i„?fi >Ub cus " Opulent Jews, for example, in ancient times, had 
their children taught some mechanical art, to prepare 
them for any reverse of fortune; and so St. Paul received a liberal 
education, and learned tent making, Acts 18. 3. 

At the time of the passover the people of Jerusalem prepared 
private rooms, in which any stranger might celebrate the feast; and 
hence Christ sent Peter and John, without any scruple, to seek an 
upper room for this purpose, Mark 14. 15. 

In ancient Eome, children were adopted at first privately; then 
the adoption was ratified by a public act; and the children so 
adopted became the hens of their foster parents. Hence, in 
Som. 8, Christians are said to be adopted, and yet to wait for their 
adoption, even the redemption of their bodies; i. e., for their public 
recognition at the coming of the Lord, ver. 23. 

The common salutation in the East was a kiss ; sometimes upon 
the beard (2 Sam. 20. 9), sometimes upon the cheek: the kiss of 
respect and homage was upon the brow (Gen. 27. 26: Exod. 4. 27: 
1 Sam. 10. 1: Psa. 2. 12: Acts 2o 8 37). ... In meeting, the Jews 
used many ceremonies, and persons charged with urgent business, 
therefore, were forbidden to salute by the way (2 Icings 4. 29: 
Luke 10. 4). . . . The usual greeting was, " Peace be with thee" 
(Judges 19. 20: 1 Sam. 25, 6): other forms may be seen in Ruth 3. 
10: 2. 4: Psa. 129. 8. 

Persons paying visits to a superior generally brought presents 
(Prov. 18. 16 : Job 42. 11). Kings and princes also made presents as 
marks of distinction (Gen. 45. 22, 23: Esther 8. 15: 1 Sam. 18. 4). 
iSTot to wear garments thus given was a great affront (Matt. 22. 
11, 12). 

An insult was shown by maltreating the beard, by spitting in the 
faco, by putting men to degrading employments (Judges 16. 2r; 



252 CUSTOMS : MISCELLANEOUS. 

Lam. 5. 13), by clapping the hands (Job 27. 23), by casting contempt 
upon a man's mother (1 Sam. 20. 30: 2 Sam. 3, 39: 16. 10: 19. 22J S 
by dishonouring the dead (Jer. 26. 23: 8. 1: 16. 5, "), 

In the earliest times there were no inns like ours, and travellers 
generally waited in the street, or at the gate, till invited to some 
house (Gen. 19. 2: Judges 19. 15-21). In the time of our Lord 
there were places of accommodation where lodging was provided, 
but where each guest brought his own provisions, fuel and bed. In 
the stable of such an inn, there being no room in the lodging apart- 
ment, the Saviour of the world was born. Places of a similar kind, 
probably without resident occupants, were found upon the main 
roads even in the days of the patriarchs (Gen. 42. 27 : 43. 21 : Exod. 
4. 24). Both are still found in the East; the former called khans, 
and the latter, caravanserais. 

When a person died, his relations rent their garments from 
head to foot ; a smaller rent being made by spectators : hired 
mourners often added to the expressions of grief by their lamenta- 
tions and music (Jer. 9. 17, 18: Matt. 9. 23: Acts 9. 39). Em- 
balming was common, though, except in Egypt, the process seems 
to have consisted of little else than anointing the body, with 
odoriferous drugs, and wrapping it in linen. The funeral followed 
death within twenty-four hours ; the body not being placed in a 
coffin, but closely wrapped from head to foot on an open bier, and 
so borne to the place of burial, which was always, except in the 
^ase of kings and distinguished men, at some distance from the 
city. For the poor, there was a common burial ground ; but 
families had often their sepulchres in their own fields or gardens. 
There was no particular ceremonial at the grave, but the day was 
concluded by a funeral feast (2 Sam. 3.35: Hos. 9. 4). Mourning 
was expressed afterwards by rent clothes and sackcloth; sometimes 
by a shrouded face, and sometimes by dust sprinkled upon the 
head (2 Sam. 3. 31: 19. 4: Job 2. 12). The graves were generally 
dug in the rocks, with niches all round, each holding a corpse 
(Job ic. 2T, 22: 33. 18: Psa. 88. 6: Isa. 14. 9-19: 38. 10: 
Ezek. 32. 18.) 

Crucifixion was the punishment of slaves only, or of those upon 
whom it was intended to fix the deepest ignominy. It was not a 
Jewish punishment, nor was it inflicted upon a Roman citizen. 
Thus Christ was delivered to the Gentiles, and numbered with the 
wicked in his death, Matt. 20. 19. 

At the feast of tabernacles, the people (" on the last day of the 
feast") drew water from the spring of Siloam, which issued from 
a rock near the temple. Part of this water they drank amidst 
joyful acclamations; the people singing the words of Isaiah, "With 



EXTERNAL HELrS : GEOGRAPHY. . 253 

joy shall they draw water from the wells of salvation/ 3 and the rest 
they poured on the evening sacrifice: see John 7.37. 

In the time of our Lord it was a common practice for the kings 
of Syria to visit Borne, to obtain the confirmation of their title 
from the emperor and senate, or to court their favour. Herod the 
Great went to Augustus for this purpose, and his sons visited Rome. 
They went, as our Lord expresses it, "to receive a kingdom and to 
return," Luke 19. 12. This practice explains the incidental allu- 
sions to the custom in many of the parables ; and it gives an indirect 
proof of the truth of the gospel. 

The bottles of the ancients were not of glass, but of skins, and 
hence they shrank in the smoke (Psa. 119. 83) and burst, if new 
or fermenting wine were placed in them, Matt. 9. 17. 

When a person charged with crimes against the state was tried in 
ancient times, the citizens who tried him voted for his acquittal by 
dropping a white stone into the box, and for his condemnation, by 
dropping a black one. Our Lord, therefore, is said to give unto 
him that overcometh a white stone (Rev. 2. 17). 

Many customs were connected in ancient times with sealing; 
the seal, generally a signet-ring bearing the name of the owner, 
preserved the object, Job 14. 17, and secured privacy, Isa. 29. 11. 
It gave authority and completeness to documents, ISTeh. 9.38: Esther 
8. 8: Dan. 6. 9, 13, 17; or it marked the object as the peculiar 
property of him whose seal was placed upon it, 2 Tim. 2.19: Rom. 
4. ir : Rev. 7. 2, 3. 

380. vii. A knowledge of geography, under its twofold di- 
vision of historical and physical, is of great use in the study 
of Scripture. 

381. The Bible directs us to the high parts of Armenia 
The lands of and the fertile plains between the Tigris and the 
the Bible. Euphrates as the first settlement of mankind after 
the flood. The pride and idolatry of Shinaar dispersed them ; 
Shem and his descendants occupying the peninsula between 
the Black Sea and the Indian Ocean ; Ham, Africa ; and, after 
some time, Japhet, Europe, and part of Asia. 

Going south-westward from Ararat, we come to Mount 
Lebanon in Palestine, and have round us "the lands of the 
Bible." Looking southward from this position, we have on 
our left, far over the Syrian desert, the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, which, taking their rise in Armenia, run into the 
Persian Gulf, and, as they now, inclose the country called 



254 GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 

Mesopotamia (" between the rivers "). On the banks of these 
rivers, men first formed societies ; on the Euphrates rose the 
city of Babylon, and on the Tigris, the city of Nineveh. 

Between the Euphrates and the table-land, east of Jordan, 
is Arabia Deserta ; southward, Arabia Petrea (the rocky), 
with Petra as its capital ; southward still, and reaching to the 
Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, is Arabia the fruitful, 
whence (or through which) came the gold and spice of 
eastern story. 

382. Returning to Lebanon, and looking (still to the south) 
on the region below us, we find Palestine, having on its 
northern seaboard Phoenicia (the coast of Tyre and Sidon), 
and, on its southern, Philistia. Looking northward for a 
moment (supposing that we stand on Hermon, where Libanus 
and Antilibanus seem to join), we find two ridges of hills 
running through the whole of Syria, Libanus and Antilibanus, 
till they are lost in Asia Minor ; the district they inclose is 
Coele -Syria (or the Hollow Syria), ca]led also the Plain of 
Lebanon ; its capital, Baalbec, the city of the sun. Looking 
southward, again, we find these ridges running through the 
whole of Palestine, till the left-hand ridge is lost in the Eed 
Sea, and the right-hand ridge in the peninsula of Sinai, the 
scene of the wanderings of the Israelites during forty years. 

To the west of this latter region we find Egypt. 

383. Immediately beneath us, on the left, we have the city 
of Damascus, ever famous for bigotry and fruitfulness ; on 
the right, we have the blue tideless waters of the Mediter- 
ranean, connecting the traffic of Europe with the marts of the 
East ; and in succession, Cyprus, Crete, Malta, and Sicily — 
" the isles of the sea." If now we carry our eye in a line 
with our right hand, we enter Asia Minor, whose various 
provinces are mentioned in the Acts. Running westward, 
and crossing the iEgean Sea, we come to Hellas, or Greece 
(" Achaia "), having Macedonia on the north, and Thrace on 
the north-east. From Macedonia, Illyricum stretches away 
in a north-west line. Crossing the Adriatic, we land at 
Brundisium, in Italy, whence we proceed over the Appeuine 
Hills to Rome, on their western side. Thence we may travel 
by land over the Alps, or, by sea, through the Gulf of Genoa, 
to France (Gaul) ; and from France, over the Pyrenees, to 



GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 255 

Spain, and proceeding southward, come to " Tarshish." We 
thence sail along the northern coast of Africa till we reach 
Carmel and Lebanon again. 

Still occupying our position on Mount Hermon, and looking 
southward, we find on our left, beyond Jordan, the high lands 
of Gilead and the pasture-grounds of Bashan. The whole 
country is beautiful and verdant. The valleys, says Bucking- 
ham, are filled with corn and olives, and the hills are covered 
with vines. See Numb. 32. 1-4. Here, to the south, were 
the territories of Ammon, Moab, and Edom. 

384. Between the ridge of hills which runs through this 
Valley of the district, on the east side of the river, and the ridge 
Jordan. f Lebanon, which also runs southward on the 
west side (under the names of the mountains of Naphtali, of 
Ephraim, or Israel, and the mountains of Judah), lies the 
valley of the Jordan ; containing the Lake of Gennesareth (or 
sea of Galilee), the Jordan itself, and the Dead Sea. The 

whole length of the Jordan with windings, is about 20c 
miles ; the width of the Sea of Gennesareth is from eight to 
ten. Compare Matt. 14. 23, with John 6. 19. Westward of 
this range of hills, and between it and the sea, is the district 
of Tyre, the plain or valley of Sharon, and the country of the 
Philistines. Southward, " as thou comest to Gaza," it is de- 
sert ; so that the sea-board plain ends in the desert of Gaza ; 
the centre, or plain of the Jordan, in the desert of Sinai ; 
and the district beyond Jordan in the deserts of Edom. 

Isa, 35. 2: Cant. 2. 1. 

385. Looking, again, to the district nearer to us, it is not 
difficult to mark a triangular valley opening to the sea at 
Mount Carmel, one of the terminations of the mountains of 
Israel, — the mountains of Naphtali, or of Galilee, and another 
part of the same range, the mountains of Gilboa, forming 
Valley of "the other sides. This valley has been called suc- 
Esdraeion. cessively the plain of Esdraelon, of Jezreel, and of 
Megiddo. The river Kishon, that "ancient river," flows 
through it into the "Great Sea," not far from Acre, Judg. 
4. 13 : 5. 21. The little town of Nazareth lies among the 
hills to the north. This valley was the scene of the victory 
of Deborah and Barak, of Gideon, of the Philistines in their 
last battle with Saul, of Ahab over Benhadad, and of the 



256 GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 

Egyptians over Josiah. Here the Assyrians and Persians, 
the Crusaders and Saracens, the Egyptians and Turks, the 
Arabs and Franks, have fought ; and it was on this battle- 
field of nations that Bonaparte gained one of his victories 
just before he was compelled to relinquish Syria. Mount 
Tabor rises on the north side of the plain. 

Judges 4. 12-24: 1 Sam. 31:1 Kings 20: 2 Kings 23. 29. 

386. If we trace in this way the history of particular places 
mentioned in Scripture, we shall find the exercise highly 
interesting and instructive. 

Between Jerusalem and Beersheba, and about twenty miles 
from each place, lies one of the oldest cities in the 

Hebron. , , *■ . , , ^ . , . , 

world, now occupied by some 0,000 Arabs — the 
city of Hebron. Here lived Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; here 
they received the promise and the seal of the covenant, and 
here, they and their wives were buried. In the days of the 
spies it was inhabited by the sons of Anak. Joshua des- 
troyed it, and the place was given to Caleb. When rebuilt, 
it became one of the Levitical cities. Here David was 
anointed king over Israel ; here Abner was assassinated ; here 
Absalom established his head-quarters during his rebellion ; 
and over one of the pools of Hebron (several of which still 
remain), David hung up the assassins of Ishbosheth. 

Numb. 13: Josh. 10. 37: 14. 13: 2 Sam. 2. 11: 3. 27: 15. 7, 12. 

About twenty miles eastward of Jerusalem, and accessible 
only by a lonely and dangerous road (the Bloody 

Jerich0 * "* 11 J '• T » A S T 4-1. •/ 

way as it was called m Jeromes days), lies the city 
of Jericho. Within sight of its walls the manna ceased. In 
the days of Joshua it was overthrown, and a curse was pro- 
nounced upon who should rebuild it, a curse fulfilled 520 years 
afterwards upon Hiel. In the time of Elisha, it was a school 
of the prophets. Here Herod the Great died. Once the city 
was visited by our Lord, when he lodged with Zaccheus. 

1 Kings 16. 34: 2 Kings 2. 4, 5 : Matt. 20. 29, 30. 

Between Jericho and the Jordan lay the town of Gilgal, 

where were erected the twelve stones taken from 

the river when the Israelites passed over. Here 

Samuel offered sacrifice, held his yearly courts, and recognised 



GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 257 

Saul as king. And here was one of the schools of the pro- 
phets. In the days of Ahaz, however, it was the seat of 
idolatrous worship, and an object of execration by the pro- 
phets. The place where the children of Israel had renewed 
their covenant with God, and whence he had so often gone up 
with their armies, thus became defiled with idolatry, Josh. 
4. 19 : Hos. 9. 15. 

If we trace the history of Shiloh, the place chosen by 
Joshua for the tabernacle, and where it remained 
for more than 400 years, till the days of Eli, we 
shall have in brief a history of many a favoured and after- 
wards rejected city, Josh. 18. i-io : Judges 21. 19-23 : 1 Sam. 
chaps. 1-6 : 1 Kings 11. 29 : 12. 15 : 14. 2, etc. : Psa. 78. 60 : 
Jer. 7. 12-14 : 2 ^ 6. 

The peculiar feelings with which Jacob must have visited 
Beersheba, where he offered sacrifice (Gen. 46. i), 
may be gathered from Gen. 31. 33: 22. 19 : 20. 
23-25. It was already endeared to him by many holy asso- 
ciations. 

A brief notice of Palestine will throw light upon several 
passages, both of the Old and New Testament. 

Palestine .• 

387. Its names. — It is called the world, a the earth or the 
land. Hence Solomon is said to reign from the 
river (Euphrates), to the end of the earth, Psa. 72. 
In the person of Christ these words have a still larger fulfil- 
ment. The country which lay to the south of Judaea, was 
Arabia, and at its extreme border (from the sea), was the 
city of Sheba, or Saba. And hence the queen of Sheba is said 
to have come from the uttermost parts of the earth to hear 
the wisdom of Solomon. 

The country was early inhabited by the descendants of 
Canaan, the grandson of Noah (Gen. 11). It was thence 
called the land of Canaan, From the descendants of Jacob, 
it was called the land of Israel. From the fact that the tribe 
of Judah occupied it almost alone after the captivity, it was 
called Judaea (Psa. 76. 1). From the covenant into which 
God entered with Abraham and his posterity, it was called 



a T 



Luke 2. 1: Acts 11. 28: Luke 4. 25 : 21. 26 : James 5. 17. 



258 GEOGRAPHY : PALESTINE. 

the land of promise, Gen. 12. 7 : 13. 15 : Ex. 15. 14 : Heb. 
11. 9. And from the Philistines or Pali (shepherds), who 
inhabited its southern coasts, Palestine. 

The land of God, Lev. 25. 23 ; the holy land, Zech. 2. 12, 
are also terms employed in Scripture. It must be observed, 
however, that the limits of the country to which these names 
were given, have varied at different periods. 

Its extent and divisions. — The whole land of Israel, from 
its extent Dan to Beersheba, was in length equal to the dis- 
aad divisions, tance between London and York, or about 200 
miles, and in its widest parts was less than the distance be- 
tween York and Liverpool, or about ninety miles. 

For seven centuries after the dispersion, it was occupied by 
the Canaanites, who divided it among ten nations. They after- 
wards dwindled to seven, Gen. 15. 18-21 : Deut. 7. 1 ; of whom 
the Amorites were the most powerful, and their name is some- 
times used for the whole, Gen. 15. 16. The Philistines, Moab- 
ites, Midianites, Ammonites, and the children of Amalek 
and Edom were residing, when the Israelites entered Canaan, 
in its immediate vicinity, and some of them within its borders. 

Joshua divided the country into twelve parts, giving one to 
each tribe, Ephraim and Manasseh being reckoned among the 
tribes, and Levi having his portion among the rest. 

In the North dwelt Asher, Naphtali, Zebulon, and Issachar : after- 
wards Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilee proper. 

In the Middle, Ephraim, and half of Manasseh; afterwards Sa- 
maria. 

In the South, Judah, Benjamin, Dan and Simeon; afterwards 
Judaea, 

Beyond Jordan, Keuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh; afterwards 
Percea, etc. 

Under the reign of Solomon, the kingdom was greatly ex- 
tended, and the distinction of tribes became less marked. 
The whole of his territory was therefore divided afresh into 
twelve districts, each under its own officer (1 Kings 4. 7 -I 9)- 

On the death of Solomon, ten tribes revolted from his son 
Eehoboam, and formed the kingdom of Israel, of which Sychar 
or Shechem was the capital. The other tribes of Benjamin 
and Judah, with parts of Dan and Simeon, formed the king- 
dom of Judah, whose chief city was Jerusalem. This division 



GEOGRAPHY : PALESTINE. 259 

ceased, however, on the subversion of the kingdom of Israel, 
by Shalmaneser, the Assyrian, after it had continued for 254 
years : and the country fell successively into the hands of the 
Assyrians, the Greeks, the Jews (under the Maccabees), and 
the Romans, 

In the time of our Lord, it was divided into five provinces, 

1. Galilee, which included most of the scenes of his personal 
ministry, and whence most of his disciples were chosen, Isa. 9. 
1 : .Matt. 2. 22, 23 : Luke 4. 14 : Matt. 26. 69 : 28. 7. 16. 
This district was despised by the Jews because of its distance 
from Jerusalem, its connection with the Samaritans, and the 
impurity of the dialect spoken by the people, Mark 14. 70. 

2. Samaria, which included the middle division of the king- 
dom, and separated Galilee from Judaea, John 4. 4.- 3. Judaea, 
which was nearly co-extensive with the ancient kingdom of 
Judah. 4. The district of Per 02a (or beyond Jordan), which 
included Abilene, where Lysanias was tetrarch, Luke 3. 1, 
Trachonitis, Ituraea or Auranitis, a Gaulonitis, b Batanaea, the 
ancient Bashan, but less extensive, Peraea proper (between the 
Arnon and the Jabbok), where John was beheaded, and 
Decapolis (or the district of the ten cities). 5. Idumaea, a 
province which was added by the Romans. It comprised the 
extreme south parts of Judaea, with a small part of Arabia. 
After some time, the Idumaeans became mingled with the 
Ishmaelites. 

388. In later times, these divisions have undergone various 
Later divi- changes. In the fifth century, the country was 
sions. divided into three parts : Judaea and Samaria ; 
Galilee and Trachonitis ; Peraea and Idumaea. In the time of 
the Crusades, episcopal sees were established in the principal 
cities. Under the modern Turkish authority, the whole 
country is divided between the pachaliks, or governments, of 
Acre and Damascus. 

389. It will facilitate the study of Sacred Scripture to have 
state (as to a distinct idea, both of the divisions of the country 

K™ys^ and of tne changes of the government, in the time 
of our Lord, of our Lord. 

a 1 Chron. 1. 31, (from Jetur.) : Ezek, 47. 16. 18 : Hauran. 
b Josh. 20. 8. 



260 



GEOGRAPHY : PALESTINE. 






Herod the Great reigns from b. c. 37 to b. c. 3, over 



Judaea, 
Samaria, Idumsea. 



Revenue, 400 talents 
(about one million 
sterling). 

These he bequeaths to 
his son, 

Archelaus, who is ba- 
nished, and the pro- 
vince is put under 
procurators, of 

whom one of the 
chief was 

Pontius Pilate, a. d. 
7 to 36 (dies 36). 



Galilee, 
Per sea Proper 



Revenue, 200 talents. 



These he bequeaths 
to his son, 

Herod Antipas, who 
beheaded John. 



Trachonitis 
and Iturea. 









Revenue, 100 ta- 
lents. 

These he bequeaths 
to his son, . 

Philip Herod (John 
4-) 



Herod Antipas ba- 
nished (40). 



Philip dies (3 7). 



Herod Agrippa (grandson of Herod) made king of the whole 

(Acts 12) a. D. 41-44. 

Herod Agrippa dies, a. d. 44. 



Roman Governors. 
Fadus Alexander. 
Felix (4 th Governor). 
Festus (5 th Governor). 



Agrippa (son of II . 
Agrippa), tetrarch of Trachonitis, is made 
tetrarch of Galilee also. Paul pleads be- 
fore him at Caesarea (Acts 25, 26.) 



390. The physical appearance of the country is remarkably 
Physical broken and mountainous. The higher peaks of 
appearance. Lebanon and of Sinai (which lie about 400 miles 
apart) rise to a height of nearly 10,000 feet above the Medi- 
terranean. The Jordan springs from the sides of the former, 
and at the lake of Tiberias its level is 750 feet below the 
Mediterranean. At the Dead Sea, the depression has in- 
creased to i; 31 2 feet ; and, as the depth of that sea is 1,350 
feet, we have, altogether, a more remarkable change of surface 
than is to be found in any part of the world. From the plain 
of Esdraelon the hills to the south continue gradually rising, 



GEOGRAPHY : PALESTINE. £61 

till at Jerusalem we reach a height, above the surface of the 
Dead Sea, of 3,900 feet. In the hill country of Judah (south 
of Jerusalem) they reach a still greater height : eastward, the 
country falls rapidly, so that Jericho, which is but twenty 
miles from Jerusalem, is 3,406 below it : so accurate is the 
description given in the Bible, Luke 10. 30 : John 7. 10 : 
Acts 24. 1. Compare Gen. 26. 2 : 46. 3. 

Many of these mountains abound in caverns. Their sides 
afford large sheep walks (Amos 1. 2), and the plains which 
are found on the summits of some are covered with corn. In 
the crevices of the rocks, and wherever was any depth of 
earth, the olive flourished, and the fig. The vales were most 
luxuriant and fruitful, and the very deserts were formed 
chiefly of extensive pasture-land, unfit for the plough, but 
rich in grass and timber. The products of ail climes were 
thus found in Palestine, and upon the same range of hills 
were often growing the fig and date of the tropics, with the 
oak and fir of the temperate zone. A climate ail soft and 
sunny would have injured the robust industry and manly 
character of the people : a country all rugged and moun- 
tainous would have driven them into alliance with their 
heathen neighbours. Mountains, which grew olives and wheat ; 
the snow-covered heights of Lebanon, and the hot deep 
valley of Jordan — pasture and tillage — all seem to have been 
adapted to the circumstances of the chosen people, and to 
have answered the description of the Bible—''' a good land, a 
land of brooks of water, that spring out of the valleys and 
hills." 

391. In the time of David, the population was probably 
four or five millions (see 2 Sam. 24. o), or between 

Population. 

400 and 500 to every square mile ; a proportion 
such as is now found in the West Eiding of Yorkshire. The 
present population of Syria, which is four times the size of 
the kingdom under David, is about a million and a half. a 
Even this population seems sustained with difficulty, and a 
great part of the country is completely barren. Its former 
fertility is ascribed in Scripture to the special blessing of 
God, and its present barrenness to "the heat of his great 
anger :" see Lev. 26. 3-5 : Deut. 7. 12-14 • «. 8-15 : 28. 1-12, 
compared with Deut. 29. 23-25 : 28. 16-24, 38-42. 

a Dr. Bowring's Keport. 



262 geography: Jerusalem. 

392. The capital of Judaea was Jerusalem. Its name in the 

days of Abraham was Salem, a and it was called Jebus 
when Israel obtained possession of the Holy Land. b 
Its Jewish name was perhaps suggested by these facts, and 
means the possession, or home of peace. Part of the city be- 
longed to Benjamin, and part to Judah. The foundation of the 
whole is a high rock, with four heads or hills, and with a steep 
ascent on every side except the north. c A deep valley sur- 
rounds three sides, and beyond the valley are still higher 
hills ; so that the city is not easily visible till the traveller is 
near it. The soil is very stony, and the country round is dry 
and barren. 

The extent of the city differed at different times. It was 
largest at the time of its final overthrow by Titus. It then 
included Zion, Acra, Moriah, and Bezetha. Zion was on the 
south-eastern side of the city, and immediately north of it 
was Acra. Zion was the higher of the two ; the part of Jeru- 
salem which was built upon it was called the upper city, and 
the part built on Acra, the lower. They were divided by a 
high wall, first erected by David, who resided on Mount Zion. 
Zion is now the site of an English Protestant church. 

Moriah (where it is supposed Abraham was about to offer 
Isaac, when the angel stayed his hand) lay to the east of Acra, 
and was the site of the temple. The valley between it and 
Acra was nearly filled up, that access to the temple might be 
more easy. With Zion, Moriah was connected by a bridge 
and terrace. It is now the site of the mosque of Omar. To 
the north was the hill Bezetha, which Agrippa joined to the 
city. The whole circumference of the walls was about four 
miles and a half. 

393. The name of the temple is applied in the English Scrip- 
tures not only to the place appointed for Divine worship — 
the sanctuary and the holy of holies — but to the courts and 
buildings connected with it. The first temple had been 
erected by Solomon. It retained its original splendour only 
thirty-four years, when Shishak, king of Egypt, took it, and 
carried away its treasures. After undergoing repeated pro- 
fanations, it was finally plundered and burned by the Chal- 
dceans under Nebuchadnezzar, B. c. 584, 2 Kings 25. 13-15 : 
2 Ghron. 36. 17-20. 

* Gen. 14. 8. b Josh. 15.8. c Psa. 125. 2. 



GEOGRAPHY '. JERUSALEM. 263 

The second temple was erected by Zerubbabel, but with 
greatly diminished glory, Ez. 3. 12 ; and was profaned by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, who erected an image of Jupiter on the 
altar of burnt offering, B. c. 163. In this condition it remained 
for three years, when Judas Maccabseus purified and repaired 
it, b. c. 160, 1 Mace. 162. 

About sixteen years before the birth of Christ (i. e., B. c. 
20), the repairing, or gradual rebuilding of this temple was 
undertaken by Herod the Great. Eor nine years and a half 
he employed 18,000 workmen upon it, and spared no expense 
to render it equal in magnitude and splendour to the original 
structure. After his death, the Jews continued to ornament 
and enlarge it ; so that, at the beginning of the ministry of 
our Lord it was still unfinished, though forty-six years had 
elapsed since Herod had collected his materials and com- 
menced the work, John 2. 20. The whole pile was con- 
structed of hard white stones, of very great size, and was 
surrounded by a wall of very great height. When Titus 
took Jerusalem, he wished to preserve the temple ; but his 
most strenuous efforts were unsuccessful, and the whole was 
destroyed by fire on the same day, and in the same month, 
in which the first temple had been burned by Nebuchadnezzar, 
15 Lois (August), A. D. 73. It contained no ark or mercy- 
seat — no shekinah — no sacred fire, first kindled from heaven, 
nor Urirn and Thummim — no prophetic spirit, as did the 
first temple — but it had been rendered "more glorious" 
through the presence and teaching of Him who was the 
Desire of all nations (Hag. 2. 9). 

But let us enter within these stupendous walls by one of 
the eastern gates, " the gate Beautiful." We are now in the 
outer court, the court of the Gentiles, and can walk around ; 
each side is 250 yards long. Here is a market ; salt, incense, 
and cattle — all used in sacrifice — are here on sale. Here 
also are the money-changers ; and here, or perhaps within 
one of the next inclosures, is the treasury. 

Before us, but raised a few feet, and separated by a low 
wall or partition, is the court of the ivomen. On these pillars, 
which run along the whole of the wall, we may read inscrip- 
tions, warning Gentiles and unclean persons not to enter on 
pain of death. See Eph. 2. 13, 14. 

An ascent of fifteen steps leads us into the inner, or men's 



2(U GEOGRAPHY : JERUSALEM. 

court ; and in these two courts, called collectively the court 
of the Israelites, the people prayed, while the priest was 
offering incense within the sanctuary, Luke i 10. In the 
corners of this square are rooms appropriated for the purifi- 
cation of lepers and for the use of Nazarites. 

"Within the court of the Israelites is the court of the 
priests, who only are permitted to enter it. A flight of 
twelve steps leads into the temple itself. In entering, we 
pass through the portico, where are suspended the votive 
offerings of devout worshippers : see Luke 21.5. Here also 
are the rooms where the Sanhedrim used to assemble ; till the 
frequent occurrence of violence rendered it necessary for 
them to hold their meetings in the outer inclosure. 

From this porch we enter the sanctuary, or holy place, and 
still in front of us is the holy of holies, concealed by a double 
veil, which, at the crucifixion of our Lord, was rent in two, 
to indicate that the way into the holiest was made manifest 
and accessible to all by the one Mediator, Jesus Christ, Heb. 
10. 19-22. The holy of holies was twenty cubits square (from 
thirty to forty feet), and was entered but once a } r ear on the 
great day of atonement, Lev. 16. 2, 15, 34 : Heb. 9. 2-7. 

Here, on the destruction of Jerusalem, Titus found the 
golden candlestick, the table of shew-bread, and the sacred 
trumpets, which had been used to proclaim the year of 
jubilee. The arch of Titus has preserved the images of these 
relics, and it is still among the evidences of the truth of the 
Bible. 

But let us leave the temple. Here at the north-east cor- 
The Sheep-, ner was the sheep-market, and adjoining was the 
market, etc. p 00 i f Bethesda. At the market the sheep were 
sold for the temple-service, and in the Pool they were washed 
before being delivered to the priests. 

At the north-west comer of the temple wall was a strong 
fortress, built by Herod the Great, called Antonia. It was 
connected by a flight of steps with the temple-courts, and 
was guarded by. a Eoman garrison. It was from this place 
that the tribune with his soldiers ran to quell the tumult, 
which the Jews raised in consequence of Paul having, (as they 
supposed), taken Trophimus within the sacred precinct of 
the temple. Here, it is probable that Pilate resided, when- 
ever he came from Csesarea to Jerusalem. This fortress was 



GEOGRAPHY : JERUSALEM. z65 

therefore the Praetorium where the supreme judge held his 
court of justice, John 18. 28, 33 : 19. 9 : Matt. 27. 27, orig. 
Before the Praetorium was a raised pavement, called Gabbatha, 
and on it stood the tribunal, or seat of judgment. This pave- 
ment was constructed that the Jews might have their causes 
decided without entering the Praetorium, and thus becoming 
defiled. "When Pilate examined Jesus apart from the Jews, 
he was within the Praetorium : when in their presence it was 
on the raised pavement. There Pilate condemned him. In 
the Praetorium the soldiers mocked him, Matt. 15. 16. Pro- 
bably to produce compassion in the minds of the Jews, Pilate 
again brought him to the pavement, and when Jesus was 
finally delivered to them, he was conducted through the gate 
of justice (west of the temple), to Calvary, which was just 
without the walls, and there they crucified him. 

394. On the night of our Lord's betrayal, he seems to have 
been taken from Gethsemane, to the house of Annas (on 
Acra), thence to the house of Caiaphas, on Mount Zion, thence 
to the Praetorium, thence to the palace of Herod, in Bezetha, 
thence again to the Praetorium, and then lastly to Calvary. 

395. To the east of Jerusalem lay the Mount of Olives, 
with the valley of the Brook Kedron between them. This 
valley has been for more than 3000 years, and is to the 
present day, used as a burial-place. This is called in the Old 
Testament, the valley of Jehoshaphat, Joel 3. 2. 

396. Southward was the valley of Hinnom (Gehenna), where 
the Jews had once worshipped Moloch, and offered to it in 
sacrifice their own children. When Josiah recalled them to 
the worship of the true God, the valley was made the recep- 
tacle for the filth of the city, and for the bodies of criminals 
who had been executed, 2 Kings 23. 10 : 2 Chron. 28. 3. To 
consume these substances fires were kept continually burning, 
and hence the place was used as an emblem of future punish- 
ment, Matt. 5. 22. On the south declivity of the valley, lay 
the Potter's-field, afterwards called, from the circumstances of 
its purchase, the field of blood. 

397. At the destruction of Jerusalem, more than a million 

Subsequent of tlle Jews P erisnecl j an ^ 97,000 were taken pri- 

history of soners. About sixty years afterwards, the Jews 

who had begun to gather round their ancient home, 

were all banished, their return prohibited on pain of death, 

N 



266 GEOGRAPHY \ JERUSALEM. 

and the site of the temple ploughed up. Several hundred 
years afterwards, the city was again rebuilt. In 614, the Per- 
sians captured it, and 90,000 Christians were slain. In 637, it 
was taken by the Saracens, who kept it till 1079, when the 
Turks became its masters. It is still a large city, with about 
20,000 inhabitants, but trodden down of the Gentiles, a " by- 
word, and a reproach." 

After the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, many of the Jews 
removed to Tiberias, which was long the chief seat of their 
literature and worship. 

398. A knowledge of geography will often explain and re- 
concile the statements of the Bible, show the beauty and 
truthfulness of particular passages, and bring out the sense, 
which might otherwise remain concealed. 

Asia, for example, means in the New Testament, a small 
part of Asia Minor, of which Ephesus was the capital : hence when 
the apostle was forbidden to go into Asia, he felt himself free to go 
to Bithynia, one of the provinces of Asia Minor, Acts 2.9: 1 Cor. 
16. 19: Bev. 1, 4. 

The word " sea," is often applied in Scripture to great rivers. 
The Nile is so called, Nan. 3. 8. The description applies to No- 
Ammon, or Thebes, the ancient capital of Egypt, built on both 
sides of the Nile, and $oo miles from the Mediterranean, see also 
Isa. 27. 1: Jer. 51. 36. Euphrates is so called, Isa. 19. 5. The 
Nile is still called by xhis name, el Bahr (the sea), Bobinson's 
Besearches, i. 542. The word " coasts" means borders or districts, 
Matt. 2. 16: 15. 21. 

In the time of our Lord the Jews called all civilized nations, 
except themselves, Greeks, Acts 19. 10: 20. 21 : Bom. 1. 16 : 2. 9, 10 : 
10. 12 ; as the Greeks called all except themselves, Barbarians. 
Hence the woman whom Matthew calls a Canaanite is called by 
Mark a Greek, and a Syro-Bhcenician, Matt. 15. 22: Mark 7. 26; 
the word " Syro " being intended probably to guard Boman readers 
(for whom his Gospel was designed), against supposing that she 
belonged to Carthage, a " Phoenician city." 

The word "Grecian" or "Hellenist," however, refers to Jcv:s 
who for the most part resided out of Judoea, and used the Grecian 
language and manners, Acts 6. 1 : 9. 29: 11. 20. 

The expression in John 4. 4, "he must needs go through 
Samaria," has sometimes been taken to imply that the "needs-be" 
was founded upon the Divine purpose. The fact is, that Samaria 
lay between Judaea and Galilee, and the direct road to Jerusalem 
led through that country. 



GEOGRAPHY : UTILITY. 



267 



That the Gadareues kept swine, has been regarded as a vio- 
lation of the Jewish law, and on that account it is supposed our 
Lord allowed the demons to enter into the herd: Josephus states, 
however, that Gadara w T as a Greek city, and that it had been only 
recently annexed to Galilee, Luke 8. 37. 

On comparing Luke 24. 50, with Acts 1. 12, it seems that 
our Lord led his disciples as far as Bethany, and yet he ascended 
from the Mount of Olives. In fact, the Mount of Olives has on the 
side of it, next to Jerusalem, the garden of Gethsemane, and on the 
other side, the village of Bethany. The top of the Mount overlooks 
tli em both, and the two passages are quite consistent. 

In Isa. 28. 1, Samaria is called "the crown of pride," and 
her glory is compared to the fading flower of the drunkard. The 
custom referred to in this passage (and which is mentioned in 
Wisd. 2. 7, 8), is that of wearing chaplets in seasons of festivity. 
Samaria, moreover, was built on the top of a round hill, and the 
fact suggested the appropriate image of a wreath of flowers bound 
round the head of the drunkard. 

The chief city of Edom is described, with equal truth, as dwelling 
in the clefts of the rock, and holding the height of the hill, Obad. 3 : 
a most accurate description of the wondrous city of Petra, whose 
ruins were discovered by Burckhardt, in 1811, and have been 
recently visited by Dr. Wilson. 

399. In using a modern atlas of Palestine, giving Arabic 
names, the following table will be of use : — 

Hajr — great stone. Mesjed — mosk, tem- 

Hummaun — bath. pie. 

Jebel, jebal — moun- Mukam — tomb of a 

tain, s. saint. 



Ain, ayun — fountain, s. 
Arab ah — plain, or 

desert. 
Bahr — sea, or lake. 
Beit— house. 
Bir — well. 
Burg — castle. 



Jisr — bridge. 
Kabr — tomb. 
Khan — inn. 
Khulat", 
Kusr !> — castle. 



Kahr — river. 
Kukb — pass. 
Ras— cape, or head. 
Tel— hill. 

Wady) — valley, or 
AVely J water-course. 



Deir — convent. 

El, en, er, etc. — the. 

Ghor— valley between j Kasr 

two mountains. I Merj — meadow. 

400. Under physical geography are included climate, 
weather, seasons, etc. ; and a knowledge of these will often 
throw light on Scripture. 

401. The heat of the climate of Judaea in summer is in- 
tense, and frequently proves fatal Near Mount 
Tabor, many soldiers of the army of Baldwin iv. 

died from this cause, and at the very place (Shunem) where 
the child died in the days of Elisha, 2 Kings 6. 18-20. How 

K 2 



Heat. 



268 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

impressive the figure of the prophet when speaking of the 
Saviour, "He shall be as the shadow of a great rock in a 
weary land !" Isa. 32. 2. 

During the summer there was no rain in Palestine ; but in 
the evening the dew fell heavily and suddenly, 

Pain. 

often wetting the incautious traveller to the skin. 
It was as suddenly dried up on the following morning. Com- 
pare with this fact the following passages, Psa. 133. 3 : Hos, 
6. 4 : 14. 5 : 2 Sam. 17. 12. 

Philo tells us that there are no rains in Egypt ; and it is 
No rain in certain that rain in that country is exceedingly 
Egypt. rars. a Hence the evidence of the miracle of rain 

mentioned in Exod. 9. 18-26, and the hardness of heart dis- 
played by Pharaoh in resisting the message of Moses. 

Bain is generally preceded by a squall of wind. Compare 
2 Kings 3. 16, 17, and Pro v. 25. 14. 

The east wind of Palestine is very hurtful to vegetation. 
In winter it is dry and cold, and in summer dry 

Winds. . . 

and hot. It carries off the moisture of the leaves 
too rapidly, and withers them. b When it sweeps over the 
Mediterranean it is peculiarly dangerous. It was this wind 
— Euroclydon, or a Levanter, as modern sailors call it — which 
proved so fatal to the "Castor and Pollux. vd The west wind 
brought showers, and, after a long drought, heavy rain. 6 The 
north wind was cold and drying/ The south wind brought 
heat g and whirlwinds. 

These whirlwinds are sometimes used in Scripture to illus- 
trate the power of God in the punishment of the wicked, and 
the suddenness with which it overtakes them. 11 Mr. Bruce, 
in his travels to discover the source of the Nile, was suddenly 
caught by a whirlwind, which lifted up a camel, and threw it 
to a considerable distance. It also threw himself and his 
servants down on their faces, so as to make the blood gush 
from their nostrils. Sometimes, Maillet informs us, whole 
caravans have been buried under the sand with which these 
winds are charged. When connected with the 
hot, pestilential simoom, they are peculiarly fatal. 
Thevenot mentions the suffocation from this cause of 4,000 

a Zech. 14. 1 3. b Gen. 41. 6: Ezek. 17. 10: 19. 2: Hos. 1 7 . 15. 
u Psa. 48. 7. d Acts 27. 14. e Luke 12. 54: 1 Kings 18. 44, 45. 
f Prov. 25. 23: Job 37. 9, 22. s Luke 12. 55: Zech. 9. 14. 

h Prov. 1. 27: 10. 25. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : SEASONS, ETC. 269 

persons in 1655, and of nearly 20,000 in 16S8. Compare Isa. 
17. 13 : Hos. 13. 3 : Isa. 32. 2 : Matt. 7. 27 : Prov. 29. 1. 

Banner's Observations, i., 164. 

The value of wells in the East can be fully appreciated 
only by those who know the scarcity of water in 
the summer season. These wells were a source of 
strife between Abimelech and Isaac, Gen. 26 ; and Moses 
commemorates God's bounty in giving the Israelites wells 
which they digged not, Deut. 6. 11. Travellers crossing the 
deserts sometimes go as much as 80 miles without water. 
The wells, too, are often very deep, many of them 160 feet, 
and then filled only with rain-water. In going to Jerusalem, 
the devout Israelites went from strength to strength, the 
rain filling the pools, Psa. 84 : see also Gen. 24. 16. The 
comparison of false teachers to wells without water is thus 
seen to be peculiarly just ; bitterly disappointing the hopes 
of their hearers, 2 Pet. 2.17. The mirage, or glowing watery 
appearance of distant sand, is also a figure expressive of dis- 
appointment. Camels and travellers are both deceived, and 
when they reach what seemed a sheet of water they find 
burning dust. See Jer. 15. 18, marg. 

Between the days and nights of Europe, there is no very 
Frosty great difference as to the qualities of heat and 

nights. cold. In the East it is quite otherwise. In the 

height of summer the nights are often as cold as at Paris in 
the month of March, and the days scorchingly hot. Compare 
Gen. 31. 40, and Jer. 36. 30 : Isa. 49. 10 : Rev. 7. 16. 

Sir J. Chardin, Harmer, i., 182. 

402. It is instructive to notice that the Scriptures always 
represent the weather, whose laws are apparently the most 
difficult to ascertain, as under the control and superintend- 
ence of the Creator, Matt. 5. 45: Acts 14. 17 : Jer. 5. 24: 
Psa. 147. 16-18 : Nahum 1. 5, 6. 

Harmer's Observations will be found a rich store-house of illus- 
trations on the physical geography of Palestine. Recent travellers, 
and especially Dr. Robinson, Dr. Kitto, and Dr. John Wilson, have 
largely added to our knowledge. 

403. Combining the mode of reckoning common among 
the Jews with the facts of physical geography, and the sea- 
sons fixed for the various annual feasts, we obtain a table of 
much interest and value. 



270 



CALKNDAR OF THE JEWS, 



The first month of the sacred year was the one whose full moon 

answered to March and sometimes to 



Month o 



Sacred; Civil 
Year. I Year. 



ist 



5 rh 



7 th 



nth 



1 2th 



7th 



2nd I 8th 



3rd 



9th 



4th ! 10th 



nth 



6th I 12th 



ist 



3 th 


2nd 


9th 


3rd 


10th 


4th 



5 th 



6th 



Name. 



Abib, or Nisan (30 
days), Exod. 12. 2 : 
Ezra 7.9: Neh. 2. 1 : 
Esther 3. 7. 



Answering 

to the 
Months of 



Tyar, or Zif (29 days), 



1 Kings 6. 1. 



Sisan, or Siuvan (30 
difys), Esther 8. 9. 



Thammuz (29 days). 



Ab (30 days), Ezra 
7-9- 



Elul (29 days), Neh. 
6. 15. 

Tisri, or Ethanim (30 
days), 1 Kings 8. 2. 



Parts of 
Mar. and 
Apr. 



Parts 


of 


Apr. 


and 


May. 





Parts of 
May and 
June. 



Pts. of June 
and July. 



Pts. of July 
and Aug. 



Pts. of Aug. 
and Sept. 



Parts of 
Sept. and 
Oct. 



Marchesvan, or Bui 
(29 ds.), 1 Kings 6. 3 8. 



Chisleu (30 days), Zech. 
7. 1 : Neh. 1. 1. 



Pts. of Oct. 
and Nov. 



Thebeth (29 days), 
Esther 2. 16. 



She vet, or Shebat (30 
days), Zech. 1.7, 



Adar (29 days), Ezra 

6. 15. 
Ve Adar, or 2nd Adar. 



Parts of 
Nov. and 
Dec. 



Parts of 
Dec. and 
Jan. 



Parts of 
Jan. and 
Feb. 



Parts of 
Feb. and 
Mar. 



Festivals and Lessons. 



3. Lev. 6. Jer. 7. 21. 

14. Paschal lamb slain. The Pas- 
sover. 

16. The first-fruits of the barley 
harvest presented. 

21. End of the Passover and un- 
leavened bread. 



11. Lev. 16. 1 : Ez. 22. 

14. The second Passover (Numb. 
9. 10, 11) for such as couldnot 
celebrate the first. 



6. Pentecost, or feast of weeks. 
First-fruits of wheat-harvest 
(Lev. 23. 17, 20) and first-fruits 
of all the ground, Deut. 26. 2, 
10, 16: 1 Kings 12. 25-33. 
10. Numb. 1 : Hos. 1. 



3. Numb. 13. 1 : Josh. 2. 
26. Numb. 22. 2 : Mic. 5. 7. 



3. Numb. 30. 2: Jer. 1. 
20. Deut. 1 : Isa. 1. 



. Deut. 7. 12: Isa. 49. 14, 
'. Deut. 16.18: Isa. 51. 12. 



3 

20. De 



1. Feast of trumpets, Lev. 23. 24. 
Numb. 29. 1. 

10. Day of atonement, Lev. 23. 
27, 28. 

15. Feast of tabernacles, or of the 
in-gatherings, Exod. 23. 16: 
Lev. 23. 34. First-fruits of 
wine and oil, Lev. 23. 39. 

21. Gen. 1 : Isa. 42. 5. 



8. Gen. 23. 1 : 1 Sam. 1. 1. 



10. Gen. 37. 1 : Amos 2. 6. 
25= Feast of the dedication. 1 Max 
4. 52-59: John 10. 22, 23. 



25. Exod. 10. 1 : Jer. 46. 13. 



17. Exod. 2r. 1 : Jer. 34. 8. 



1. Exod. 38. 21 : 1 Sam. 17. 13. 
14, 15. Feast of Purim. 
25. Lev. 1. : Isa. 43. 21. 



SHOWING THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR, ETC. 



27 



followed next after the vernal equinox,and therefore sometimes 
April, and sometimes to parts of both. 



Seasons and "Weather. 



Harvest 
begins. 



The latter rain begins to fall, Dent. n. 

14: Zech. 10. 1. 
The weather during the rains chilly, Ezra 

10. 9: John 18. 10. 
This rain prepares the corn for harvest. 
Great heat, especially in the plains. 
The rivers swell from the rains, Josh. 3. 15 

1 Chron. 12. 15: Jer. 12. 5. 



The latter rains still frequent. 
These rams often preceded by whirlwinds, 
1 Kings 1 3. 45: att. 8. 24. 



Excessive drought. From April to Sept. no 
rain or thunder, 1 Sam. 12. 17 : Prov. 26. 1 
The morning cloud seen early, but soon 
disappears, Hos. 6. 4: 13.3. 
Summer 'Copious dews at night, Job 29. 9 : Psa. 133.3. 
begins. North and east winds increase drought, 
Gen. 41. 6: Jer. 4. 8. 



Hot 

season, 



Seed- 
time 
begins. 



Heat increases. 



Heat intense ; country apparently burned up 
Lebanon nearly free from snow. 



Heat still intense, 2 Kings 4. 19, 20: Psa. 
121. 6: Isa. 49. 9, 10: Bev. 7, 16. 



Heat in the day: nights frosty, Gen. 31-40. 
^ Showers frequent : the former, or early rain. 
" Ploughing and sowing begin. 



Sometimes the early rain begins now. 
Wheat and barley sown. 



Winter 
begins. 



"Trees lose their foliage. 
Snow begins to fall on the mountains, Jos. 
36. 22. 



Cold 
season. 



On the mountains the cold is severe. 
Hail; snow, Josh. 10. 11: Psa. 47. 16, 17. 
"Weather warm at intervals, Ez. 33. 30,31. 



Corn still sown. 

At the beginning of the cold season the 

weather cold, but gradually becomes 

warm. 



Thunder and hail frequent. 
Barley sometimes sown. 



Productions. 



Barley ripe at Jericho ; wheat 
partly in ear ; fig-tree blossoms : 
winter-fig still on the tree, 
Matt. 21. 19: Mark 11. 13. 

Barley generally three weeks 
earlier than wheat. Barlev ge- 
nerally cut this month, Ruth 1. 
22. Wheat begins to ripen. 



W neat ripening on the hills in 
June; in the valleys, early in 
May. 

Grass in some places a yard 
high, John 6. 10. 



Early vintage, Lev. 26. 5. Pace 
and early figs ripen. 



Pipe figs at Jerusalem ; olives 
at Jericho ; grapes ripening- 



Grape harvest general. 



The latter grapes gathered. 



Grass and herbs spring up after j 
the rains. 



The winter-fig found on the trees, 
though they are stripped of their 
leaves. 



The almond-tree blossoms. 



272 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : UTILITY 



4^ 



[.04. The perusal of this Table will suggest one or two 
obvious analogies. The summer and winter in Palestine 
coincide with the same seasons in England ; as does the time 
of greatest heat, July and August, and of greatest cold, 
January. Seed time is in our autumn ; and harvest begins 
in our spring, and extends through the early summer. 

The rainy seasoDS in Palestine begin about the Equinoxes ; 
the rain in our autumn is the early or seed rain ; the rain in 
our spring is the latter or harvest rain. The one quickens the 
seed, the other fills the ear. The rains generally come from 
the west (Luke 12. 54), driven up from the Mediterranean Sea. 
During harvest and summer, rain is most unusual, a fact 
which explains the surprise of the people as described in 
1 Sam. 12. 17. 

The Israelites crossed the Jordan in April, when the river 
was swollen with the winter rains, and hence the necessity for 
the miracle recorded in Josh. 3. 

In Scripture, dates are often fixed by a reference to the 
seasons or productions, 2 Sam. 21.9: Numb. 13. 20 ; or by a 
reference to the feasts, John 10. 22. 

The fact recorded in Luke 4. 17, has been thought to fix 
the time of our Lord's visit to the synagogue at Nazareth. 
The reading of the Law was completed in the fifty-two sab- 
baths of each year, and was begun in Tisri (or Sept.), a cus- 
tom founded on Neh. 8. 2 ; and Deut. 31. 10, 11. Gen. 1-6 
was read at the feast of tabernacles ; and on the sabbath 
before, Deut. 29. 10, with Isa. 61. 1 — 63. 10. This reckoning, 
which is Lamy's, fixes the visit on the 14th Tisri. The time 
seems fixed by the context, however, nearer to Pentecost, and 
the phraseology of Luke rather intimates that Christ had 
chosen the passage, than that he found it in the general order 
of reading. Lamy has given all the lessons (App. Bibl. Bk. 
i., chap. 5). The preceding Table gives the commencement of a 
few only. 

The zeal of the people mentioned in 2 Chron. 30. 23, be- 
comes more obvious, when it is remembered that they kept 
the feast other seven days, in the midst of the harvest. 

Important lessons are often suggested by an accurate know- 
ledge of such facts as this Table contains. Our Lord, for 
example, was crucified on the day when the paschal lamb was 
offered, and rose on the day when the first fruits of the early 



INTERPRETATION OF ALLEGORIES. 273 

harvest were presented, " the first fruits of them that slept." 
The Spirit was poured out at Pentecost, when the first 
fruits of the ground were presented at the temple : and on 
that day 3000 persons " out of every nation under heaven," 
were added to the church, Acts 2. 5, 41. The feast of taber- 
nacles (when thanks were offered for the ingathering of all the 
fruits of the land), is yet to come. 

The language of our Lord (Matt. 23. 27, 29), comparing the 
Pharisees to whited sepulchres, becomes clearer from the 
fact, that it was spoken just before the Passover, and after 
the winter rains, when the Jews were busy whitewashing the 
burial-places near Jerusalem, and preparing for the feast. 

Sec. 7. On the application of these Bides to the interpretation 
of the Allegories, Parables, Types, and Symbols of Scripture. 

" The Scriptures being written to the thoughts of men, and to the succession of 
all ages .... are not to be interpreted only according to the latitude of the proper 
sense of the place, and respectively towards that present occasion whereupon the 
words were uttered .... but have in themselves, both distributively and collec- 
tively, infinite springs and streams of doctrine to water the church in every part 
not that I wish men to be bold in allegories .... but that I do much con- 
demn that interpretation of the Scripture, which is only after the manner men use 
to interpret a profane book." — Bacon ; Advancement of Learning. 

" Our Lord might have uttered the common places of morality, but he teaches by 
parables, because he knew that they would more constantly inhabit both the me- 
mory and the judgement."— Sik P. Sydney. 

" Manifesto dicta absolvent parabolas." — Ir&nceus, lib. ii., c. 47. 

405. "We have been engaged thus far in collecting the sense 

of Scripture, and in order to ascertain that sense, it has only 

been necessary to find the meaning of the words. There are 

some parts of the Bible, however, where we need an additional 

kind of interpretation. Hitherto the meaning of the words 

has been regarded as the Bible. In the passages to which we 

are about to refer, however, there is a further meaning called 

the allegorical or spiritual. To this class belong the allegories 

and parables, types, typical actions, and symbols of the sacred 

volume, and as they agree in the principles of interpretation 

applicable to them all, we class them under one name as 

allegories. 

Figures and 4°6. They differ from the figures of Scripture in 
Parables. several particulars. 

First, They present to our view only the less important meaning 
they are intended to convey, the moral or spiritual one being for a 
time concealed; while in figures the secondary or important mean- 
ing is generally the prominent one. When it is said, for example, 

n3 



274 ALLEGORICAL AND FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

that the Son of Man is the sower, we use a figure, and the meaning 
of the word " sower" is fixed by its place in the sentence. But 
when we say, "A sower went forth to sow/' we express but one 
meaning, though there is an ultimate meaning in view which is not 
expressed. 

Secondly, Figures always represent one thing as another thing, 
and the meaning is at once fixed by excluding the points in which 
they differ and combining those only in which they agree. In the 
case of allegories or parables, it is never said that one thing is 
another, though this may be said when the parable is explained. 

Thirdly, In figures there is but one meaning consistent with the 
context and scope; in the allegory and parable there are two, the 
verbal and the allegorical; the verbal being the explanation of the 
words, and the allegorical, of the thing or things signified by them. 

407. It must be remembered, that in an allegory or type, 
we are not to expect an agreement between the verbal sense 
and the allegorical meaning in all points. The allegory, so far, 
is like a figure of speech. In the latter, it is enough if the 
two things compared touch in one point, and in the former, 
things must not be expected to touch in all. At the same 
time, the allegory so far differs from the figure, that it generally 
touches in more than one. It is in its very nature a continued 
comparison, and an expositor may safely proceed on the pre- 
sumption that there is contact in most points ; nor need he 
desist from his comparison till the resemblance refuses to 
appear, unless it be forced, or till it is evident that the cir- 
cumstance under consideration is added only to give beauty 
or energy to the narrative. 

408. The occasions on which it is proper to use an alle- 
Parabies gorical representation, are numerous. It tests a 
when used, teachable disposition (Matt. 13. 13). It is pecu- 
liarly useful in giving a figurative exhibition of truth, before it 
is intended to reveal it clearly. It often serves this purpose 
in the Old Testament, and in the book of Revelation. It is 
useful in gaining a man's judgment against himself, as in the 
case of David, and as in many of the parables ; and even when 
there is no need of concealment, it often attracts the atten- 
tion of men who might otherwise remain indifferent. 

409. All the rules of allegorical interpretation take as 

granted, that the verbal interpretation of the pas- 
words to be sage has been completed, and that if the allegory 
ascertained, -j^ a type or symbol, we have ascertained precisely 



ALLEGORIES : THE SCOPE. 275 

what the action or symbol is, whose allegorical meaning we 
are about to investigate. Till this be done, no step can be 
taken in the real interpretation ; we must first know what the 
thing is, before we can know what it is intended to represent. 

410. (1.) The first rule of interpretation is ; ascertain what 
Firs: rule : is the scope, either by reference to the context, or 
the scope. ^ parallel passages ; and seize the one truth which 
•the type or parable is intended to set forth, distinguishing it 
from all the other truths which border upon it, and let the 
parts of the parable that are explained, be explained in har- 
mony with this one truth. 

In the case of allegories the scope is generally told us, as in 
Psa< 80; the whole being explained in verse 17, where the man of 
God's right hand is introduced in such a way as directs us to Israel 
as the Vine. Sometimes, however, we have to look to other parts 
of the Bible. 

The entire book of Canticles is an extended allegory, and under 
this form is shadowed forth the spiritual affection between Christ 
and his church. To explain the book, we have recourse to other 
places, where the relation between God and his church is described 
under a similar representation. So also Isa. 5. 1-7; Ezek. 15. 19, 
10, 14: 19. 1-9: 23: 31. 3-17. 

In the parables, the scope is generally told us in the context: 
sometimes by our Lord himself (Matt. 22. 14), sometimes by the 
inspired narrator in his own words (Luke 18. 1). 

Sometimes it is set forth at the commencement of the parable 
(Luke 18. 9: 19. 11); sometimes at the close (Matt. 25. 13: Luke 
16. 9); sometimes at both, as in Matt. 18. 23 : see verses 21 and 35. 
So again in Matt. 20. 1-16: Luke 12, 15-21. 

Sometimes, though rarely, we need to turn to a parallel passage; 
as, for the full interpretation of Luke 15. 3, we turn to Matt. 18. 
12, etc. 

When from none of these circumstances the scope can be gathered, 
we must then have recourse to the occasion or the subject of the 
parable itself. The meaning of the parable of the barren fig-tree 
(Luke 13. 6, 9), and of the prodigal son, is gathered in this way. 
The progress of the parables, and the study of the circumstances 
under which they were spoken, will clearly show the design of our 
Lord in uttering them. 

411. In the case of a type, it is important to remember that 
Scops of "the scope or intention of God in instituting it can 
type-. be gathered only from the Bible. Sometimes from 



276 ALLEGORIES : SUBORDINATE TRUTHS. 

the Old Testament, as in the case of Moses, Deut. 18. 15, 
frequently, only from the New, as in John 3. 14 : 6. 32 : 
1 Cor. 5. 7, 8 . Matt. 12. 40, etc. The principle laid down in 
the Epistle to the Hebrews, is that the whole of the previous 
dispensation was typical — a shadow of things to come. In 
applying this principle, the rules found below must be care- 
fully observed. 

Views incon- 4 12 - Any interpretation of a parable or allegory 
sjstent with that is inconsistent with the great truth, which it 
bo rejected, is thus seen to involve, must be rejected. 

The parable of the good Samaritan, for example, has been sup- 
posed to refer to our Lord; the wounded traveller, to our sinful 
race; the priest and Levite, to the moral and Levitical law: the 
inn, to the church : an interpretation entirely inconsistent with our 
Saviour's design. It is not enough, therefore, that the truths 
which we suppose to be contained in the allegories and types of 
Scripture are Scriptural; they must be evidently shown to be in- 
volved in the purpose of God in instituting the one, and of inspired 
teachers in speaking of the other. 

This remark is applicable to all parts of the parables, and it may 
be reversed. We have the right interpretation when all the main 
circumstances are explained. If any important member of the nar- 
rative is rendered by our interpretation nugatory, or is paralysed, 
the interpretation is false; and when we have a true interpretation 
of the whole, that interpretation of any part is to be rejected which 
does not conduce to the consistency and force of the whole. In 
interpreting the parable of the prodigal son, for example, some ex- 
positors have descended to details which are quite inconsistent with 
the obvious scope and force of the narrative. The alienation of the 
prodigal from all home affections — his resolution to seek happiness 
where God is not — the fearful change in his position, and his con- 
sciousness of that change — his attempt to repair his broken fortunes 
— his bitter disappointment and wants — the resolve to return — the 
father's love and welcome — the festal rejoicing which his return 
created — the discontent and grudging spirit of the elder brother — 
the father's noble remonstrance — all illustrate the great truth of 
the passage, that God welcomes the return of the vilest of his 
children, and all are important. To deny, as some have done, that 
the prodigal's desertion of his home has any reference to man's 
apostasy, weakens the parable; and to teach that the ring is the 
everlasting love of God, or the seal of the Spirit — that the sinner is 
called the younger son, because man as a sinner is younger than 
man as righteous — that the citizen to whom he went was a legal 



C)T*7 



ALLEGORIES: SUBORDINATE TRUTHS. 2/7 

preacher — that the swine were self-righteous persons — that the 
husks were works of righteousness — that the fatted calf was Christ 
— that the shoes were means of upright conversation, the doctrines 
and precepts of the Scripture — that the music which the elder 
brother heard was the preaching of the gospel — is to call off our 
attention from the great lesson of the parable to doctrines which 
the disciples could not have found in the parable itself. By turning 
.the most delicate touches into important Scriptural truths, the 
great design of the whole is obscured, and we learn to bring a 
meaning into the passage, and not out of it; a habit which we are 
likely to employ with more serious mischief in other places. 

413. But while everything that is explained, must be 
^ explained with reference to the writer's scope, it 

tails to be is an important question, how far the details of the 
explained. parables and allegories of Scripture have a reference 
to corresponding facts, in the application of them. From the 
inspired interpretation of parables given us in Scripture, we 
may gather that we are to avoid both the extreme of sup- 
posing that only the design of the whole should be regarded, 
and the extreme of insisting upon every clause as having a 
double meaning. 

In the parables of the sower and of the tares, for example, which 
our Lord himself interpreted, the moral application descends to the 
minutest particulars of the narrative; the birds, and thorns, and 
stony ground, have all their meaning; and, as Tholuck has re- 
marked, it may be said generally that the similitude is perfect, in 
proportion as it is on all sides rich in applications. Even in these 
parables, however, not all the circumstances are explained. ' f V\"hile 
men slept," in the parable of the tares (Matt. 13. 25), and the 
phrase, "1 cannot dig," and " to beg I am ashamed," in the parable 
of the unjust steward, have neither of them any application in the 
explanation which our Lord himself gave. So in the longest 
allegory in Scripture — the book of Canticles — the description given 
of the bride is probably no more than an expression of the love and 
complacency of Jehovah towards his chosen. 

The two following rules, in addition to the one just given as 
to the scope of the parable, will be sufficient to guard us in 
the interpretation both of the parables and allegories of 
Scripture. 

414. (2.) Even of doctrines consistent with the design of 



278 ALLEGORIES : OTHER RULES. 

the parable or type, no conclusion must be ga- 
of interpre- thered from any part of either of them, which is 
tation. inconsistent with the clearer revelations of Divine 

truth. 

The high priest, under the law, offered first for his own sin, and 
then for the sins of the people. It does not, therefore, follow that 
Christ partook of our sinful nature; the contrary is the fact; "for 
in him was no sin." So of the paschal lamb; it was a type of our 
Lord; it shadowed forth his death and person, but not the efhcacy 
of his death, nor at all adequately the holiness of his nature. 

If it be attempted to prove from the fact that the rich man in 
the parable prayed to Abraham, that therefore we are to pray to 
glorified saints, we reject the interpretation as inconsistent with the 
express statements of Scripture ; or if, from the parable of the 
faithful servant, or the prodigal son, it be gathered (as by the 
ancient Pelagians^ that God pardons us without sacrifice or interces- 
sion, on the ground simply of our repentance or our prayers, we 
reject the interpretation as inconsistent with the whole tenor of the 
Bible (John 8. 24: Heb. 10). Nor can we gather from Luke 15. 7 
that the Pharisees were just men who needed no repentance, or 
from verse 29, that the elder brother had never transgressed his 
father's command; nor from Luke 16. 1, that dishonesty is in any 
good sense true wisdom. David was, in his kingly character, a 
type of our Lord; and also in his family descent, but not in his sins. 

4*5- 03-) I^ is important that neither types nor parables be 
made the first or sole source of Scripture doctrine. 
interpreta- Doctrines otherwise proved may be further illus- 
tl0n " trated or confirmed bv them, but we are not to 

gather doctrine exclusively or primarily from their represen- 
tations . 

From the parable of the unjust steward, some of the early Scrip- 
time expositors gathered, without reason, the history of the apostasy 
of Satan. He was said to be the chief among the servants of God, 
and being driven from his place of trust, he drew after him the 
other angels, whom he tempted with the promise of lighter tasks 
and easier service. Nor can we conclude, from the parable of the ten 
virgins, that because five were wise and five foolish, half of those 
who make a profession of religion will finally be saved and half 
finally perish. In the parable of the lost sheep, one in a hundred 
only went astray; in that of the lost piece of silver, one in ten was 
lost : neither circumstance can be made the foundation of a 
doctrine. 



PARABLES CLASSIFIED. 27 i> 

Both these rules are a modification, as it will be seen of the 
rule which bids us interpret according to the analogy of faith, 
and to look to passages that are clear, for the meaning of 
those that are abstruse. 

416. The interpretation of symbols, and of symbolical 
, actions, is regulated by the same principles as the 

interpretation of allegories. A symbolical expres- 
sion is simply a figurative one, founded on analogy, or re- 
semblance, and is interpreted on the principles common to 
the interpretation of all figurative language. 
Parables, etc. 417. The following are the parables and fables of 
TostL™, the Old Testament. 

Jotham's; the trees making a king, Judges 9. 7. 

Nathan's; the poor man's ewe lamb, 2 Sam. 12. r. 

Two brothers striving together, 2 Sam. 14. 6. 

The prisoner that made his escape, 1 Kings 20. 39. 

Micaiah's vision, 1 Kings 22. 19-23. 

The thistle and cedar, 2 Kings 14. 9. 

The vineyard yielding wild grapes, Isa. 5.1. 

Th? parables in the Gospels will be found enumerated 
chronologically in the introduction to the Gospels. 
t, ., „ 418. ISTeander has classified the parables of our 

Parables of ^ *- 

the New Tes- Lord with reference to the truths taught in them ? 

lament. i ,1 • ■ • -xi i • i • i 

and their connection with his kingdom. 

Parables on the progress of the kingdom of Christ : — 

1. The sower, Matt. 13. 3: Mark 4. 3 : Luke 8. 5. 

2. The tares, Matt. 13. 24. 

3. The mustard-seed, Matt. 13. 31: Mark 4. 31: Luke 13 » 

18, 19. 

4. The leaven, Matt. 13. 33: Luke 13. 20, 21. 

5. The net, Matt. 13. 47. 

Moral requisites for entering the kingdom of Christ : — 
Anti-pharisaic parables, or negative requisites. 

6. The lost sheep, Matt. 18. 12: Luke 15. 4. 

7. The lost piece of money, Luke 15. 10. 

8. The prodigal son, Luke 15. 11-32.. 

9. The Pharisee and the Publican, Luke 18. 9-14, 

10. Strife for the first places at feasts, Luke 14. 7-1 1« 
Positive requisites. 

11. The two sons, Matt. 21. 28. 

12. The hidden treasure, Matt. 13. 44. 



280 PARABLES CLASSIFIED. 

13. The pearl, Matt. 13. 45, 46. 

14. The tower and the warring king, Luke 14. 28-33. 

15. The wedding garment, Matt. 22. 11. 
Call to enter the kingdom of Christ. 

16. The feast, Luke 14. 16-24: Matt. 22. 1-14. 
Activity in the kingdom of Christ. 

17. The vine, John 15. 1. 

18. The wicked vine-dresser, Matt. 21. 33-41. 

19. The talents, Matt. 25. 14-30: Luke 19. 12-27. 

20. The barren fig -tree, Luke 13. 6. 

21. Favour independent of works, Matt. 20. 1-16. The La- 

bourers. 
The true spirit of the kingdom of Christ. 
Forgiveness. 

22. The good Samaritan, Luke 10. 25-37. 

23. The unforgiving servant, Matt. 18. 23: Luke 7. 41. 
The right use of worldly possessions. 

24. The unjust steward, Luke 16. 1-23. 

25. The rich man and Lazarus, Luke 16. 19. 
The Christian spirit under the name of prudence. 

26. The ten virgins, Matt. 25. 
Prayer. 

27. The importunate widow, Luke 18. 1. 

28. The friend on his journey, Luke 11. 5-10. 

419. Other authors have adopted a different division. Dr. 
Gray divides them into 

(1.) Such as represent the nature and progress of the gospel 
dispensation. 

(2.) Such as represent the rejection of the Jews, and the calling 
of the Gentiles. 

(3.) Such as deliver moral instruction. 

Greswell divides them into the prophetic and the moral. 

420. Lisco's division is preferable to either. He regards 
them as of three classes. 

i. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom as containing truths 
and powers Divine in their origin, and blessed in their effects. See 
preceding list, 1, 3, 4, u, 12. 

ii. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom founded on these 
truths, and these are — 

1. Those that respect the church as a whole, 20, 18, 16, 15 
(calling and election differ), 2, 5 . 



ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY. 281 

2. Those that respect the entrance of individuals into the 
church, 6, 7, 8, 14. 
ili. Such as represent the heavenly kingdom in the faith, love, and 
hopes of its members. In relation — 

1. To faith and humility, etc., 21, 9, n ; 25, 26. 

2. To love (Luke 7. 41), 23, 22. 

3. To hope, 26, 19. 

These classifications are important, chiefly as showing the 
views of eminent authors on the scojie of each parable. Care 
must be taken not to adhere so rigidly to the classification we 
adopt as to miss obvious moral lessons. 

421. The principles which are applicable to the interpre- 
Aiiegoricai tation of allegories and parables, properly so called, 
ti terP fMfr a PPty equally to much that is historical in Scrip- 
tory. ture. The ancient Jewish people, for example, 
sustained to God, the same relation as is now sustained by the 
Foundation Christian church, and by each Christian. Their 
of **• sufferings in Egypt, their deliverance under Moses, 
their wanderings in the desert, their entry into Canaan, pre- 
figure important facts in the history of all Christians. The 
Israelites not only lived under the same authority with us, 
and were governed by an economy of discipline like our own, 
but the facts of their history were typical of the history of 
the church (Rom. 2. 28 : 1 Cor. 10 : Heb. 4 : 1 Pet. 2. 10 : 
Eev. 15. 5). 

422. It is observable, too, that the relation between the 
Jewish people, and some of the nations that surrounded them, 
is a type of the relation between the Christian church and its 
adversaries : Sodom and Ishmael : Egypt and Babylon, have 
all their representatives in the history of the true Israel (Gal. 
4. 25 : Eev. 14. 8). 

423. It may be added, that while in one aspect Israel as the 
son, is the representative of our Lord, eminent characters 
among the Israelites were types of Him ; as Moses among the 
prophets, David and Solomon among the kings ; and hence 
expressions, which were originally true of the type, are applied 
to Christ as the antitype or fulfilment. See Hos. 11. 1, com- 
pared with Matt. 2. 15, etc. 

424. And as the people, so the rites and worship of the 
Old Testament were typical. The whole dispensation was the 
shadow of good things to come, not the very image or sub- 
stance of them. That substance was Christ (Heb. 10. 1). 



282 ALLEGORY : ABUSE. 

Thus it is, that since the beginning of our race, there has 
been a connected series of representations, each embodying 
some truth, and all tending to illustrate the office and work of 
our Lord, or the character and history of his people. 

Jewish history and worship form one grand type. The 
Old Testament (as Augustine long ago remarked), is the New 
veiled, and the New Testament is the Old unveiled. 

425. In the interpretation of all these types, and of history 

in its secondary or spiritual allusions, we use the 
same rules as in interpreting parables and allegories 
properly so called : compare the history or type with the 
general truth, which both the type, and the antitype embody ; 
expect agreement in several particulars, but not in all, and let 
the interpretation of each part harmonize with the design of 
the whole, and with the clear revelation of Divine doctrine 
given in other parts of the sacred volume. 

426. In applying these rules, it is important to remember 

that the inspired writers never destroyed the his- 
torical sense of Scripture, to establish the spiritual 
(as some inquirers have done), nor do they find a hidden 
meaning in the words (as do the Jews), but only in the facts 
of each passage ; which meaning is easy, natural, and Scrip- 
tural ; and that they confine themselves to such expositions 
as illustrate some truth of practical or of spiritual importance 
(Heb. 5. 11 : 9. 5). Indeed, an examination of the passages 
quoted from the Old Testament in the New, will show that 
they are adduced exclusively with reference either to the peiv 
sonal history and mediatorial office of our Lord, to the 
spiritual character of his kingdom, or to the future destiny of 
his church, 

427. The allegorical interpretation of Scripture 
abuse of his- has been so greatly abused, that it becomes im- 
orj ' portant to illustrate these remarks at greater 

length. 

428. The ancient Jews allegorized on the words of Scripture. 

Among the ^ n ^ ne original of the word translated " created," for 

Jews. instance. Gen. 1. 1, they find the first letter of the 

Hebrew for Father, Son, and Spirit, and hence they prove the doc- 
trine of the Trinity. They refer Psa. 21. 1, to Christ, because the 
letters of the original, for " shall joy," make by transposition, 
Messiah. The letter tt occurs six times in Gen 1. ■ i, and as & 
represents 1000, they suppose that the existence of the world for 



ALLEGORY : ABUSE. 283 

6000 years, is the truth, included in this fact. Hfc\, the sign of the 
definite accusative in Hebrew, they regard as including the whole 
essence of a thing, because it is made up of the first and last letters 
of the Hebrew alphabet. In the same spirit, the pseudo-Barnabas 
says that Abraham circumcised 318 men of his house, Gen. 14. 14, 
because this number in Greek letters, represents Jesus and the 
cross, I = 10, H = 8, and T = 300. 

429. Some writers, on the other hand, allegorize Scripture 
by destroying its facts. 

John the Baptist, for example, is said to have had no real 
existence, but to be only a mythic representation of the collective 
body of the Jewish prophets in their relation to Christ. The nar- 
rative of the inn and manger at Bethlehem, exhibits nothing more 
(they add), than the common birth into our world of everything 
Divine. 

In the same spirit, the seven days of creation were held to imply 
merely the perfection of the work of God, and the moving of the 
Spirit of God on the face of the waters, to indicate the spiritual 
washing of Christian baptism. 

430. A practice more frequent, though scarcely less mis- 
chievous, has been adopted in all ages, of admitting the his- 
torical truth of the inspired narrative, and basing upon every 
part of it some spiritual doctrine, not as illustrated, but as 
proved and intended by the Holy Spirit. 

To this tendency may be traced the impression, that the seventh 
thousand years in the history of the world, will be the millenium. 
The division of animals into clean and unclean, was held on a similar 
principle to represent virtue and vice in human nature. The 
simplest statements were thus made ridiculous. Moses had said^ 
" All that divideth the hoof and cheweth the cud, ye shall eat," 
indicating, says the Epistle of Barnabas, that we should hold fast to 
those who meditate on the command, and who (divide the hoof, 
that is), live in this world, but have their expectation in another. 
Heaven and earth in the Lord's Prayer, refer (says Tertullian), to 
the body and the soul of man, Luke 11. 2. The five loaves with 
which our Lord fed the multitude, represent, says Clement, the 
five senses, John 6.9. Another writer (Cyril), regards them as the 
five books of Moses, and the two fishes as the Grecian philosophy, 
which is generated and carried through heathen waters: or our 
Saviour's teaching, as apostolic and evangelical. Origen even builds 
upon the images of Scripture, as he calls them, the doctrine of the 
final restoration of the whole spiritual universe to its original bles- 
sedness and purity. 



284 ALLEGORIES AND TYPES. 

Justin thinks that the wrestling of Jacob was a type of the tempta- 
tion of our Lord, that the injury he received, represented the suf- 
ferings and death of Christ. 

Athanasius who sometimes condemned this style of interpretation, 
expounds Matt. 5. 29, and supposes the body to mean the church, 
the eyes and hands the bishops and deacons, who ought to be cut 
off, if they commit acts hurtful to the church. 

Hilary thinks that the fowls of the air (Matt. 6. 26-30), are un- 
clean spirits, to whom God gives life without trouble. The lilies 
are the angels : the grass, the heathen. The mother of Zebedee's 
children represents the law: her children the believing Jews. 

Cyril thinks Malckus a type of the Jews, and that as Peter cut off 
his right ear, so they were to be deprived of right hearing, them 
hearing being only sinister or disobedient. 

These interpretations were all justified on principle. The obvious 
historic sense of a passage was always regarded as the less important, 
sometimes even as altogether untrue; while the spiritual or allego- 
rical was alone deemed worthy of an enlightened mind. Hence 
Origen maintains that the history of the creation, of Lot's incest, of 
Abraham's two wives, of Jacob's marriage with Leah and Ptachel, is 
all an allegory ; so readily do extremes beget each other. 

These examples were widely copied among the various sects which 
sprang up in the early church. All justified their dogmas by alle- 
gorical interpretations of Scripture : and in the end the literal historic 
sense with all the moral and spiritual lessons it conveyed was over- 
looked or denied. 

431. Intelligent piety will reject all these fabulous inter- 
pretations, the results of a vagrant fancy, and will be at no 
loss to elicit from the historical parts of Scripture, the chief 
lessons of holy wisdom they were designed to supply. The 
essential points are, that many characters and transactions 
recorded in the Old Testament are typical, that many more 
exhibit qualities which we are to imitate or condemn, that 
others illustrate principles of the Divine government which 
are still in force, and that none must be interpreted without 
a reference to the clear revelations wmich are given in other 
parts of the Divine word. 

432. Types (it may be added), are prophetic, and may be 
Types, both used to prove, as well as to illustrate the gospel, 
analogical Examples, analogies, and resemblances, not an- 
p'betic nounced as typical, are illustrative only. They 
explain truth rather than prove it. 



ALLEGORY : LITERATURE. 285 

433. On the subjects discussed in this section, see especially 
on the parables — 

Dodd's Discourses on the Miracles and Parables, 4 vols., 1757. 

A. Gray's Delineation of the Parables, 1777. 

Lisco on the Parables. Clark, 1840. 

Trench's Xotes on the Parables of our Lord, 1847. 

On the Types, besides M*Ewen and Wilson (of Irvine) — 

The Gospel of the Old Testament, from St. Matthew, bv 
Charlotte Elizabeth. 

Marsh's Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, where 
it is maintained that nothing is a type unless formally recognised as 
such in the Xew Testament: Fairbairx (Typology of Scripture, 
2nd Series), maintaining that the whole of the previous economy is 
affirmed in the Xew Testament to be typical. This principle he 
applies to the patriarchal and Mosaic institutions and history. 

Edwards, on the Types of the Messiah. 

On Allegorical Interpretation, see — 

Olshausen on Biblical Interpretation, as taught oy the inspired 
writers: or, on the deep spiritual sense of Scripture. Xeufch., 
1 8 41, and 

Maexscher on the Types, and the Typical Interpretation of Scrip- 
ture. Am. Bibl. Rep., January, 1841. 

Sec. 8. On the Interpreted ion of ProjjJiecy. 

"In a certain sense, history has been justly called the interpreter of prophecy; 
but to the Israelite, prophecy was more the interpreter of history, for it gave him 
intelligible notice of approaching events, and it supplied him with the reasons of 
God's providence in bringing those events to pass/' — Davison : Lectures on Pro- 
phecy. 

434. All the difficulties of Scripture interpretation to which 
Peculiar diffi- we have referred are to be found in prophecy. Its 
phetic°mtei> language is largely figurative, and often allegorical, 
pretation. Allusions to the history and circumstances of the 
times are frequent. The events recorded are for the most 
part future, and but dimly revealed. On all grounds, there- 
fore, the utmost attention is required rightly to understand 
the meaning of the inspired predictions. 

As the prophets are called seers, the prophecies of the 
Prophecies Old Testament are commonly called visions, Numb. 
visions. 24> j^ . 2 chron. 9. 29 : Ezek. 37 : Hab. 2. 1. Some 

of them were recorded in writing, for the information 



286 PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. 

of the church throughout all time ; others were communi- 
cated orally by the prophets to their contemporaries : the 
whole in language taken largely from the customs and wor- 
Hence pecu- ship prevalent among them. Hence have originated 
indications of several peculiarities of the prophetic Scriptures, 
time - 435. As to time : — 

1. The prophets often speak of things that belong to the 
remote future as if present to their view. 

Thus in Isa. 9. 6 it is said, " Unto us a child is born, unto us a 
son is given;" so in Isa. 42. 1. 

2. They speak of things future as past. 

In Isa. 5 3, for example, nearly the whole of the transactions of the 
life of the "servant" of God are represented as finished: the 
prophet seeming to stand between the death of our Lord and his 
coming glory. 

3. When the precise time of individual events was not re- 
vealed, the prophets describe them as continuous. They saw 
the future rather in space than in time ; the whole, therefore, 
appears foreshortened, and perspective rather than actual 
distance, is regarded. They seem often to speak of future 
things as a common observer would describe the stars, 
grouping them as they appear, and not according to their 
true positions. 

In Jer. 50. 41, for example, the first conquest and the complete 
destruction of Babylon are connected, without any notice of the 
interval between them; in fact, nearly a thousand years elapsed be- 
tween the first shock of the empire in the attack of the Persians 
.and the final overthrow of the city. 

In Isa. chaps. 10, 11, the deliverance of the Jews from the yoke 
of the Assyrians is connected with the deliverance which was to be 
effected by the Messiah. 

In the same way, Isaiah, Micah, Hosea, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah, 
all connected these two events, without intimating, however, that 
the Messiah was to take part in both. 

Zechariah, again, who lived after the exile, connects the spiritual 
salvation of the church in the distant future with the temporal 
deliverance of the Jews under Alexander and the Maccabees. 

In the description which is given of the humiliation and glory of 
the Messiah, there is seldom any notice taken of the time which is 
to elapse before his kingdom is established. Both are often con- 



PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. 287 

nected in the same verses, as in Zech. 9. 9, 10. Joel connects i:i 
the same way the effusion of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, and 
its general effusion in later times, chap. 2. 28, etc. 

Sometimes, indeed, the precise time was revealed to the prophet, 
and is recorded, as in the case of the sojourn of Abraham and his 
posterity in Egypt, Gen. 15. 13; the sixty-five years in which 
Israel was to be broken, Isa. 7. 8; and the captivity in Babylon, 
Jer. 29. 10; but more commonly the prophets were ignorant of it, 
3 fciie apostle Peter tells us, and as Zechariah has acknowledged, 
1 Pet. 1. 10-12: Zech. 14. 7. 

Very often the events, instead of being represented as continuous, 
are blended together. The latter parts of Isaiah, and some of. the 
prophecies of our Lord, concerning the destruction of Jerusalem 
and the final judgment, illustrate this remark, Matt. 24. 28, 29. 

436. As to language : — As the future was thus represented 
h a ecu- m Y ^ s i 0Ils j ano ^ ^nder a typical dispensation, it can 
Marines of excite no surprise that the whole is often described 
ogy ' in figurative, and allegorical or symbolical terms. 
If prophecy had everywhere consisted of literal description, it 
would have defeated its object, and either have prevented the 
fulfilment, or have taken from the fulfilled prophecy all evi- 
dence of a Divine original. Besides, as everything earthly 
supplies images for describing things spiritual, so does the 
whole of the Jewish economy. Language borrowed from 
nature and the law is therefore as appropriate as it is neces- 
sary. The unity and vastness of God's plans are illustrated 
bj it all. 

Under the gospel, for example, Messiah is to be king, and hence 
The prophets represent him as possessed of all the characteristics of 
the most distinguished princes of the Jewish theocracy, and more 
than' once apply to him the title of David, who was, in many 
respects, the ideal of kingly authority, Hos. 3. 5: Jer. 30. 9: Acts 
13. 34. They describe his character as prophet or priest in the 
same strain, multiplying images in each case adapted to give the 
most exalted ideas of his office, Psa. no: Zech. 6: Heb. 7. In ihe 
same way, they speak of his kingdom, either of grace or glory, as 
the highest perfection of the Jewish economy. It is called Jeru- 
salem, or Zion, Isa. 62. 1, 6, 7: 60. 15-20: Gal. 4. 26-28: Heb. 12. 
22. See, also, Isa. 60. 6, 7: 66. 23. a To Joel, the outpouring of 

a See "Biekersteth on the Prophecies," p. 50. 



288 FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. 



-C 

i. 



the Spirit appears as a general extension of the three forms o 
Divine revelation which occur in the Old Testament. The idea that 
ail nations should worship the true God, Zechariah expresses by the 
declaration that they will join in the feast of tabernacles (14. 16). 
The perfect love and fidelity of the people of God appear to Hosea 
and others as the removal of the worship of Baal, and the abandon- 
ment by the church of Assyria and Egypt, Zech. 14. 16: Isa. 19. 
19-21: Zech. chaps. 2. 14. 13: Mic. 5. The glory of the Mes- 
siah's days is represented by the prosperous times of David and 
Solomon, Zech. 3. 10: 1 Kings 4. 25. The prevalence of peace, by 
the union of Judah and Israel, Hos. 1. 11 : Isa. 11. 13. In the 
same way, the enemies of the kingdom of the Messiah are not only 
called by the name given to the enemies of the ancient theocracy, 
viz., the nations of the Gentiles, but thev often bear the name of 
some one people who, at the time, were peculiarly inimical or pow- 
erful. In Isa. 25, they are called by the name of Moab; in Isa. 63 
and Amos 9. 12, by the name of Edom; and in Ezek. 38, by the 
name of Magog. There are, of course, specific prophecies con- 
cerning most of these nations and cities, but their names are also 
used generically, or figuratively, in these and other passages. 
Hence we have foretold the restoration, in the latter days, of Moab 
and Elam, Jer. 48. 47: 49. 39. Hence, also, the "blessing to the 
earth" is to proceed in "that day" from Israel, Assyria, and 
Egypt, Isa. 19. 18-25. 

437. Nor need this peculiarity of prophetio language excite 
surprise. It is found pervading the whole ancient 
liarity of dispensation. That dispensation began with the 
Fangua^e promise to Abraham. His descendants were to 
common in be as the stars, and in him and his seed all nations 
were to be blessed. The first part of this pre- 
diction was fulfilled in his literal seed, as Moses implies, 
Exod. 32. 13: Deut. 1. 10, 11. Paul also applies it to his 
spiritual seed, even to all who believe, Rom. 4. 16 : Gal. 3. 8, 9. 
The blessing upon all nations, the second part of the promise, 
is also upon all as believers, and is received through Christ, 
who is the seed according to the flesh, Gal. 3. 16, 19, 29. 

The next remarkable fact in the history of the Jews is 
their deliverance from Egypt, and in connection with that 
deliverance the most remarkable expressions are used to 
indicate the favour which God bore them. All of these ex- 
pressions, however, are in the New Testament applied to the 



LANGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. 289 

church. God is said to have chosen them (Deut. 10. 15 : 
Ezek. 20. 5 : Eph. 1 4). He delivered and saved them (Exod. 
3. 8: 14. 30: Gal. 1. 4 : 1 Thess. 1. 10 : 2 Tim. 1. 9); He 
created, and called them (Isa. 43. 1 : 44. 2 : 1 Cor. 1.9: Col. 
3. 10). Both are sons, helpless, and dear (Ezek. 16. 3-6 : Isa. 
44. 2: Deut. 32. 6: Gal. 3. 26: 1 Pet. 1. 3); both are 
brethren (Deut. 1.161 Col. 1.2); a house, a family (Numb, 
1.2. 7 : Heb. 3. 6) ; a nation (Deut. 4. 34 : 1 Pet. 2.9); both 
fellow-citizens, with aliens around them (Exod. 2c. 10 : Eph. 
2. 19) ; and both heirs of their appropriate inheritance 
(Numb. 26. 53 : Heb. 9. 15). Compare in the same way the 
application of the following words under the two dispensa- 
tions. " Servants ;" " husband " and " wife," " mother " and 
" children ;" " adultery ;" " sanctuary " or " temple ;" " priests ;" 
"saints" or "holy;" "near" or '•nigh," and "afar off;" 
"congregation" or "church;" "vine," "vineyard;" "shep- 
herd," "flock;" "inheritance" or "heritage;" or the privi- 
leges and duties which these terms imply, and it will be 
found that nearly all the characteristic names of Israel are 
applied to the body of believers. In the first case, the 
blessings and relations, so far as the people were concerned, 
are earthly and temporal ; in the second, spiritual and 
eternal: individual spiritual blessings being enjoyed in both. 

The apostles reason throughout their writings on the same 
principle. We who believe, and are united to Christ, are 
children of Abraham and heirs of his promise (Gal. 3. 29 ■ 
Bom. 4. 11, 16); the Israel of God (Gal. 6. 16), as distin- 
guished from the Israel according to the flesh (1 Cor, 10. 18) ; 
the true circumcision (Phil. 3. 3), who therefore appropriate 
ancient promises (Gen. 22. 16, 17, applied to all believers : 
Heb. 6. 13, 20 : Deut. 31. 6 : Josh. 1. 5, quoted Heb. 13. 4,5 : 
Hos. 1. 10 : 2. 23, quoted Eom. 9. 24-36). 

438. After the exode comes the institution of the ritual 
Levitical ^ aw j its sacrifices, priesthood, mercy-seat, taber- 
laTV « nacle and temple, and worship. All these, it need 

hardly be remarked, are represented in the prophets as being 
restored in the latter days, and in the Gospels each expression 
is applied to our Lord or to his church. He is priest, and 

propitiatory (iXatrrfjpiov), tabernacle (trier] vi), John 1. 14), and 
temple (vaoc, John 2. 19) ; as also, since his ascension, is his 

o 



290 LANGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH HISTORY. 

church (i Cor. 3. 16). Her members offer spiritual offerings. 
They form a royal priesthood, a holy nation. 

439. The next prophetic era "begins with Samuel. His 
E bii h- cn i- e ^ office was to prepare for the establishment of 
merit of the kingly authority. He was commissioned, more- 
over, to give to David an assurance that his seed 

should sit upon his throne for ever, i. e., literally till the end 
of the kingdom, or, spiritually, in the person of his greater 
Son, till all things should be put under his feet. Of this en- 
larged meaning Samuel says nothing, nor does Nathan ; but 
David, himself a prophet, clearly understands it, applies it in 
part to himself (2 Kings 2. 4), but passes on the fulness of 
the promise to his Lord, Psa. 2 : 72 : no. All these Psalms 
are applied, in the New Testament, to the kingdom which 
Christ commenced when he appeared on earth (Heb. 1. 5), or 
rose from the dead (Eom. 1. 4). 

440. This prophetic era is closed with the predictions of 
Later pre- Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and the later prophets. The 
dictions. great theme of their predictions is the restoration 
of the Jews, and the re-establishnient of that dispensation 
which seemed hastening, without hope of remedy, to decay ; 
and under a twofold form this theme is presented. The 
prophets who preceded the captivity, and those who lived in 
it, foretell a restoration, and borrow from it phrases to de- 
scribe the establishment of a neiu kingdom. Haggai and 
Zechariah foretell the rebuilding of a temple, and under that 
figure speak of the church. After the temple was finished, 
Jewish worship was selfish and insincere. Malachi therefore 
foretells the coming of one w 7 ho shall purify the sons of Levi, 
and secure from all a spiritual offering. 

In a word, not only the prophets, but all the inspired 
writers describe the church in terms borrowed from suc- 
cessive stages in the history of the ancient economy. 
Whether because Old Testament prophecy is expressed in 
Question of terms founded on that economy, therefore when 
tion^ence applied to the church it has no further or more 
arising. literal fulfilment, is another question. In the 

meantime, mark the fact from which that question arises. 
That fact is itself of great importance in explaining both the 
gospel and the law. 



DOUBLE APPLICATION OF PROPHECY. 291 

441. From the typical character of ancient dispensations 

arises another peculiarity of prophecy. It not 
cation of pro- only speaks their language, but it has often a 
the?™and double application. It applies to one object by 
to the ami- anticipation and partially, and to another com- 
pletely ; the earlier object being the representative 
of the later. In the promises to Abraham (Gen. 15, etc.),- in 
the prediction of Jacob concerning Judah (Gen. 49), of 
Balaam (Nuinb. 24. 17), of Nathan (2 Sam. 7. 12-17), and of 
David in some of the Psalms, in many parts of Isaiah 
and other prophets, there is this double reference. As the 
history of the Jews foreshadows the history of the church, so 
does prophecy the experience of both. Not all parts of pro- 
phecy are thus applicable, nor, judging from examples given 
in the New Testament, are any parts thus applicable to be 
applied indiscriminately. In fact, the double application is 
restricted to similar events under two different and remote 
economies, and is never extended to two different events 
under the same economy. Prophecies on the restoration 
from Babylon (Jer. 31 : Isa. 52), on the setting up of the 
tabernacle of David (Amos 9), and on his kingdom (2 Sam. 7), 
had all, to a certain extent, an immediate fulfilment, and are 
yet applied in the New Testament to the gospel dispensation. 
To that dispensation in itself, or in its results, this double 
application must be confined. 

442. It follows from this double sense that, as in the first 
How fulfilled fulfilment there is a limit to the blessing foretold, 
in each case. g0j j n fa e secon( j ? there is a fulness of meaning 

which it seems impossible to exhaust. To David, for ex- 
ample, the promise was partly conditional, partly absolute. 
As conditional, it cannot be applied to Christ, and as abso- 
lute, it cannot be applied in its fullest literal meaning to 
David. " I will establish the throne of his kingdom for ever. 
If he commit iniquity I will chastise him with the rod of 
men . . . but my mercy shall not depart away from him as I 
took it from Saul," 2 Sam. 7. 13-15. The condition both 
David and God repeat (1 Kings 2. 4 : 9. 4), and the promise 
that David's seed should occupy the throne for ever, had of 
course, in a literal sense, but a limited fulfilment. For ever 
may mean till the end of the kingdom, or till the end of the 
polity ; the phrase implying perpetuity of duration through- 

02 



^>_: REPEATED FULFILMENTS. 

out the period — a system of things to which reference is 
understood to be made. In fact, David's family occupied the 
throne till the end of the kingdom, holding it through twenty 
descendants for upwards of 400 years ; while, in the brief 
duration of Israel (254 years), there were nineteen kings, of 
nine different families. There was, therefore, a literal fulfil- 
ment of the promise, but clearly a fulfilment less glorious 
than when applied to the Messiah. In truth, prophecy bor- 
rowed from previous types is as unequal to describe his king- 
dom as is narrative, founded on ritual institutions, to describe 
his office. We call him prophet and priest ; our sacrifice 
and intercessor ; but no one of the institutions whence these 
names are taken, nor all combined, can speak his glory or tell 
his worth. 

443. We must add that, while there is in reference to 
Repeated ful- types anc ^ antitypes a double application of pro- 
fiiments of phecv, there are prophecies which are of the 

prophecies. > * c i ^ • • i -i-i-i 

nature 01 general moral principles, and which are 
therefore repeatedly fulfilled. The proud shall be brought 
low (Isa. 2. 11), They that forsake God shall be con- 
sumed (1. 31), The bread of the upright shall be given 
him, and his water shah be sure (33. 15, 16), are instances. 
Each prediction was spoken on a particular occasion, and 
each is applicable as a general truth to all time. In such 
moral predictions the prophetic writings abound ; and in 
reference to them the remark of Leighton is peculiarly appro- 
priate, that the " sweet stream of prophecy did, as the rivers, 
make its own banks fertile and pleasant, as it ran by and 
flowed still forward to after ages.'' 

444. Such being the structure of prophecy, the rules of 

interpretation of most importance are clearly such 
as refer to the history and circumstances of the 
authors— the use and meaning of figurative language generally, 
— parallel predictions and partial fulfilment, and especially 
such as are suggested by the application made in the New 
Testament, of ancient predictions. 

1. Let the student of prophecy ascertain the exact position 
of the prophet in relation both (1), to his age, and 

Ascertain the . . 

position of (2), to his predictions. (1.) Each prophet was a 
each prophet. messen g er to his own times. Eroin the circum- 
stances of his country he borrowed his imagery, and to the 



ItULES OF INTERPRETATION. 293 

moral and physical condition of his country as existing or as 
foreseen, he adapted his message. If he foretells impending 
evil, the more distant future is the opposite of the evil he 
foretells. If he describes immediate good, the future is the 
completion of the good he describes. And even when that 
future is more distant, it is ever linked with the present by 
phrases level to the capacity, and adapted to the wants of the 
age. (2.) Ascertain also his standing point in relation to his 
own predictions. Let the student also take his place if 
possible by the prophet's side, and look with him on the past 
and on the future. If his country lies desolate around him, 
realize and learn to describe its condition. If he seem in 
vision amidst the scenes of the gospel, stand near him at the 
birth, or death, or in the kingdom of our Lord. 

To understand Isaiah, for example, read repeatedly 2 Kings 
14-21: 2 Chron. 16-22. Mark also the connection, and if possible, 
the centre of each prediction (see p. 286). "When and ^ here the last 
six chapters of Zechariah were written is a question essential to a 
right understanding of that part of his prophecies. If written by 
him (and not as some suppose, by Jeremiah), these chapters must 
refer to the time of our Lord, the second destruction of Jerusalem, 
and subsequent events (14. 2). If again, they were written after 
the return of Ezra, -with the last band of the captivity, the pre- 
dictions of chapter 10, have not yet received even a partial fulfil- 
ment. See Introductions to the prophetic books. 

2. Familiarize yourself with the language of prophecy — its 
Study the figures and symbols. In these prophecy is more 
figurative ^^ than common historv. Its poetic style and 

language of j l j 

Scripture. other reasons make its usage in this respect both 
necessary and appropriate. The meaning of these figures is 
pretty nearly fixed : and though perhaps not clear to those 
who first used them, to us with the completed Bible in our 
hands they ought to be familiar. 

Compare, for example, the following passages : — 

Descriptions of afflictions and distress, Psa. 42. 7: Isa. 13. 13: 
29. 6: 34. 4: Jer. 4. 23-26: Ezek. 32. 7, 8: 38. 20: Joel 2. 10, 30. 
31: Amos 8. 8, 9. 

Interpositions of Divine Providence and grace in delivery from 
dangers, Psa. 18. 7-17: Xah. 1. 4, 5: Hab. 3. 5-11: Zecli. 14. 4. 

The joy of deliverance, Isa. 33. 17: 35. 1-7: 55. 12, 13: 60. 13: 
65. 25 • Joel 4. 18. 



294 RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 

See also the classification of Scripture symbols, at the close 
of this Section. 

Further light may often be obtained in determining whether 
words be used figuratively or not : 
(a.) From the words themselves. 

To this rule belong numerous illustrations founded on the typical 
character of the Jewish people. The kingdom of David is foretold 
after he had appeared, and the earlier occurrences of Jewish history, 
are spoken of as if they were to be repeated, Isa. n. 15, 16: so in 
Zech. 10. 11: Hos. 2. 14, 15: Isa. 4. 5. 

(b.) Sometimes from the context : 

To interpret Isa. 66. 20 literally, requires that verses 21, 23 
should also be interpreted literally; involving the re-establishment 
of the Jewish priesthood and worship. This last view seems incon- 
sistent with the reasoning of Heb. 10. In the last eight chapters of 
Ezekiel, the literal interpretation seems at first, to have much in its 
favour, and yet many passages cannot be explained literally. In 
chapter 47. 1-12, for example, a stream of water of unfathomable 
depth is said to flow out from the temple, restoring the waters of 
the Dead Sea, and spreading life wherever it comes. The aptness 
of this passage to describe the progress of the gospel through the 
outpouring of the Spirit, is obvious: so in Zech. 14. 8. In any case, 
the whole must be consistently explained. 

(c.) Sometimes we need to refer to parallel passages : 

In Isa. 11, the kingdom of Messiah is spoken of as a kingdom oi 
peace ; and in chap. 9, the prophet speaks of the wars and victories 
of his reign. A reference to the New Testament, or to other parts 
of the same prophet, shows that chapter 9, is figuratively expressed. 
The war and peace are real, but not literal. 

3. It is a golden rule, that as prophecy is not " self-inter- 
Compare pre- pretative " (of private interpretation, 2 Pet. 1.20, 

known S M- ttl 2I )> eac k °^ ^ ne predictions of Scripture must be 
laments. compared with others, on the same topic, and with 
history, both profane and inspired. Parallel predictions will 
often throw light upon one another, and recorded fulfilments 
will explain predictions or parts of predictions still unfulfilled. 
History and the New Testament will thus often fix the mean- 
ing of individual passages, and these will illuminate and 
explain their respective connections. 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 295 

Compare in this way the parallel predictions on Babylon, Tyre, 
Egypt, Amnion, Nineveh, Edom, and Moab (See Epitome of the 
Prophets, Part ii.), and on the man of sin, 2 Thess. 2:1 John 2. 
18; Dan, 7: Rev. 13. 

A few instances of recorded fulfilments taken from profane 
history may be seen in the Section on Evidences. 

Fulfilments recorded in the New Testament may be seen 
in the chapter on Scripture Difficulties. 

4. Mark the principles of prophetic interpretation sane- 
Mark the tioned by the New Testament. It gives from God 
principles of ^he meaning of the Old. and while fixing the sense 

interpreta- ° ? ° . 

tionsano of particular passages, it suggests principles 01 
x°ew Test^ e interpretation applicable to all (See Chap. VI. Sec. i). 
raent. Instead of pointing out these principles at length, 

we may notice and illustrate one which is suggested in almost 
every chapter of the later Eevelation. 

The great end and theme of prophecy is Christ; either in his 
Its great end person and office, or in the establishment of his king- 
is Christ, dom. Under this twofold division most of the Old 
Testament predictions may be ranged: some of them are already 
fulfilled, others are in course of fulfilment, and others, again, are to 
be fulfilled at some future day. 

In paradise, prophecy gave the first promise of a Redeemer. In 
Abraham, it connected the covenants of Canaan, and of the gospel. 
In the law, it spoke of the second prophet,, and foreshadowed in types 
the doctrines of Christianity. To David, it revealed the kingdom of 
his greater Son. In the days of the later prophets, it pre-signified 
the changes of the Judaic economy; gave the history of the chief 
pagan kingdoms, and completed the announcement of the Messiah. 
After the captivity, it gave clearer information still of the advent of 
the gospel. In the days of our Lord, it spoke in parables and 
direct predictions ; and at last, in dark symbolical language, foretold 
the history and final glory of his reign. " The testimony of Jesus " 
is indeed " the spirit of prophecy," John 5. 39: Acts 3. 18: 10. 43 : 
Rom. 1. 2; 3. 21, 22: Rev. 19. 10. 

This fact is of the greatest importance. It proves the 
general scope of ancient predictions, and limits them. It 
teaches us to seek Christ everywhere, under both Dispensa- 
tions, and it makes plain the general meaning of these pre- 
dictions themselves. 

445. While most inquirers concur on the whole in these 



206 TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. 

rules, the application of them has led to very 

rwn SVStGlUS ' x x <j 

ofinterpre- " different results, owing chiefly to the importance 
tation. which is attached by various classes to particular 

rules. 

In much that is essential these results agree, — 
Points of I- The literal fulfilment of predictions which 

agreement. re fer to our Lord's first coming is admitted by all. 
Passages which might seem sufficiently fulfilled in a general 
sense by the events of his life, were nevertheless fulfilled to 
the letter. His riding upon an ass, the division of his rai- 
ment, the appointment of his death with the wicked, and of 
his grave with the rich are examples, Zech. 9. 9 : Psa. 22. iS : 
Isa. 53. 9. 

2. The literal fulfilment of many predictions in relation to 
the history of the Jews, and of other nations, is admitted by 
most ; and both facts are used by one class of inquirers as 
evidence of the truth of Scripture ; by the other class they 
are likewise used as evidence of the truth of Scripture, and 
also as illustrations of the principles of interpretation which 
we ought to apply to prophecy not yet fulfilled. 

3. As to the scheme of prophecy generally, most admit that 
it has two centres, round which all events revolve : these 
centres marking the eminences from which the history of the 
world and of the church may be best surveyed. The one is 
the first advent of our Lord, to suffer, the other is his second 
advent to reign, the latter to be followed after an interval, by 
the judgment. 

4. The future conversion of the Jews, and the general pre- 
valence of truth, in fulfilment of the glorious predictions of 
both Testaments— ending, after various struggles, in the final 
overthrow of the enemies of the faith, are also generally 
admitted. To this view many from both classes add the 
restoration of the Jews to their own land. 

In describing these events, there is also extensive agree- 
ment. Predictions of spiritual blessing to be enjoyed under 
the gospel, are applied by both parties without scruple, 
to the Christian church ; and the reign of righteousness, it is 
held on both sides, will be visible as well as spiritual, affecting 
social relations, and modifying by its influence all human 
society. So far, there is substantial agreement among most 
students of prophecy. 



TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. 297 

446. The above is (in brief) all which the one class of 
Points of inquirers find there. Giving great weight to the 
difference. facts, that the Jews were types, that the distinction 
between Jew and Gentile is formally abolished, and that our 
dispensation is spiritual ; thinking, moreover, that the descrip- 
tions in prophecy, if taken literally, would lead to a belief in 
the restoration of Judaism, and in the introduction of a 
system adapted to the infancy rather than the maturity of 
the church ; finding that these descriptions, so far as the 
re-establishment of the Jews is concerned, are not repeated 
in the New Testament, and that many prophecies which seem 
to apply to them as a nation, are referred in the New Tes- 
tament to the church, or to the conversion of the Jews, Acts 
2. 17-21 : Eom. 11. 26; they conclude that a spiritual inter- 
pretation of the wmole series is most consistent with the 
tenor of Scripture. 

The other class go further. Much of this reasoning they 
admit to be true ; deeming it, however, not all the truth. Find- 
ing that predictions even of spiritual blessing have had for 
the most part a literal accomplishment, that the Jews are 
spoken of in both dispensations as still beloved for their 
father's sake, that many prophecies (those for example, 
which speak of Israel and Judah in terms, either inapplicable 
to the first return, or written after it, Isa. 11. 12 : Hos. 3. 15 : 
Zech. 14), remain unfulfilled, that the language of these pro- 
phecies, though often applicable in a general subordinate sense 
to the Christian church, cannot be confined to it without 
doing violence to the commonest rules of speech, that in the 
New Testament, prophecies having undoubtedly an early ful- 
filment in Jewish history, or in the Christian church (as Isa. 
13. 9, 10 : 25. 8 : Hag. 2. 6), seem referred to as having 
fulfilments still future (Matt. 24 : 1 Cor. 15. 54 : Heb. 12. 26), 
they maintain, that besides a first accomplishment of many 
predictions in the history of the Jews, and the spiritual ac- 
complishment of others under the gospel, many remain to be 
accomplished in a literal and more extended sense. They 
hold, therefore, throughout, the principle of literal interpre- 
tation, whether predictions refer to the restoration of the Jews, 
to the second, i. e., as most think it, the pre-millenial advent 
of Christ, or the establishment of his reign. 

o 3 



298 SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 

447. A complete view of these two systems of interpreta- 

Th two tion may be obtained from the following Tables, 

systems One is taken from Powel's " Concordance " (1673) ; 

the other, from Mr. Bickersteth's " Guide to the 

Prophecies.' 



t 



i. The Jews shall be gathered from all parts of the earth and 
(a). Inrela- brought to their own land, Isa. 11. 11 : 27. 12, 13: 43. 
tiontothe 5, 6: 49. it, 12: 60. 4. Compare Jer. 3. 18: 16. 14, 

Tgws 

15 : 23. 3 : 10. 10: 31. 7-10: 32. 37: so Hos. n. ic, 11: 
Zeph. 3. 10: Zech. 8. J, 8: 10. 8-10. 

ii. They shall be carried by the Gentiles to their place, who shall 
join themselves with the Jews, and become the Lord's people, Isa. 
49. 22: 14. 2: 60. 9: 66. 18, 20: 2. 2-4. Compare Jer. 3. 17: 16. 
19 : Ezek. 47. 22, 23 : Mic. 5.3: Zech. 2. 1 1 : 8. 20-23. 

hi. Great miracles shall be wrought when Israel is restored. 

1. Drying up the Euphrates, Isa. 11. 15, 16: Zech. 10. 11: Kev. 
16. 12: Hos. 11. 15: Mic. 7. 15. 

2. Giving rivers in desert places, Isa. 41. 17-19: 48. 20, 21: 43. 
19, 20. 

3. Sending prophets, Isa. 66. 18-21: Hos. 12. 9, 10. 

4. The Lord Christ himself as their head, Isa. 35. 4: 52. 12: 58. 
8: Hos. 1. 10, 11: Mic. 2. 12, 13. 

iv. The Jews restored from a state, with judges and counsellors; 
the Lord Christ their King, who will then be acknowledged as king- 
over the other nations, Isa. 1. 26: 60. 17. Compare Jer. 23*4: 30. 
8, 9, 21: Hos. 3. 5: Ezek. 34. 23, 24: 37. 24, 25: Isa. 54. 5: Obad. 
21: Zech. 14. 5, 9: Psa. 22. 27, 28. 

v. They shall have victory over all enemies, and all kingdoms 
and nations shall submit themselves unto them, Isa. 11. 13, 14: 
14. 1, 2: 41. 14-16: 49. 23: 60. 12: 25. 10-12: Joel 3. 7, 8, 19, 20: 
Obad. 17. 18: Mic. 4. 6-13 : 5. 5-7: 7. 16, 17: Zech. 2. 13 : 9. 13-16: 
10. 5, 6: 12. 6: Numb. 24. 17: Isa. 60. 10-16: 66. 19, 20. 

6. The Jews restored will live peaceably, without division or con- 
tentions, Isa. 11. 13, 14: 14. 1, 2: Jer. 3. 18: 50. 4: Ezek. 37. 21 
22: Hos. 1. 11. 

Be very numerous, Isa. 27. 6:' 44. 3, 4: 49. 18-21: 54. 1-3: 61. 9: 
Jer. 23. 3: 30.18-20: 31. 27: Ezek. 36. 37, 38. 

Have great outward, prosperity, Isa. 32. 16-18: 33. 24: 54. 13-17: 
60. 18, 21: Jer. 23. 3-6: 30. 10: 31. 34-40: 33. 6-9: 50. 9, io- 
Joel 3. 17, 18: Mic. 7. 18-20: Zeph. 3. 13. 

Be a blessing to the earth, Isa. 19. 24, 25 : 61. 9: Jer. 33. 9: Ezek. 
34. 26; Zeph. 3. 19: Zech. 8. 13. 



SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 299 

vii. The land of Judaea shall be eminently fruitful, Isa. 29. 17: 
35. .1-9: 51. 3, 16: 54. 11-13: 55. 12, 13: 60. 13, 17: 65. 25: Ezek. 
34. 26, 27: 36. 36: Joel 3. 18: Amos 9. 13, 14. 

viii. Jerusalem shall be rebuilt, never to be destroyed, Isa. 52. 1: 
26. 1: 60. 18: 33. 6: Joel 3. 17: Obad. 17: Zech. 14. 10, ri: Jer. 
31, 38-40: Ezek. 38. 11. 

ix. A little before the time of the conversion of the Jews there 
shall be great wars and desolation, Isa. 34: Joel 3. 1-10: Zeph. 3. 
8,-9: Ezek. 28. 25, 26: Hag. 2. 21-23: Jer. 30. 7-10: 2 Chron. 15. 

3-7. 
Such is one view. Each passage is taken literally as it 

stands. The other view, looking at the typical character of 
the ancient Jews and the nature of prophetic language, re- 
gards the whole as applicable either to the first return from 
captivity, or subsequent return to the church of Christ 
under the dispensation of the gospel, or to the conversion of 
the Jews, and the establishment among them of that system 
which their own law prefigured. 

Before deciding on either view, let the student compare, 
humbly and prayerfully, the inspired interpretation of ancient 
prophecy as given in the New Testament. 

448. Mr. Bickersteth's Table gives events, in part, contem- 
poraneous with the preceding ; in part, subsequent to it. 

i. As the times of the Gentiles are passing away, then power is 
Cb). In rela- overthrown, though vast numbers have been converted 
tiontothe to the faith (Dan. 2. 7: Eev. 7. 9-14: Rom, 11. 25-32: 
coiuino- of *" Luke 21. 24, 25); the Jews are visibly recalled into the 
our Lord. church, Dan. 9. 27: Ezek. 20. 32-^4: Isa. 49. 9-12: 
62. 1. 

ii. They partake of renewed favour, are restored to their own 
land, a and are exposed to persecution from apostate Gentiles, who, 
under the last Antichrist, come against restored Israeli 

hi. Soon, signs in the sun and stars appear, and the sign of the 
Son of man himself is seen in the heavens. d 

a Ezek. 36. 1-38: 37. 20-23: Psa. 37: Isa. n. 11, 12: 62. 4: 60. 
21: Jer. 31. 1-6: Gen. 13. 14-18: 15. 18-21: 17. j $ 8: 26. 3, 4: 
Exod, 6. 2-8: Lev, 26. 40-44: Deut. 30. 4-6: 32. 43. 

b Jer. 30. 1-9: Isa. ic. 20-27: Dan. 9. 27: Isa. 31: n. i-io; 
Ezek. 38. 1-16: Dan. 11. 41-45: Joel 2. 1-20: Mic. 4. 8-10: Dan. 
12. 12. 

Matt. 24. 20-29: Luke 21. 24-26: Heb. 12. 26-28: Hag : 2. 6, 7: 
Isa. 13. 9-11: 34. 1-4: Joel 3. 12-15: 2. 31, 32: Mai. 4. 1-6. 

d Matt. 24. 29, 30: Isa. 18. 3-7: 11. 12-14: Dan. 8. 13, 14: Matt. 
23. 39: Luke 17. 24. 



300 SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 

iv. Christ raises his dead, changes his living saints, and they rise 
to be with him in the air, Matt. 24. 31: Rev. n. 15, 18: 1 Cor. 15. 
51-54: 1 Thess. 4. 15-17: 2 Thess. 1. 7: Isa. 27. 12, 13: Rev. 3. 10: 
Isa. 26. 19-21: Mai. 3. 17. 

v. The beast and the kings of the earth combine against the 
Lord, a and He pours his judgments on Antichrist and his adherents, 
pleading with all flesh by fire and sword. b 

vi. The character of this dispensation is discriminating, punishing, 
and purifying (1 Cor. 3. 12-15: Mai. 3. 3: Zech. 13. 9: Mark 9. 42, 
50: Jer. 20. 9: 23. 29: Psa. 98. 3: 1 Pet. 4. 12: 2 Pet. 3. 10-13: 
Rev. 3. 18). The Jews have a special promise (Isa. 51. 16). The 
fire and tribulation have a crisis at the beginning (Ezek. 38. 22: 
39. 6: Isa. 66. 15, 16), and again at the close of the millennial 
kingdom (Rev. 20. 9), Matt. 24. 1: Dan. 12. 1: Jer. ^o. 7: Rev. 19. 
20: 20. 9. 

vii. Christ descends on Olivet, with his saints, in the sight of 
Israel, who welcome his coming/ 1 Satan is bound: the millennial 
kingdom begins, over his saints and the nations not yet consumed. 6 

viii. This reign very blessed, but rebellion still lurks among the 
nations. Satan loosed for a season, Zech. 14. 17-19: Rev. 20. 9. 

ix. The final judgment, Rev. 20. 10-15. 

x. The new hcovens and the new earth; no more sea. The holy 
city descends, God is All in all, and the saints reign for ever and 
ever, Rev. 21 : 22. 5. 

Whether all the details of this scheme are to be fulfilled 
literally and precisely in this order is not agreed, but the 
general plan itself is, on this system of interpretation, as is 
here described. 




Kev. 19. 

c Acts 1. n: Zech. 14. 4, 5, 10-14: Isa. 64 
Ezek. 43. 7-9: Isa. 66. 18, 19: Isa. 25. 9: Matt. 
26: Isa. 59. 20: Zech. 2. 10-12. 

d Zech. 12. 10-14: Jer. 31. 8-12: Acts 3. 19-21: Isa. 12. 2, <\\ 
Psa. 117: 118. 98: Rev. 19. 1-6. 

e Isa. 32. 1: Dan. 7. 18, 27: 12. 4: Luke 22. 28-30: John 1. 51: 
Rev. ir. 18: 20. 4, 6. 



THE COMING OF CHRIST. 301 

The other view of these passages we can only indicate, 
Those that are taken from ancient prophets, and have not 
yet been fulfilled, are interpreted spiritually of the church 
and its enemies, either in its present state, or when aug- 
mented by the conversion of the Jews, and yet larger acces- 
sions from the Gentiles : those in i and 2 Thess. and in 

1 Cor., that speak of the resurrection of the dead, are referred 
to the one resurrection : and those that speak of the coming 
of our Lord are interpreted according to one or other of the 
folio wing facts. 

i. " The coming of Christ " is au expression applied to his coining 
in the flesh, either — 

(a). At his birth, John 16. 28: 1 John 4. 2, 3 : 2 John 7: Matt. 
i3. 11: 20. 28: Eph. 2. 17: 1 Tim. 1. 15. 

(6). On his entering -jpon his ministry, Matt. 3. 11: Mark 1. 7: 
Luke 3. 16: John 1. 15, 30: Matt. 11. 17: John 5. 43: 9. 39. 

ii. It is applied to any great, though invisible interposition. 

(a). As for punishment, or reward, Rev. 2. 15, 16: 3. 3: Matt. 
10.23(2). 

(6). As in the remarkable gift of the Spirit, John 14, 18, 28: 
Matt. 16. 28 : Mark 9. 1. 

(c). As in the destruction of Jerusalem, Matt. 24. 27: Luke 21. 
6, 7, 27: Mark 13. 26, ver. 30. 

hi. It is applied to his appearance for general judgment, Matt. 16. 

2 7, and in many other places. 

From this language it is concluded that, as Christ came in 
the flesh, at Pentecost, in Asia Minor to remove the privileges 
of apostate churches, in Judaea to destroy the ancient temple, 
so he will come in the fresh and enlarged outpouring of his 
Spirit, and at last, in person, for judgment. All " comings " 
for punishment being taken from the last, and all " comings " 
in grace from the first. His reign began at his resurrection 
and at Pentecost (Psa. 2 : Mark 9. 1 : Horn. 1. 4 : Heb. 1. 5). 
After struggles of great principles, such as many of the pas- 
sages above quoted indicate, it will be completed, so far as 
earthly manifestation is concerned, in millennial glory. 

449. Having stated these different systems, we deem it 
Substantial unnecessary to examine or defend them. We 
harmony. mark rather their substantial agreement. The 
coming triumph of truth, the spirituality and glory of 



302 INTERPKETATION OF TIMES. 

Christ's reign, the dignity and blessedness of his church, the 
consequent diminution of earthly evils, are common to both. 
Where they differ is rather in relation to the modes or ac- 
companiments of these changes than to the changes them- 
selves ; and in relation to these accompaniments, we can but 
commend the student to the disclosures of the New Testa- 
ment and to the general principles of interpretation sanc- 
tioned in its quotations from the Old. (See Chap. VI.) 

450. In the interpretations of the times of prophecy, it is 
On the inter- generally agreed that when years are not men- 
pretationof tioned, days are reckoned as years. This rule is 

tune in pro- * j ^ ^ 

pnecy. ' founded on several analogies, and is at least, highly 
probable. See Numb. 14. 34 : Ezek. 4. 5, 6 ; where God ex- 
pressly appoints " each day for a year." 

Again the expression " Time, times and half a time," is 
understood as meaning three prophetic years and a half, i. e. 
years of 360 prophetic days each, or 1260 years in all, the 
period assigned for the rise and fall of Antichrist, Dan. 7. 25 : 
See also Eev. 11. 2, 3, where the same period seems spoken 
of as 1260 days, or 42 months. 

Some of the most remarkable predictions of Scripture, how- 
ever, specify the time in years. Such are the 430, and 400 
years of the history of Abraham's descendants, Gen. 15. 13 : 
Exod. 12. 40 ; the sixty-five years foretold by Isaiah, in which 
Israel was to be broken, Isa. 7.8; the seventy years of Judah's 
captivity ; and the seventy weeks of years (for the word day 
is not found in this passage), in which Messiah was to be cut 
off, Dan. 9. 26. 

Concerning the precise times foretold in the Scripture, it is 
clearly not God's intention to give us exact know- 
of difficult ledge. These are put in his own power, and there 
lionTven'" * s °^ en very little of a sanctified spirit in seeking 
when fid- to know them, The prophecy sustains our hope, 
and elevates our feelings. It assures us of the 
final issue, and lays down certain prognostics highly useful for 
a moral and spiritual discernment of the Divine purpose, 
which, however, is very different from the merely mechanical 
process we have above condemned. Even in prophecies which 
have been fulfilled, the dates are often difficult of adjustment ; 
a fact that should suggest humility and modesty in inter- 
preting prophecies whose fulfilment is yet to come. 



GENERAL MEANING OF PROPHECIES. 303 

The captivity, for example, lasted seventy years, and there are at 
least two different dates, from vrhich it mav begin 

From the carrying away of Daniel, to the decree of Cyrus, 2 Chron. 

From the destruction of the temple in the days of Zeclekiah, to 
the decree of Darius to restore it, 2 Chron. 36. 14-21: Ezek. 6. 

Prideaux adds a third, from the final deportation by Xebuzaradan 
to the dedication of the temple, Jer. 52. ^o: Ezek. 6. 

The interpretation of the seventy weeks in Daniel is subject to a 
like difficulty. Volumes have been written on the precise date when 
the period begins, and though the meaning is now comparatively 
clear, the passage gave to the ancient Jew but a general idea of the 
time of the coming of our Lord. See Bickersteth on the Prophecies, 
p. 191; Hales, quoted by Dr. Kit to; and Fuller, on the Apocalypse, 
Dis. 2>o. 

" "What, and what manner of time/' are both proper sub- 
jects of inquiry in studying the prophets : but then we must 
remember that God gave us their predictions rather as part 
of our moral training than to gratify our curiosity and " He 
means that his providence, and not ours should be manifested 
\ " them to the world." — Sir I. Xewton. 

451. Amidst all these difficulties, two facts are highly con- 
solatory to the ordinary reader. 

With care, he will easily distinguish between prophecy, and 

Moral k??ons those parts of the prophetical writings which are 
meanS^ ral P lirer y historical or moral. Such portions are, as 
always clear, vre have seen, frequent, and highly instructive. 

J JL S C2 ft/ 

They contain affecting descriptions of the guilt and degrada- 
tion of the Jews, powerful appeals, and striking exhibitions of 
the Divine character, but thev must not be confounded with 

the prophetic narrative. However mysterious the prophecy 
may be, the moral lesson is generally plain. See Jer. 9. 11-14. 

452. "When the precise reference of any particular prophecy 
is not clear, its general meaning can often be ascertained. 

On reading Rev. 6. 1, 2, for example, it is plain that whatever be 
understood by the white horse, the era or event to which the pro- 
phet refers, and which is the first of a series, will be peaceful and 
prosperous; as the era, or event described (6. 3. 4), is one of per- 
secution and bloodshed. Verses 5, 6, describe an era of equitable 
government, united with famine: verses 7, 3, an era of mortal sick- 
ness and ruin; verses 9-1 r, of severe protracted persecution; verses 



30-4 SPIRITUAL LESSONS. 

12-17, the era of universal change, the breaking up of empires, and 
the overthrow of established institutions. There may be great dif- 
ference of opinion as to what particular era or event these predictions 
refer, but the general characteristics of the era are admitted almost 
on all hands. 

So of the whole book of Revelation ; whatever be the meaning of 
specific terms, it clearly reveals the coming of our Lord in power 
and great glory ; till that coming, the suffering and affliction of his 
church, and after it, her triumph and blessedness. How consolotary 
are these truths in every age, and how impressively are they revealed 
in nearly all the prophetic writings of Scripture. 

The moral and spiritual lessons therefore, of prophecy, 
remain, and may be applied by all to stimulate their efforts, 
and sustain their faith. Obedience to these lessons is more- 
over the best preparation for understanding what is mys- 
terious : a special blessing being given to them " that read, 
and hear, and keep " the sayings which prophecy contains. 

45 3 . In addition to predictions on the coming and work of our Lord 
Predictions (see Part II.), and those given in the prophets (see 
of Scripture, introduction to Prophetical Books, Part IL), it is im- 
portant to notice that nearly all the books of the Old Testament 
contain prophecies. The principal events of Jewish history were, 
as Mr. Davison has remarked, all" foretold. A complete view of 
these predictions may be seen in Brown's " Harmony of the Scrip- 
ture Prophecies," or in Simpson's ' 'Key to the Prophecies," London, 
1809. 

In the historical books, for example, from Gen. to 2 Chron. there 
are upwards of a hundred predictions recorded, with their fulfil- 
ments; the whole supplying evidence of the truth of Scripture, or 
illustrating principles of prophetic interpretation. 

The flood, Gen. 6. 17 (7. 21, 23). Canaan and Shem, 9. 25, 26 
(Josh. 9. 23: 1 Kings 9. 20, 21). Ishmael's history, 16. 12 (see 
Heb. Job 39. 5): 21. 20 (Isa. 21. 17): 17. 20 (Gen. 25. 18). Thr- 
rebuilding of Jericho, Josh. 6. 26 (1 Kings 16. 34). Eli's house^ 
1 Sam. 2. 30: 4. 14, 17: 22. 9-23 (1 Sam. 4. 11: 2. 27: see Ezek. 
44. 15). Name and conduct of Josiah, 1 Kings 13. 1-3 (2 Kings 23. 
15-20; 350 years after). 

454. The interpretation of symbolic or figurative language is a sub- 
r . ject of much difficulty. Full information in reference to 

tion of syni- it must be sought for in such works as "Weinyss' " Key to 
Lols - Symbolical Language," Edin. 1835; Mills' "Sacred 

Symbol ogy," 1853; or Daubuz's " Preliminary Discourse in bis 



SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 305 

Commentary on Eevelation." The nature of this language may be 
gathered from the following examples. 

Adultery, unfaithfulness to covenant, and so a symbol of 
idolatry, especially among an enlightened people, Jer. 3.8: Rev. 

2. 22. 
Arm, s. of strength or power, Psa. ic. 15 : Isa. 52. 10. a. made bare, 

of power put forth. 
Babylon, s. of an idolatrous, persecuting enemy of the church; 

Rome especially, pagan and papal, Isa. 47. 12: Rev. 17. 18. 
Balance, s . of fair dealing, Job 31. 6 ; or (when the sale of corn, 
etc., is indicated) of scarcity, Lev. 26. 26: Ezek. 4. 16: Rev. 6. 5. 
Beast, s. of a tyrannical, usurping power, or power merely worldly, 
Dan. 7. 3, 17: Ezek. 34. 28. 

Bear, s, of a fool-hardy, ferocious enemy, Prov. 17. 12: Isa. 

11. 7: Rev. 13. 2. 
Bull, s. of a furious enemy, Psa. 22. 12 : Ezek. 39. 18; bullocks 

= people, Jer. 5c. 26; and stalls = cities or houses. 
Dog, s. of uncleanness and apostasy. Prov. 26. 11 : Phil. 3. 2: 

Rev. 22. 15; also of watchfulness, Isa. 66. 10. 
Crocodile (in Heb. of Job 7. 12: Isa. 27. 1: 51. 9: Ezek. 29. 
3: 32. 2: Psa. 74. 13), s. of Egypt, and so of any anti- 
christian power, Rev. n. 18: 13. 1. 
Goat, s. of Macedonian kings (iEgeades), and especially of 
Alexander, Dan. 8. 5-7: s. of the wicked generally, Matt. 25. 

Horse, s. of agencies fit for war and conquest, Zech. 10. 3: s. 
for speed, Joel 2. 4: to ride, is to have dominion, Deut. 32. 
13 : Isa. 58. 14. 
Leopard, s. of a cruel and deceitful foe (Isa. 11. 6 : Jer. 5.6: 

Hab. 1. 3), Dan. 7. 6: Rev. 13. 2. 
Lion, s. of one having energy and dominion, 2 Kings 23. 33: 

Amos 3. 8: Dan. 7. 4: Rev. 5. 5. 
Locust, s. of a hostile, destroying army, Joel 1. 2: Rev. 9; 
the chief called Abaddon, or Ap oily on, 1. e., the destroyer, 
ver. 11. 
Bee, s. of Assyrian king, Isa. 7. 18, so represented in hieroglyphics; 

also of any fierce invader, Deut. 1. 44: Psa. 118. 12. 
Book, received, s. of inauguration, 2 Kings 11. 2; written within and 
without, of a long series of events; sealed, of what is secret; to eat 
a book, s. of consideration, Jer. 15. 16: Rev. 10. 9; "the book of 
-ife," the list in which the names of the redeemed are enrolled, 
see Ezra 2. 62: Rev. 3. 5; a book opened, s. of the beginning of 
judgment, Rev. 20. 12. 



306 SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 

Bow, s. of conflict and victory, Rev. 6. 2; or (because apt to start 
aside) of deceit, Hos. 9. 16: Jer. 9. 3. 

Brass, s. of baseness and obduracy, Isa. 48. 4: Jer. 6. 28; or of 
strength and firmness, Psa. 107. 16: Isa. 65. 4. 

Breastplate, what protects a vital part and strikes terror into an 
adversary, Isa. 59. 7: 1 Thess. 5. 18: Rev. 9. 9. 

Brim (i. e., burning) stone, s. of torment, Job 18. 15: Psa. 9. 6: 
Rev. 14. 10: 20. 10. 

Chariot, s. of government or protection, 2 Kings 2. 12: Psa. 80. 8; 
chariot and two riders, Isa. 21. 7; Cyrus and Darius (Lowth). 
In Zech. 6. 1; the four great empires. Chariots of God, the hosts 
of heaven, Psa. 68. 18: Isa. 66. 15. 

Cherubim, s. of God's regal glory (Wemyss), Psa. 18. 12; or of the 
Trinity and human nature of Christ (Parkhurst); of angels 
(Lowman, Pierce, Mack.); of the excellencies of God's servants 
(Taylor, JSTewc); of angels and, in Revelation, of the redeemed 
(Mede); of God's manifested perfections : see Gen. 3. 24: Exod. 
25. 18, 22: 37. 7, 9: Lev. 16. 2: Num. 7. 8, 9: 1 Kings 6. 23: 
8. 7: 2 Chron. 3. 10, 13: Ezek.i. 10. 

Colour, s. of the nature of the thing to which it is applied; "black, 
s. of anguish and affliction, Job 30. 30: Rev. 6. 5-12; pale, of 
mortal disease, Rev. 6. 8; red, of bloodshed, or victory, Zech. 6. 2: 
Rev. 12. 3; or of what cannot be discharged, Isa. 1. 18; white, of 
beauty and holiness, Ecc. 9. 8: Rev. 3. 4; white and shining was 
the Jewish royal and priestly colour, as purple watj the Roman. 

Crown, s. of delegated authority, Lev. 8. 9; or of imperial au- 
thority and victory, Rev. 19. 12 (Greek, diadem). 

Cup, s. of enticing luxury, Rev. 17. 11; of idolatrous rites, 1 Cor. 
10. 21; of a man's portion, Rev. 14. 10: 18. 16. 

Drunkenness, s. of the folly of sin, Jer. 51. 7; and of the stupidity 
produced by Divine judgments, Isa. 29. 9. 

Earthquake, s. of violent agitation, Joel 2. 10: Hag. 2. 21: Rev. 
6. 12. 

Eating, s. of meditation on and communion with truth, Isa. 55. 
1, 2; s. of results of previous conduct, Ezek. 18. 2; s. of destruc- 
tion of a man's peace or property, Rev. 17. 16: Psa. 27. 

Egypt, s. of a proud, persecuting power, as Rome, Rev. 11. 8. 

Eyes, s. of knowledge, fidelity, glory, Zech. 4. 10 ; of government, 
Numb. 10. 31. Evil eye = envy; bountiful eye = liberality. 

Fire, s. of God's word, Jer. 23. 29 : Hab. 3. 5; of destruction, Isa. 
42. 25 : Zech. 13. 9; of purification, Mai. 3. 2; of persecution, 
1 Pet. 1. 7; of punishment and suffering, Mark 9. 44. 

First-born, had power over their brethren, Gen. 20. 37; were the 



SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 307 

priests of the family, Exod. 24. 5 ; were consecrated to God, 

Exod. 13. 1. 13; sanctified the family by their own acceptance, 

and had a double share of the inheritance, Deut. 21. 17. See 

Heb. 2. ic, 11: 3. 1: Col. 1. 12. 
Fish, s. of the rulers of the people, i. e., of the sea, Ezek. 29. 4, 5 ; 

Hab. 1. 14. 
Forehead, written on, the mark of a priest, Lev. 19. 28; of a 

servant, and of a soldier: see Rev. 22. 4. Servants of idols wore 

a mark, a name, or a number: see Rev. 13. 16. 
Forest, s. of city or kingdom; tall trees the rulers, Isa. 10. 17-34: 

32. 19: Jer. 21. 14: Ezek. 20. 46. 
Frogs, s. of unclean, impudent enemies, Rev. 16. 13. 
Garments, s. of qualities or condition; clean garments, s. of purity; 

white, of holiness, Psa. 51. 7, or happiness, Isa. 52. 1: Rev. 3. 4: 

Zech. 3. 3; to bestow garments was a mark of favour, 1 Sam. 

17* 4. 
Gems, s. of magnificence, beauty, variety: see Table of gems. 

Grapes, ripe, s. of people ready for punishment, Rev. 14. 18; gleaned, 
s. of a people carried away, Jer. 52. 28-32. 

Hands, s. of actions; pure hands, hands full of blood, etc., indicate 
such actions respectively, Psa. 90. 17: Job 9. 30: 1 Tim. 2. 8: 
Isa. 1. 15. To wash the hands, s. of expiation, or of freedom from 
guilt, 1 Cor. 6. n: 1 Tim. 2. 8. s. of power: the right hand is 
the place of favour, Mark 16. 19; to give the hand of fellowship, s. 
of communication of rights and blessings, Gal. 2. 9. To give the 
hand is to yield to another, Psa. 68. 31: 2 Chron. 30. 8 (Heb.); 
to lift up the right hand was a sign of swearing, Gen. 14. 22: 
Daa. 12. 7. Marks on the hand, s. of servitude and of idol 
worship, Zech. 13. 6; hands put on another, s. of transmission of 
blessing, authority, or guilt, Gen. 48. 14-20: Dan. 10. 10; hands 
of God laid on a prophet indicates spiritual influence, 1 Kings 
18. 46: Ezek. 1. 3:3. 22; his finger less influence; his arm 
greater. 

Harp, a s. of praise and joy, Psa. 49. 5: 33. 2; used especially after 
victory, 2 Chron. 20. 28: Isa. 30. 32: Rev. 14. 1. 2. 

Harvest, s. of time of destruction, Jer. 51. 33: Isa. 17. 5: Rev. 
14. 14-18; sickle, the s. of the instrument, Joel 3. 13; s. of time 
of complete deliverance, or ingathering; so (Horsley) Hos. 6. 11; 
s. of the field of labour for the church, Matt. 9.26. 

Heaven and Earth, used in a threefold sense; the invisible and 
moral, the visible and literal, and the political. In the last sense, 
heaven is a s. of rulers; earth, of the people; heaven and earth, of 
a kingdom, or polity, Isa. 51. 15, 16: 65. 17: Jer. 4. 23, 24: 
Matt 24. 29. 



308 SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 

To fall from heaven, is to lose dignity; heaven opened, is a new 
phase in the political world; a door opened in heaven, the begin- 
ning of a new government: see Hag. 2. 6-22. Sun, moon, stars, 
are s. of authorities, supreme or secondary, Isa. 24, 21, 23 : Joel 
2. 10: Rev. 12. 1. 

Horn, s. of power, Amos 6. 13 (Heb.) : Deut. 33. 17 (see Josh. 17. 
14-J8) : 1 Kings 22. 11 : Mic. 4. 13; so of regal dignity, Jer. 48. 
25 : Dan. 8. 9: Rev. 13. 1. Horns of the altar, when touched, 
formed a sanctuary, Exod. 21. 14: Amos 3. 14: Jer. 17. 1. 
Horns, or rays, were part of the glory ascribed to God, Deut. 33. 
2 • Hah. 3. 4 (Heb.), and to Moses. 

Incense, a s. of prayer. Psa. 141. 2 : Rev. 8. 4: Mai. 1. 11 ; it was 
offered with fire taken from the burnt offering. 

Key, a s. of authority; a commission to open or shut, Isa. 22. 22: 



XL 



ev. 1. 18 : 3.7 : 20. 1. 



Lamp (so " candle " should be translated), a s. of light, joy, truth, 
and government, Rev. 2. 5: see Exod. 25. 31, 32: 1 Kings 11. 
36; t. e., a successor shall never fail, Psa. 132. 17. 

Manna, s. of Divine, immortal sustenance, Rev. 2. 17: see Exod. 
16. 33, 34. 

Marriage, s. of a state of union under covenant, and so of per- 
fection, Isa. 54. 1-6 : Rev. 19. 17. 

Measure, to, or divide, s. of conquest and possession, Isa. 53. 12: 
Zech. 2. 2 : Amos 7. 17, where re-measurement implies re-posses- 
sion. 

Mother, s. of the producer of anything, Rev. 17. 5; s. of a city, 
whose inhabitants are her children, 2 Sam. 20. 19: Isa. 49. 23; 
of the metropolis, whose daughters are dependent cities, Isa. 501: 
Hos. 2. 2, 5 ; of the New Testament church, Gal. 4. 26. 

Mountain, s. of stability and greatness, Isa. 2. 2: Dan. 2. 35. 

Trees, tall, s. of rulers, Ezek. 31. 5-9; low, s. of common men, Rev. 
7. i: 8. 7. 

Trumpet, blown, s. of the warning of the approach of important 
events. 

Vine, s. of luxuriant productiveness, Jer. 2. 21: Hos. 14. 7: Rev. 
14. 18; vintage, of the destruction of such, Rev. 14. 19. 

Virgins, s. of faithful servants, uncorrupted by idolatry, Rev, 

14. 4. 
Wine, agitating the air, s. of commotions; restrained, of tranquillity, 

Rev. 7. 1. 



SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 809 



CHAPTER V. 

On the Systematic and Inferential Study of the 

Scriptures. 

" Inferences from Scripture that appear to be strictly legitimate must be received 
■Aith the greatest caution, or, rather, decidedly rejected, except as they are supported 
by explicit Scripture declarations." — Bridges : On the Christian Ministry. 

" No science is more strictly inductive than theology. . . . The Bible is a record 
of words and facts . . . and our duty is to analyse them ; reducing them, by a 
method strictly inductive, into a proper order, and then deducing " (rather gathering) 
" from them the legitimate general truth." — Bishop of Kentucky. 

" A Bible Christian insensibly borrows and unites what is excellent in all systems, 
perhaps without knowing how far he agrees with them, because he finds ail in the 
written word." — Newton : Wwks, vi. 418. 

Sec. 1. On the Study of the Doctrines of Scripture. 

455. It is obvious that truth may be revealed in different 
forms ; either authoritatively, as law ; or historically, by way 
of example ; in promise, or in doctrine. The truths of the 
Bible are revealed in all these forms, and each often involves 
the other. A command includes a doctrine; a doctrine, a 
promise ; and both doctrine and . promise, correspondent 
duty. 

456. If the commands, and doctrines and promises of 
Scripture ar- Scripture were respectively placed by themselves, 
ranged ac- we should have a system of truth on one principle 

cording to J . . x x 

the forms of of arrangement. And if the doctrines and pre- 
cepts which refer to each truth of Scripture were 
placed together, we should then have a system of truth on a 
different principle. In the first case, Scripture truth would 
be classified under the form of the statement, which may be 
Or according preceptive, promissory, or doctrinal. In the se- 
to the truths cond, the various forms of Scripture statement 
would be classified under the truths to which they 
respectively refer. By the careful student, both principles of 
arrangement are combined. That view of the whole which 
puts the correct meaning upon every part of the Divine 
word, and assigns to every truth and duty such a place, 
both in order and importance, as properly belongs to it, each 
truth and duty honouring the rest, and itself appearing to the 
greatest advantage, is the true system of divinity. 



310 SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF SCRIPTURE IMPORTANT. 

457. ISTor is the necessity of such arrangement peculiar to 
. , the Bible. Both in nature and in providence facts 

Arrangement . L 

not peculiar and objects are scattered in endless variety. It is 
cnp ure. ^-^ business of science to detect amongst them all 
unity and order. The general laws that regulate the universe 
therefore, and the rules of conduct by which men govern 
their lives, are alike facts reduced to system by intelligence 
and care. In both cases, too, we employ the same principle 
of investigation — the great principle of the inductive philo- 
sophy. The texts of Scripture form the basis of theology, as 
the facts of nature form the basis of natural science, or as 
the facts of consciousness form the basis of mental philo- 
sophy. In the Bible, however, we have this advantage, that 
while in nature facts are the only data from which we gather 
general laws, in Scripture, we find the general laws of truth 
and duty, as well as particular instances in which those laws 
are seen to be applied to the uses of life. 

458. The systematic study of the Bible (it must be ob- 
interpreta- served) differs very materially from the interpreta- 
tematic truth ^ion of it. Interpretation is concerned only with 
differ. . the meaning of individual passages : Systematic 
Theology considers them in their relation to one another and 
to ourselves. 

459. When it is said that we study the doctrines of Scrip- 

ture in its precepts, we embody an important 
voivesdoc- truth. Between the doctrines and precepts of 

Christianity there .is an essential connection. Not 
only does doctrine contain by implication a command, but it 
exhibits such views of truth as are adapted by God to excite 
holy affections, and those affections are the immediate prin- 
ciples of holy conduct. The belief of the doctrines of the 
gospel, and obedience, are therefore inseparable. "Morality 
is religion in practice, and religion is morality in principle." 
He that loves God keeps his commandments, and he that 
keeps the commandments loves God. Man may attempt to 
put asunder the things which God has thus joined. He may 
explain truth so as to destroy morality, making "void the 
law through faith," or he may hold " the truth in unrighteous- 
ness." But God's design is that truth should always pro- 
mote holiness, as it is essential to it. Holiness, therefore, is 
never found without truth ; and if ever truth be found with- 



RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. 311 

out holiness, it is because the perverseness of human nature 
has succeeded in parting them. 

460. The systematic study of Scripture has been singularly 
Importance misrepresented. Some hold that there can be no 
tematicst" intelligent knowledge of Scripture without it, and 
of Scripture, others, that it is useless ; a remnant, in fact, of 
scholastic habits, which it is for the interest of the church to 
destroy. Both these views, however, are wrong. The pas- 
sages of the Bible which contain clear summaries of truth are 
so numerous (Tit. 2. 11-14: Eph. 2. 4-10), that a good man 
will often gather, without knowing it, a comprehensive and 
sound system. On the other hand, to repudiate system 
compels us either to confine ourselves in statements of doc- 
trine to Scripture language ; or it exposes us to the risk of 
misrepresenting one doctrine in enforcing another ; or, more 
commonly still, it tempts us to overlook the due proportion 
or connection of doctrines, and so leads us into error, the 
more seductive that it is founded partially on truth. " General 
principles drawn from particulars," says Locke, "are the 
jewels of knowledge, comprehending great store in little 
room : but these are therefore to be used with the greater 
care and caution, lest, if we take counterfeit for true, our loss 
be the greater when our stock comes to a severe scrutiny." 

461. The' Bible may be studied systematically for a double 
Theolo purpose ; either, first, to ascertain the doctrines of 
dogmatic^ Scripture, or secondly, to determine its rules of 

morality and holiness. The system of doctrine 
thus framed is called dogmatic, or doctrinal theology ; and the 
system of duty, moral, or practical theology ; both, however, 
being most closely interwoven in Scripture as they are in 
human experience. 

462. In gathering doctrinal truth from Scripture, we bring 

-r r together all the texts that refer to the same sub- 

How framed. . 

ject, whether they be doctrines, precepts, pro- 
mises, or examples ; impartially compare them ; restrict the 
expressions of one text by those of another ; and explain the 
whole consistently. When the proposition which we derive 
from the passages examined embodies all they contain, and 
no more, it may then be regarded as a general Scriptural 
truth. 



312 RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. 

463. The following rules are equally obvious and im- 
Rules. port ant. 

NewTes- hC ^ e must gather our views of Christian doctrine 
lament. primarily from the New Testament, interpreting 

its statements consistently with one another, and with the 
facts and clear revelations of the Old. 

In carrying out this rule it is necessary to explain am- 
biguous and figurative passages by those that are clear and 

2. Loca literal ; and passages in which a subject is briefly 
classica. described with those in which it is largely dis- 
cussed ; and general assertions by others (if such there be) 
which treat of the same truth with some restriction or 
exceptions. 

Not only must the passages which speak of the same doc- 

3. Ail held trine be explained consistently with one another. 
consistently. -j^ eac ] 1 doctrine must be held consistently with 
other doctrines. 

The Scriptures teach, for example, on a comparison of passages, 
that repentance, faith, and obedience, are the gifts of God. a Do 
we therefore gather that men are guiltless if they do not repent, 
and believe, and obey the gospel? or do we deem it needless to ex- 
hort men to repentance, obedience, and faith? If so, our views are 
unsound, for the guilt of impenitence is charged entirely upon 
inan. b His unbelief is declared to be his great sin and the ground 
of his condemnation; and not to obey God is everywhere con- 
demned. Men are exhorted, too, to repent, d and believe, and 
obey. So Samuel taught the Israelites, and so Peter exhorted 
Simon Magus and the murderers of our Lord. 6 

Though truths may be revealed in Scripture which it is 
difficult for us to harmonize, yet one truth so held as to con- 
tradict another is not held as the Bible reveals it. 

Employ and interpret the doctrines of Scripture with 

4. Truth to special regard to the practical purposes for wdiich 
be held for ^ e Scripture -reveals them. 

practical pur- x 

P ose3 - The use made in Scripture, for example, of the doc- 

trine of election is highly instructive. However the doctrine itself 

a John 15. 5: Acts 6. 31: Eph. 2. 8: Phil. 1. 29: 2. 13: 1 Pet. 1. 2. 
h Matt. 11. 20, 21: Rev. 2. 20, 21. c John 3. 18: 16. 9. 
d Mark r. 15. e Acts 3. 19: 8. 22. 



RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. 313 

be regarded, all agree in admitting that it can involve no capricious 
fondness, without reason or wisdom ; nor can it be regarded as 
affection founded upon our merit, or as seeking for its ultimate end 
our happiness. It is rather an exhibition of the character of God, 
which represents him as acting in pursuance of his own purpose, 
and while securing that purpose, as displaying his glory and pro- 
moting the general good. The doctrine is introduced in Scripture, 
too, only for such objects as these; to declare the source of salvation 
to be the undeserved favour of God, and to cut off all hope of 
acceptance by works, as in Rom. n. 5, 6; to account for the un- 
belief of the Jews without excusing it, as in Rom. 9; or to show 
the certain success of Christ's kingdom in defiance of all hostility, 
as in Matt. 21. 42: John 6. 37. Considered without reference to 
these facts, it might be made the ground of a charge of caprice, or 
it might become (as among the Jews) the nourishment of self-con- 
ceit; or it might be used to destroy the doctrine of human respon- 
sibility or the duty of Christian devotedness. The doctrine sys- 
tematically considered, viewed, that is, in connection with the 
truths among which it stands, and applied to the purposes for 
which the inspired teachers used it, has a humbling and sanctifying 
tendency. 

The doctrine of Satanic influence, again, is taught in Scripture ; 
but only to give us a clearer perception of the value of the work of 
Christ, and to excite us to greater watchfulness and prayer, 2 Cor. 
4. 4: Eph. 2. 2: 6. 12: John 13, 27; Luke 3. 30; Rev. 12. 9: 

1 John 3.8: Eph. 6. n-i3, etc. 

The mysterious connection between the first offence and the fact 
that all are under condemnation is clearly affirmed in the 5th chap- 
ter of the Epistle to the Romans and in 1 Cor., but only to magnify 
the grace of God in our redemption by Christ. 

The doctrine of the Trinity is a revelation of God in relation to 
man; and, though sometimes introduced as an article of faith, 
simply (as in the rite of baptism), it is generally in connection with 
spiritual blessings, and especially with the scheme of redemption, 

2 Cor. 13. 14. 

It must be remembered, again, that deductions drawn by 
Deduc- reason from propositions founded on the state- 
tions from ments of Scripture are not to be deemed inspired 
necesSriiy unless those deductions are themselves revealed. 

It is certain, for example, that distinct acts of per- 
sonal agency, which are in some passages ascribed simply to God, 
are ascribed elsewhere to the Father, or to the Son, or to the Holy 
Ghost, and that worship and adoration are claimed for each. We 

P 



314 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TRUTH. 

may say, therefore, that there are three Persons in the Godhead, 
and but one God; or that there is a Trinity in Unity. We thus 
express Scripture truth in a convenient form. But if we attempt 
to explain this truth, or to draw from the phraseology employed 
other remote conclusions, we may either darken counsel by words 
without knowledge, or gather lessons which God has not taught. 

Or again, that all men are sinners, and that the holiest acts of 
the best men come short of the requirements of the Divine law, 
are truths revealed in Scripture, and we comprehend them both 
in the general statement that men are totally depraved ; but 
if from this statement we gather the conclusion that all men are 
sinners in the same degree, the conclusion, though seemingly in- 
volved in the statement, is not a lesson of Scripture, but an inference 
drawn by human reason, not from God's word, but from the imper- 
fect language of nian. All men are bound to believe Scripture, and 
he that believes Scripture believes all that is seen to be contained 
therein. But "no man," says Jeremy Taylor, "is to be pressed 
with consequences drawn from thence, unless the transcript be 
drawn by the same hand that wrote the original. For we are sure 
it came, in the simplicity of it, from an infallible Spirit; but he 
that bids me believe his deductions bids me believe that he is an 
unerring logician; for which God has given me no command, and 
himself can give me no security. " a 

Concerning all doctrines indeed, which are peculiar to 
Scripture, the rule of the martyr Ridley is as Christian as it 
is philosophical. " In these matters," says he, " I am so fearful 
that I dare not speak further, yea, almost none otherwise than 
the text doth as it were lead me by the hand." 

But besides ascertaining the truths of the gospel, it is not 
6. Truth in less important in framing a system of truth to 
its , compara- asce rtain their relative importance ; and if possible, 
ance. the order in which Scripture reveals them. With 

this view, notice : — 

i. What things are omitted in one book, or in several, or in 
Comparative many, and then gather the conclusion, that what 
importance, are omitted, are probably not as important as 

how ascer- ' • \ i , . ,, 

tained. those that are included in all. 

2. Mark the subjects which are oftenest recommended to 
attention by our Lord, and by his apostles. 

If it be asked, for example, what is the most memorable circum- 

a "Dissuasives against Popery." 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 315 

stance in the institution of the last supper, the reply is, its com- 
memorative character: for this peculiarity is thrice mentioned in 
the words of the institution, i Cor. n. 24, 25, 26. 

A rule of the Divine procedure is on the same ground of obvious 
importance. Thrice is it intimated by our Lord, and in each case 
with much emphasis, that gifts habitually exercised are increased, 
while gifts habitually neglected are withdrawn, Matt. 13.12: 25.29: 
Luke 19. 26. So of humility, which is mentioned with peculiar- 
honour no less than seven times in the first three Gospels, Matt. 
18. 4, etc. 

q. Observe carefully what is common to the two dispensa- 
tions, the Christian and the Jewish. 

In both, the unity and spirituality of God, his power and truth- 
fulness are frequently revealed. So among our first duties are gra- 
titude and love. The numerous injunctions in the law, respecting 
sacrifices, and the prominence given to the truth, that Christ was 
" once offered to bear the sins of many," illustrate the paramount 
importance both of the doctrine, and of appropriate feelings in re- 
ference to it, Heb. 9. 28. 

4. Observe the value ascribed in Scripture itself, to any 
truth or precept -which it contains. a Sometimes a quality is 
set forth as essential, u Without faith it is impossible to 
please God." Sometimes one quality is preferred to another, 
as love to both faith and hope, i Cor. 13. It is on this prin- 
ciple that much importance is attached to the qualifications 
which are to regulate the decisions of the day of judgment. 
Such as faith, and the right government of our thoughts, 
words, feelings, actions, habits, and dispositions. 13 

The reader may apply the foregoing rules to ascertain the 
importance of the death and resurrection of our Lord, and 
the connection of both with justification and holiness, e.g. 

Gal. 2. 20: 3.1:3.13: 5. 24: 5. 11 : 6. 12, 14. 1 Cor. 1. 13, 17, 
18. 23: 2. 2, 8: 5. 7: 8. 11: 11. 26: 15. 3. Rom. 3. 24, 25: 4. 
24, 25: 5.8, 19: 6.5-8, 10: 8. 3. 32: 14. 15. Eph. 1. 7: 2. 16: 
5. 2: Col. 1. 14, 18-20, etc. 

a See "Exposition of the Gospel of Luke," by James Thomson, 
D.D., Introd. 

*° John 3. 15: Matt. 15. 18, 20: 13. 43, 49: 16. 27: Rom. 2. 6: 
Gal. 6. 8: Rev. 14. 13 : 1 John 3. 23. These passages all prove that 
the design of the gospel is not only pardon but holiness, and that 
meetness for heaven, includes both title and character. 

P 2 



316 AFP AHENT CONTRADICTIONS. 

The fact of the resurrection and ascension of our Lord, as 
an evidence of the completion and acceptance of his work, 
and as a pledge of the resurrection of his people, is men- 
tioned in the Epistles alone, more than fifty times. Any 
view of the gospel, therefore, which gives to these doctrines 
a second place, is clearly not the gospel of Scripture. 

464. One or two general principles may be laid down to aid 
Canons on in the application of these rules. 

llonXiiese *• No_tnm g must *>* m ^de a matter of faith 
rules. which is not a matter of revelation. 

2. In studying the Bible, there must be an indifferent 
judgment till the truth itself decides. Allow no bias but 
what is received from the Scriptures themselves, otherwise, 
our knowledge will be only inclination and fancy. 

3. The same prominence should be given to each doctrine, 
as is given to it in Scripture. 

4. Where the' doctrine of Scripture is important and ne- 
cessary, the Scripture will be found full and clear. Where 
Scripture is not full and clear, the doctrine is either in itself 
not important, or the certain knowledge of it does not belong 
to our present state. 

5. The Bible being inspired cannot really contradict itself. 
Of apparent contradictions, some are merely verbal, and the 
right interpretation of the words will remove the difficulty. 
Others which originate in the doctrines themselves, may be 
solved by one or other of the three followiDg rules. 

(a.) When the same action is affirmed of different persons, 
there is a sense in which it is true of both. 

It is said for example, ten times, that Pharaoh hardened his heart, 
and ten times, that God hardened Pharaoh's heart; and both state- 
ments are in a sense true. What the sense is not, may be gathered 
from Scripture revelations of God's character; what the sense is, 
may be told us in Scripture, or it may not. If it is not, that sense 
is one of the secret things which " belong unto God." If it is, then 
both the sense which reconciles the statements, and the statements 
themselves are revealed. 

Instances in which the same act is ascribed in Scripture to dif- 
ferent persons. 

Exod. 18. 17-26: Dout. 1. 9-13, in relation to the appointment of 
judges. Numb. 13. 1-20: Deut. 1. 22, on sending the spies. 2 Sam. 
24. 1 : 1 Chron. 21. 1, in the numbering of the people by David. 



SCRIPTURE PRECEPTS. 317 

(b.) When apparently contradictory qualities are ascribed in 
Scripture to the same person or object, there is a sense in 
which both assertions are true. 

There is a sense, for example, in which all men are sinners, and 
there is a sense in which some men (those born of God), do not 
commit sin ( i John, and both senses are Scriptural. "What those 
senses are must be gathered from the Bible, if they be revealed. 
If not revealed, we believe the statements, and wait for further light. 
There is a sense also, in which God visits the sins of the fathers 
upon the children, and there is a sense in which the children do 
not bear the sins of the fathers, Exod. 20. 5 : Ezek. i3. 20. Either 
the effects of the father's sin fall temporarily upon his children, 

jugh each man's final destinv is the result of his own conduct, or 
the first passage may be limited to those who hate him; in their 
case there is an accumulation of punishment. 

(c.) "When one thing is said in Scripture to secure salvation, 
and the want of another thing is said to exclude from it, the 
existence of the one necessarily implies the existence of the 
other. 

It is said, for example, that faith saves us, and yet no one can be 
saved who hates his brother. Both statements are true ; and, in 
fact, we find that faith and love are never disjoined. 

This is the canon that reconciles the prerogatives of faith 
with the promises made to character, as in the sermon on the 
mount. It is not that such characters having faith, are 
blessed, for the promise is absolute ; but- it is, that faith 
forms such characters, and so brings the believer within the 
range of the promise. 

Sec. 2. TJie Precepts of Scripture. 

465. The study of Scripture doctrine has been placed first 
. in this chapter for a double reason. Most of the 

sentiai to * rules applicable to the study of the first, are ap- 
hoiiness. plicabie to the study of all. It will be found, more- 
over, that Scripture doctrine is at the foundation of all true 
morality. The gospel begins its message with the " story of 
peace," unfolding the pardoning mercy of God through the 
death of his Son. It then exhibits its truths as motives to 
holiness. When these truths have taken possession of the 
heart, they teach us to perceive in Scripture, the requirements 
of a high and spiritual obedience : and under their influence, 



218 PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY. 

we learn to serve in newness of spirit, and not in the oldness 
of the letter. This is the order, therefore, of human expe- 
rience ; knowledge in the heart, or truth, precedes knowledge 
in practice, or goodness : or, in simple Scripture language, 
man is sanctified by faith, through the operation of the Holy 
Spirit. 

466. When the reader of the Bible has examined and clas- 

sified its precepts, he will find that it is rather a 
bookofprin- book of principles than of directions. And of 
cipies. principles in a double sense : Its precepts refer 

rather to motives than to actions, which motives are called the 
principles, or beginnings of action : and moreover, its precepts 
are comprehensive maxims, and are therefore rather prin- 
ciples of morality than specific rules. When it speaks of 
holiness, it means faith, well-regulated affection, inward purity, 
and moral rectitude of disposition, and these it represents, 
not as the ground of our salvation, but as its evidence .and 
i.e. of mo- result. The law of the ten commandments, which 
lives. seems at first to refer to practice only, is summed 

up by our Lord, in the form of love to God and to man ; 
humility and evangelic faith towards God, and all holy con- 
duct towards our fellows being the appropriate utterance of 
these inward feelings. This apparent peculiarity of the gospel 
scheme was the more striking in the time of our Lord, from 
the fact, that Jewish tradition had given undue importance to 
ritual zeal and punctuality : and it accounts for much of the 
opposition which the first teachers of the truth encountered. 
That it is a peculiarity also of the law is plain, both from the 
nature of its precepts and from the teaching of our Lord, for 
when he impresses upon his hearers the importance of inward 
dispositions, he never speaks of the law as faulty, but merely 
frees it from the glosses of the Pharisees, and unfolds its 
spiritual meaning. See also Mark 12. 32-34. 

467. Even when the precepts of the gospel are given in a 
Even specific s P ec ^ c form they are often intended as descrip- 
ruies involve tive rather of character than of specific acts. The 
prmcip e. command of our Lord, " If any man will sue thee 
at the law to take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak 
also," is an instance, Matt. 5. 40. A specific compliance 
with the precept would be seldom practicable. To wait for 
the occasion when it can be applied, or even to apply it at all, 



PRECEPTS, MORAL AND POSITIVE. 319 

might be of little service ; but to cherish the disposition at 
which it aims is to take one of the likeliest means of pro- 
moting our holiness. 

468. It is another peculiarity of the precepts of the gospel 
. , - that they are generally expressed in comprehen- 
generai sive terms, and that the application of them, and 

the distinctions that attend it, are left to the 
reason of the reader. It is true that the laws are so plain as 
to leave a conscientious and teachable mind in little danger 
of mistake. Still, it is part of our discipline that we are left 
to apply them. There is such clearness in the command, 
that he that runneth may read ; but withal, such possi- 
bility of error as proves God to be testing " what is in our 
hearts, and whether we will keep his commandments or not." 

469. Applying these distinctions to the moral law, whether 
The moral given in the Old Testament or in the New, it may 
law. k e 0DserV ed — 

1. That whatever evil it prohibits in the highest degree it 
prohibits in the lower. Murder and the malignant passions 
in every stage, adultery and the sins of the flesh, fraud and 
wrong, false accusation in private intercourse and in courts ot 
law, theft and covetous, discontented desires, are all con- 
demned ; and 

2. That when sin is forbidden, the opposite duty is en- 
joined, and when any duty is enjoined, the opposite sin is 
forbidden. It forbids the use of images of invisible things 
for purposes of worship, and thus enjoins spiritual service. 
In excluding every other object of religious worship, it im- 
plies that God is to be worshipped, reverenced, and loved. 
It surrounds the parental relation with sanctity and honour, 
and thus condemns the indifference and false independence 
which are too often indulged. This apparent extension of 
the meaning of inspired precepts is the necessary result of 
the general truth that the Scriptures are a book of principles, 
checking or fostering dispositions, and speaking in the lan- 
guage of comprehensive command. 

470. Keeping in mind that the precepts of Scripture refer 
chiefly to the dispositions of the soul, that they are expressed 
for the most part in general terms, and that the application 
of them is left to the reader, we need still to notice an im- 
portant distinction between these precepts themselves. 



320 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL AND POSITIVE PRECEPTS. 

Some are called moral and others positive, and the distinc- 
Moraipre- tion is founded on Scripture itself. Bishop Taylor 

cept? and -> r i i i • j -i • . 

positive de- cleimes moral precepts as having their measure in 
fined - natural reason, while in positive precepts, the 

reasons and measure are incidental, economical, or political. 
The reason of the first is eternal, the reason of the second, 
temporary. Bishop Butler and Dr. Doddridge, again, define 
the first as precepts, the reasons for which we see ; and the 
second as precepts, the reasons for which we do not see. By 
combining these definitions, we may, perhaps, obtain one 
sounder than either. Positive precepts refer only to outward 
acts, and to such outward acts as do not naturally flow from 
an obedient heart ; moral precepts, on the other hand, have 
reference to inward holiness or to acts as the natural expres- 
sion of holy feeling. Both are, within certain limits, obli- 
gatory, and the neglect of either has itfc peculiar aggravations. 
To violate moral laws is to disobey our reason and God. To 
violate positive laws is to sin where temptation is commonly 
feeblest, and where disobedience involves a direct denial of 
Divine authority. 

Some precepts (it is obvious) are mixed in their nature, 
being partly moral and partly positive. Such is 
the law of the sabbath. That creatures, framed 
as man is, should present some united worship is a moral 
duty ; but whether that worship be presented on the seventh 
or the first day of the week must be decided by positive law. 
It is obvious, too, that in the use of the words of this dis- 
tinction we are liable to mistake. Moral duties are positive, 
in the sense of being expressly commanded ; and positive 
duties are moral, in the sense of requiring holy motive in 
fulfilling them : guilt, too, is incurred, if they be regarded 
with indifference or contempt. 

471. Positive laws however differ widely from those which 
are strictlv moral. 

Distinction 

between j n their nature. The moral are intrinsically holy and 

immutable; the positive are indifferent till the precept 
is given. Under the law, for example, to look at the brazen ser- 
pent, to sprinkle the door-posts with blood, were acts of no obliga- 
tion till God had commanded them, and both were temporary in 
their duration. 

In their evidence. The moral precept is written, though often 



RELATIVE CLAIMS OF EACH. 321 

nearly effaced, in the heart; but the positive precept in the Bible 
only. The latter, therefore, is a matter of pure revelation, and 
differences among Christians in reference to them are more easy and 
(may we not say ?) less inexcusable. 

In their ground. Moral precepts are founded in the nature of 
God and of man, and in the relation that subsists between them; 
positive precepts in God's "will alone. That will is doubtless guided 
by wisdom, and the general design of many positive precepts is 
even obvious. Baptism, and the Lord's supper, and the sabbath, 
for example, are all adapted to a specific end ; but why these ordi- 
nances only, and not others, is not revealed. 

In the extent of their obligation, moral precepts are universally 
binding. There is no state conceivable to which God's moral 
dominion does not extend. Positive precepts, on the other hand, 
are particular. The ceremonial law included the Jews, but not the 
Gentiles. Worshipping in groves was allowed to the patriarchs 
(Gen. 21. 33), but was forbidden to the children of Israel (Deut. 
16. 21). Under the gospel it is indifferent (John 4. 21). Other 
observances were binding on the priests, but not on the people. 
So, under the gospel, those only must partake of the Lord's supper 
on whom that ordinance is enjoined. 

They differ, further, in their observance. Moral precepts, incul- 
cating principles, are obeyed by a thousand different actions. Posi- 
tive precepts, controlling conduct only, are uniform, and are to be 
observed according to the prescription and letter of the law. 

And lastly, in their connection. Moral precepts are necessarily 
connected. Positive precepts may be so by authority, but are not 
so in their nature. Faith is followed by hope, and joy, and love. 
Love to God strengthens our sorrow for offending and our fear to 
offend; and love to man, fidelity and beneficence. But circum- 
cision did not imply holiness or ceremonial purity. Institutions 
maybe observed apart, " but virtues go ever," says Bishop Hall, 
"''in troops." 

472. In reference to the application of these laws, moral 
Rules for an( * P os itive, i^ must be remembered — 
applying i. That moral precepts never really contradict 

one another. If there be apparent contradiction, 
we have misinterpreted the meaning or the limits of the law. 

2. Positive institutions, being founded exclusively on the 
law of God, admit of no additions in number to those it 
reveals. Institutions professedly of Divine original must not 
only not be forbidden in Scripture, they must be expressly 
commanded. To increase the number of such institutions, 

P 3 



322 PROMISES UNIVERSAL AND PECULIAR. 

says Dr. Whichcote, "lessens the number of things lawful, 
brings the consciences of men into bondage, multiplies sin in 
the world, makes the way narrower than God has made it, 
and divides his church." 

3. When positive precepts interfere with the observance of 
the moral law, they must yield the outward rite to the ex- 
pression of holy feeling, the offering of sacrifice to the dictates 
of mercy, the keeping of a sabbath to the law of love. 

4. God rejects his own positive institutions when men 
make them final, or put them in competition with holiness, 
or substitute them for it, Isa. 1. 11-17 . 66. 3 : Mic. 6. 7, 8 : 
Jer. 7. 4, 5 : Amos 5. 21. 

Sec. 3. The Promises of Scripture. 

473. Faith in the promises of the gospel, is, by the opera- 
tion of the Holy Spirit, the great medium of man's renewal 
and holiness. When born again, that is restored to the con- 
dition and character of children, it is, under the operation 
of the same Holy Spirit, by the incorruptible seed of the 
Divine word, received into the heart. When justified, it is 
by faith ; and by faith they are made holy : faith is our 
"shield," our "work," our "victory," our "life." 

In studying and applying the promises of the Bible, it is 
important that we remember the following particulars. 

474. The general promises of the Bible are the expression 
Promises the °^ God's immutable counsel. Men have often at- 
counsei of tached this idea of counsel to the secret purposes 

of God only, as if those purposes contradicted his 
word, or were intended to nullify and frustrate its statements, 
But in Scripture the promises are always spoken of as the 
revelation of his purpose, and the violation of his promise as 
the denial, not of his word only, but of himself. He had pro- 
mised "before the world began," Titus 1. 2 ; and the promises 
are quoted in proof of his immutability, Heb. 6. 17, 18. 

475. Some of the promises are universal, and others pecu- 
Universai li ar an d temporary ; and it is important to distin- 
and peculiar. g U i s ]2 between them. There are promises made 
to Noah, to Moses, to David, to Peter, which cannot apply to 
us. The promise to the Israelites, of outward prosperity, 
was temporary, being suited to their dispensation, and 
adapted (in a state where eternal things were less clearly re- 



PROMISES, ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL. 323 

vealecl) to secure obedience. So the gift of miracles, and of 
infallibility for writing or confirming the Scriptures, was pro- 
mised to the first age of the church only, but is now with- 
drawn. The gospel is the universal promise, and the only 
one. It is, therefore, the ground and measure of our faith. 
Many promises, however, made to individual believers are 
branches of the universal promise, and are, as such, to be 
applied to believers still. Paul, for example, applies to the 
Hebrew Christians the promise of God to Joshua, "I will 
never leave thee ;" and Nehemiah prayed for the fulfilment 
of the promise given to Moses, Josh. i. 5 : Heb. 13. 5 : ISTeh. 
1. 5-11. 

To this class belong the promises that refer to the present 
Promise^ of -^ e ? es P ec i an 7 those that are contained in the Old 
temporal Testament. When applied to a consistent Chris- 
tian they embody a general truth, namely, that re- 
ligion, by making men honest, and sober, and industrious, 
has a constant tendency to secure temporal blessing. The 
hand of the diligent maketh rich, and diligence is enforced by 
the gospel. But then the constancy of this law is corrected 
by three considerations. 1. Persecution and suffering are 
expressly foretold of the church, and for Christ's sake ; and 
such suffering is itself the theme of a promise. 2. The tem- 
poral promises of the Old Testament have a hrnit in the very 
character of the later dispensation. It is one of faith rather 
than of sight. 3. And besides, temporal mercies are now 
employed to promote the Christian's spiritual welfare, and 
are given or withheld, as may prove most for his highest 
good. Under the law, the rod of the wicked less frequently 
rested upon the lot of the righteous, because the lessons of 
Providence were among the grand teachers both of the 
church and of the world. Now, however, the Bible is com- 
plete ; and Cod is free (so to speak) to adapt his discipline 
to the wants of each of his children. In asking, therefore, 
for the fulfilment of temporal promises, even when universal, 
we must remember that prosperity has ceased to be the uni- 
form expression of Divine favour, and that providence is now 
administered in subservience to the spiritual discipline of the 
church. 

476. Some of the promises are absolute, and others are 
Absolute and conditional, 
conditional. rjphe p rom j ses f ^e com i n g f the Messiah and 



324 PROMISES NOT THE RULE OF DUTY. 

of the call of the Gentiles were absolute. The promise of 
pardon and of blessings essential to salvation is suspended 
upon our faith. The Christian's progress, again, in holiness, 
and his freedom from chastisement, are dependent upon his 
diligence, and obedience, and prayer. 

It may be said generally that every promise of spiritual 
blessing to individual Christians is given to character, and on 
conditions. So Nehemiah believed, and therefore his prayer 
ended with the acknowledgment that the promise was made 
to such only as turn to God, and keep his commandments to 
do them. See also i Cliron. 28. 9, 19 : Ezek. 33. 13-15 : Jas. 
1. 5-7 : 1 Sam. 2. 30 : Eom. 4. 3, 12 : Heb. 4. 1. These pro- 
mises are made to character ; sincerity and faith are always 
required. Do we seek Abraham's blessing, we must walk in 
Abraham's steps. Do we wish for special tokens of Divine 
regard, we must cherish the poor and contrite spirit with 
which God is pleased to dwell. And they are made on con- 
ditions. Further light, and richer gifts, are ever bsstowed in 
proportion to our industry, and fervour, and fidelity, and 
prayer. 

So far, therefore, as any promise of Scripture is common, 
and we fulfil its conditions, we may apply it to ourselves as 
boldly as if our name were there. If even it be a particular 
promise given to one saint, but a branch of the universal 
promise of the gospel, and we do as he did to whom it was 
originally given, it becomes our own. 

477. This connection of the promises of Scripture and the 
This con- conditions attached to them is often overlooked, 
nection over- Men apply the promises as if they were made to 

looked. rr J -.. , r to, 

sorrow or distress. In tact, no promise is given 
to mere distress, but only to distress crying for relief, and 
seeking it in the way of Divine appointment : " Call upon me 
in the day of trouble, and I will deliver thee and thou shalt 
glorify me," is the uniform- language of Scripture, Psa. 50. 15. 
In this respect, its promises differ from its invitations. The 
latter are commands addressed to all, even to the impenitent 
and the unbelieving (Mark 1. 15) ; the former to the penitent 
and believing only, or to the impenitent, on the supposition 
that they turn and believe. 

Time of M- 4 ?8. ^ 0( ^ °^ en promises a blessing without fixing 

niment not the time when it is to be bestowed. God will 

deliver the righteous out of his troubles, but the 



SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES. 325 

time is not told us (Psa. 37). Christ is to come again, and to 
take us to himself (John 14. 1-3) ; but " of that day and 
hour knoweth no man." To trust in the promise, therefore, 
includes both patience and faith. He that believes "will not 
make haste, Isa. 28. 16 : Eom. 1.7:2 Thess. 3. 5. 

479. Rightly to employ the promises, we must use them, 

not indeed as the ground or measure of duty, but 

Promises , , , . t 

rightly used yet as motives to exertion and prayer. 

when made 

S-^lv 5 G-od has promised to deliver his church and to de- 

prave!. ■>- 

stroy her adversaries; but these promises are not our 
guide. Paul had received a promise that he should see Rome, and 
yet, when the conspiracy was framed to assassinate him, he imme- 
diately took steps to protect his life, as if no promise had been 
given (Acts 23. 11-17). In every case, the precept is our rule, 
though the promise may influence our motives and encourage our 
prayers. 

God promised David to establish his house, and David therefore 
pleaded the more earnestly with God to fulfil his promise, 2 Sam. 
7. 16-25. 

God had promised, in the days of Elijah, to "send rain upon the 
earth," 1 Kings 18. 1, and yet Elijah prays with the greater earnest- 
ness and perseverance, 1 Kings 18. 42-44. 

Daniel knew that the seventy years' captivity was expiring when 
he set his face by prayer to seek its accomplishment, Dan. 9. 2, 3. 

When our Lord had promised the gift of the Holy Ghost, the 
disciples continued in prayer till the promise was fulfilled, Acts 
1. 14. 

480. Rightly to employ the promises, we must use them to 
And when promote our holiness. They were given that we 
they promote might be partakers of a Divine nature. Xor is 

the design of God answered, unless they deepen 
our thankfulness and bind us to a life of holy and devoted 
obedience, 2 Pet. 1. 4 : 2 Cor. 7. 1. 

Sec. 4. The Examples of Scripture. 

481. In considering and applying the examples of Scrip- 
instudvmg ture, there are several points to which attention 
S& eX " needs to be directed. 

member— 1. Many things are recorded in Scripture with 

censure. There are examples of injustice and idolatry, which 
are either discountenanced by the law, or were at the time 



326 SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES 

expressly condemned. The record of them is not intended 
to hallow the facts, or to justify us in copying them, but to 
illustrate the wickedness of human nature and the justice of 
God, or to serve some holy and important end. 

2. The actions of a good man, which were nevertheless 
wrong, or which are not, on other grounds, intended for our 
imitation, are sometimes recorded without censure. To this 
class belong the equivocation of Abraham before Pharaoh ; 
the falsehood of Eebecca and Jacob ; the dissembled madness 
of David, i Sam. 21. 13 ; and the massacre at Jabesh Gilead. 
To this class, also, belong such actions as were allowed under 
the law, but are forbidden under the gospel. Polygamy, for 
example, was only permitted to the Jews, "because of the 
hardness of their hearts ;" never enjoined. The reasoning of 
our Lord condemns it (Mark 10. 6), nor must we, from the 
pattern of children, learn the measures of duty in men. 

3. Many acts under the old dispensation were done by 
express command. Abraham offered up his son ; Joshua 
destroyed the Canaanites ; the Levites put to death the 
idolaters in the camp ; Jehu rebelled against the house of 
Ahab, 2 Kings 9 : but each of these acts was performed under 
the authority of a peculiar and positive precept. The fact that 
God expressly commanded them bakes them out of the list of 
imitable actions. To make similar actions commendable, we 
must have similar authority. 

It may be observed, that when a peculiar command was 
given, the reason is generally appended, showing the com- 
mand to be but temporary. Abraham was commanded to 
offer up his son, to test his faith ; Joshua destroyed the 
Canaanites because the time of their probation was past, and 
they had proved irretrievably idolatrous ; idolaters in Jud^a 
were put to death, because, there, idolatry was treason against 
the supreme authority of the invisible King. 

4. In judging of Old Testament examples, we must ascertain 
the principle on which the actions were performed. This is 
the rule suggested by the nth chapter of the Hebrews, where 
some acts are recorded as imitable only in the principle of 
faith, from which they sprang. Without this rule, Scripture 
may be made to sanction the most contradictory acts. In 
Genesis 21. 9, for example, Ishmael mocked Isaac, and from 
Galatians 4. 29, we learn that this mockery was the expression 



NOT OUR RULE. 327 

of a spirit of persecution, and of contempt of God's promises. 
Elijah, on the other hand, mocked the priests of Baal to 
prove the folly and wickedness of idolatry. Elijah's conduct 
in calling fire from heaven (2 Kings), was not the result of 
angry feeling, but of a desire to convince a wicked prince, and 
an idolatrous people ; when J anies and John wished to exercise 
the same power, however, our Lord rebuked them ; partly 
because his kingdom forbade such agency, and partly because 
the temper in which they spoke was passionate and revengeful. 

482. All these considerations may be expressed in the form 
of rules : and it follows that we are not to copy the practices 
which Scripture records and condemns ; nor practices which 
Rule of jodg- it records without censure, unless those practices 
meat and were holv as well as lawful ; nor what was done 

rule 01 imi ?A' " 

tion. under specific and temporary command ; nor what 

was done in consequence of inferior knowledge: nor must we 
copy or judge the good acts of even a good man, without con- 
sidering their motives and end. 

Or the whole may be summed up in one principle. In 
relation to Old Testament examples, the rule of judgment is, 
that we estimate each act as the individual who performed it 
was bound to estimate it by the law, under which he lived, 
and the negative rule of imitation is. that we are not to copy 
it, if it be inconsistent with the precepts of the Xew Testa- 
ment. The positive rule of imitation will be found below. 

483. Of what use then are the examples of Scripture, and 
U Se f how are we to employ them 1 They are of great 

example. use# 

In interpreting the rules of Scripture where the sense is 
i. in inter- questioned. If the example be set by men who 
pretation. were at the time inspired, and that example is in 
obedience to the rule in question, we have then an inspired 
interpretation of its meaning. The conduct of Paul in op- 
posing Peter on the question of circumcision, and the practice 
of the apostles generally, decides the signification of many 
passages of Scripture. In such cases we copy the example, 
not because good men have left it, but because, under the 
circumstances, it proves to us what is the mind of Christ. 

"We may thus often find an explanation of the meaning of 
Scripture, in the examples which inspired men have left us. 
u Swear not at all," for instance., is one of the commands of our 



328 SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES, 

Lord, Matt. 5 . 33-37. In the same chapter he tells us that he 
came not to destroy the law (ver. 17,1 8), and as the law permitted 
'oaths, it may be presumed that all oaths for all purposes, are not 
forbidden in this prohibition. On referring to 2 Cor. 11. 31-33: 
Rom. 1. 9, it becomes plain that the precept refers to our ordinary 
communications, which should be yea, yea, nay, nay. The vice 
which is thus condemned was very common among the Jews. 
" Resist not evil," in the same chapter, will be found by the same 
reasoning to mean, ' ' cherish not a spirit of retaliation and revenge. 5 '' 
Our Lord did not complain of the law in the hands of the magis- 
trate, nor did he forbid his disciples appealing to it where public 
justice was concerned. He himself remonstrated against unjust 
smiting, John 18. 23; and Paul so far resisted evil, as to protest 
against cruel indignities offered him, and on another occasion, to 
appeal to CaBsar, Acts 25. 11. The meaning of the precept there- 
fore is, rather suffer injury than revenge yourselves. 

They are of use again — 

In teaching us to apply the rules of Scripture to particular 
2. in teach- cases. The New Testament, is in a great degree, a 
ing to apply book of principles, and not of specific directions, 
rules. and it requires great wisdom to apply them. 

If, for instance, it be asked whether it is the duty of all Christians 
to speak of the true God, or of his Son, and to exhort others to 
believe in Him, we appeal to the precepts of the gospel, precepts 
addressed to all saints, and we illustrate and learn to apply the pre- 
cepts from Scripture example. Abraham, Gen. 18. 19. The Captive 
Maid, 2 Kings 5. 3. The restored Demoniac, Mark 5. 20. Anna, 
Luke 2. 38. Andrew and Philip, John 1. 41, 46. The v:oman of 
Samaria, John 4. 29. Persecuted Christians, Acts 8. 4. Apollos, 
Acts 18. 25. Aquila and Priscilla, Acts 18. 26. Phebe and others at 
Pome, Rom. 16. 12. Philemon, ver. 6. 

The value of examples for this purpose, may be well illustrated 
by comparing the moral principles laid down in the Book of Proverbs, 
with the application of them in the different characters mentioned 
in Scripture. It is said for, example, " There is that maketh him- 
self rich, and yet hath nothing, and there is that maketh himself 
poor and yet hath great riches." Of the first principle we ha\e 
illustrations, in Ahab, 1 Kings 21. 4, 16, 22: in Haman, Esther 5. 
11-13: the self-righteous Pharisee, Luke 18. 11-J4: in the self- 
conceited Corinthians, 1 Cor. 4. 8: in the false teachers alluded 
to by Peter, 2 Pet. 2. 18. 19: and of the second, in Matthew, Luke 
5. 27, 28: Zaccheus, Luke 19. 8, 9: Paul, 2 Cor. 6. 10: Phil. 3. 8. 
The Ephesian converts, Acts 19. 19: Eph. 2: and in the church of 



THEIR UTILITY. 329 

ma, Rev. 2. 9: compared with the church, at Laodicea, Rev. 
5. 17- 

The great use of Scripture examples, however, is not for 
purposes of interpretation, but for the increase of 
mofingom- our holiness. They illustrate Divine truth and 
holiness. human duty — thev show the possibiiitv of obe- 
dience — they rebuke our imperfections, and by exhibiting the 
sins :od men, excite our watchfulness and charity. 

Doe- Christian ask, for instance, whether it is possible for him 

to serve God in the business of the world, as well as in retirement, 
or in the public service of religion ] let him remember that Enoch, 
who walked with God, had sons and daughters, that Abraham had 
great possessions, that Joseph was governor of Egypt, that Moses 
was king in Jeshurun 'Dent. 33. y , that Jeremiah dwelt in royal 
counts, that Daniel was third ruler in the kingdom of Babylon, and 
that our blessed Lord himself, was not less holy as the carpenter 
than when engaged in his public ministry, or when offering the 
great sacrifice of the cross. 

Do we wish to test our repentance, and ascertain whether it is 
worldly or spiritual? we may examine its fruits, or we mav com- 
pare it with Scripture examples. We have true repentance in 
David, 2 Sam. 12. 13, and Psa. 51: in Manasseh, 2 Chron. 33. 12, 
13 : in Job 42. 6: in Nineveh, Jonah 3. 5, 8: in Peter, Matt. 26. 75 : 
and in the Publican, Luke 18. We have worldly repentance in 
Pharaoh: in Saul, 1 Sam. 15. 24: in Ahab, 1 Kings 21. 27: in 
Johanan, Jer. 13. 12, 20: and in Judas, Matt. 27. 3, 5. 

Do we watch with most care against our easilv besetting sins, and 
feel secure against others to which we are less prone. We may. 
with advantage remember that Abraham the father of the faithful 
distrusted the providence of God; that Closes the meekest of men, 
spoke unadvisedly with his lips; that Job murmured (Job 6. 8, etc. ; 
and that the boldest of the disciples of our Lord swore, through. 
fear, that he never knew him. 

The inrpressiveness of these examples may be increased by 
Effect of our selecting such as resemble more closely our 
contrast. own case> or \yy placing in contrast the conduct 
of different persons under similar circumstances. 

We may compare the humility of the true teacher, John the 
Baptist, with the self-conceit of Simon Magus, the false teacher who 
gave out that he himself was some great one. John 1. 19-27, and 
Acts 8. 9; the anger of Jeroboam and L'zziah when reproved with 



330 EXAMPLES, HOW FAR TO BE COPIED. 

the submission and diligence of Jehoshaphat, i Kings 13. 4: 
2 Chron. 26. 19: 2 Chron. 19. 24, etc. 

484. Nor ought we lightly to esteem the value of such 
Their im- examples. " All that philosophy, wise men, and 
portance. general reason can teach," says Luther, " that is 
profitable for good life, history presents by examples and cases. 
And when we look at it deeply, we find that thence have 
flowed, almost all rights, art, good counsel, warning, threaten- 
ing, terror, consolation, strengthening, instruction, and pru- 
dence, as out of a living spring." Examples thus become 
morality taught in facts, " Christ and his gospel preached 
from the annals of his own kingdom," a and the experience of 
his church. 

485. It may be remarked, generally, that if the matter to 

which the example refers, is of a moral nature, we 

General , ,, , „ . . , „ 

principle of are to copy the example of inspired men, so tar as 
imitation. ^ e reason f the practice is the same in their case 

and in ours. If the cases are not similar, we then obey the 
command by cherishing the spirit which their example em- 
bodied, without copying the example itself. It is a principle, 
for instance, that Christians are " by love to serve one 
another," and if the churches of one district have abundance, 
and those of another district are suffering from poverty, the 
churches in the former case, are to obey the command by col- 
lecting for their poorer brethren, as the early churches did, 
Acts 11. 28-30: 1 Cor. 16. 1. They apply the rule in the 
same way. But if it be said to follow from this principle, 
that we should copy the examples of the early Christians, and 
wash one another's feet, we then apply the exceptive principle 
just named. That custom was in eastern countries a common 
and necessary refreshment ; but to observe it here would 
defeat the design of the observance. A kiss was the common 
form of eastern salutation, and was designed to express affec- 
tionate regard ; the principle of that practice (the exercise and 
expression of affectionate feeling), is still binding, but we 
cease to copy the example, or to express the principle in 
that form, because the custom has ceased. The primitive 
church, it is evident from the New Testament, had its love 
feasts ; we have no record of their being a Divine appoint- 

a Neander. 



EXAMPLES, HOW FAR TO BE COPIED. 331 

nient, but tliey were probably the spontaneous expression of 
mutual affection. Hence, when they were abused, the apos- 
tles condemned them. " These are spots," said Jude, " in 
your feasts of charity." In the case of the Lord's supper, the 
abuse was condemned also, but the ordinance was re-incul- 
cated. The observance of such feasts, therefore, is allowable, 
if they tend to deepen the feelings they are designed to express, 
but the example is plainly not of binding authority. 

486. If the matter to which the example refers is a positive 
institution, the precedent is of no force in regard to its merely 
accidental circumstances. In relation, for example, to the 
Lord's supper, it was celebrated in an upper room, with un- 
leavened bread, the guests reclining at the table, on the fifth 
day of the week, and in the evening of the day. Three of 
these facts are expressly mentioned, and the others are un- 
doubted : yet none is deemed essential to the due observance 
of the ordinance. 

Most of the meetings of believers mentioned in the ISTew 
Testament, were held on the first day of the week (Acts 20. 
7 : 1 Cor. 11. 20). Most of the preaching to the Jews and 
others who worshipped with them, was on the seventh day 
(Acts 13. 42 : 18. 4 : 16. 13). To frame our example in this 
case after apostolic example, without considering the reason 
of their conduct, is plainly to confound the essential and 
accidental characteristics of their obedience. They exhorted 
Christians principally on the first day of the week, because 
on that day, Christians only attended their service. They 
preached on the Saturday because then the people generally 
were accessible. 

487. It is important to observe, that in all those cases 

(both those that refer to moral precepts, and 

The precept , . . . N 7, , 

our law in those that refer xo positive institutions), the duty 
ail cases. Q ? obedience is founded on the command, the ap- 
plication and extent of the command being fixed by the 
phraseology employed, and by the example of inspired men, 
subject only to the rules just given. 



332 SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Principles and Rules of the preceding Chapters illus- 
trated in the Quotations of the New Testament from 
the Old, and applied to thiu Solution of Scripture Dif- 
ficulties. 

488. Nearly all introductions to Scripture treat of Scripture 
Scripture dif- difficulties as a distinct branch of inquiry. There 
Acuities re- are obvious objections to this order, but it is on 
rate investi- the whole convenient to adhere to it. So far as 
gation. difficulties illustrate any rule of interpretation, or 

are explained by it, they belong to interpretation ; but as 
many of them admit several solutions, and might, if placed 
under rules, bring the rules themselves into question, it is 
better to discuss them apart. The very existence of difficul- 
ties, moreover, raises a point which it is important to exa- 
mine, and this can be done with advantage only in a separate 
chapter. 

Studied in their right place, with as much attention as 
their importance demands and no more, the difficulties of 
Scripture will do no mischief to a humble prayerful reader. 
They will even stimulate inquiry and strengthen trust. Those 
that belong to interpretation will supply decisive eridences of 
the genuineness and authenticity of the Bible, and those that 
belong to doctrine will teach humility and faith. There is 
true harmony though it lie deep : there is really a central 
point whence all truth appears in order ; God means us to 
reach it ultimately, and in the mean time to make the attempt. 
That attempt, independently even of its ultimate issues, will 
bring with it a present reward. 

Sec. 1. Quotations classified and examined ivitli reference to the 
state of the Text, the truths and evidences of Scripture, and 
principles of Interpretation, 

489. The quotations made in the New Testament from the 
New Testa- ^ld form a subject of much interest. They illus- 
ment quota- trate the state of the original text, and the evi- 
the Old ini- dences of Scripture. They explain ancient types, 
portant. history and predictions. They exemplify sound 



NUMBER OF QUOTATIONS: THEIR NATURE. 



333 



principles of interpretation ; and as these explanations and 
illustrations have received the sanction of inspired men, they 
are clearly of the utmost value. 

The quotations of Scripture may be studied for a double 
May be stu- purpose : — either to ascertain the verbal variations 
died for va- between the Old Testament and the New, and the 

rious pur- . ' 

pose5. lessons taught by it, or to determine the spiritual 

truths and principles of interpretation which these quota- 
tions involve. To this two-fold division we shall adhere in 
the following remarks. 

These quotations are very numerous, in all 263 ; references 
Number of ^ss direct amount to 376, or together, 639. Of 
quotations, these there are in — 





Quota- 


Refer- 




Quota- 


Refer- 


1 

1 


Quota- 


Refer- 




tions. 


ences. 


Gal. - 


tions. 


ences. , 


Jas. - - 


tions. 


ences. 


Matt. - 


31 


4* ! 


9 


5 ■ 


5 


10 


Mark - 


17 


10 


Eph. - 


4 


3 


! 1 Pet. - 


10 


9 


Luke 


19 


31 


Phil. - 


— 


2 


j 2 Pet. - 


1 


9 


John 


15 


19 


Col. - 


— 


2 


' 1 John - 


— 


4 


Acts 


31 


21 


2 Thess. 


— 


2 


Jude - 


— 


4 


Rom. - 


52 


15 


1 Tim. 


1 


4 


Rev. - 


1 


115 


1 Cor. - 


18 


17 


2 Tim.- 


1 


I 








2 Cor. - 


9 


6 i 


Heb. - 


33 


44 









Purpose of. 



Quotations from the Pentateuch amount to 90, and refer- 
ences to it to upwards of 100 ; from the Psalms, 71, references. 
30 ; from Isaiah, 56, references, 48 ; from the minor prophets 
about 30. 

Quotations are either prophetic, demonstrative, explana- 
tory, or illustrative : prophetic, including those that 
refer to Christ and the gospel immediately, as 
Matt. 4. 15, 16, or typically, i. e., they indicate primarily some 
typical event or person, and then some other event or person 
under the gospel, as John 19. 36 : demonstrative, proving 
some statement, as John 6. 45 : explanatory, explaining some 
statement or fact, as Reb. 12. 20; and illustrative, when ex- 
pressions are taken from the Old Testament with a new 
meaning, as Eom. 10. 18. These last are very few. Some, of 
course, are both demonstrative and explanatory, i. e., they 
explain and prove by examples some general truth, as Gal. 3. 
11. Prophetic quotations referring to our Lord, or his church, 
amount to about 120. 



334 THEIR UTILITY FOR CRITICISM. 



The references to the Old Testament can be fully appre- 
ciated only by examining the LXX ; as the identity of expres- 
sion does not always appear in the English version. 

The quotations are generally made from the LXX ; some- 
times from the Hebrew, in opposition to the LXX ; 
and still more frequently they express the general 
sense of both. Sometimes they are strict and verbal ; some- 
times widely paraphrastic or greatly abbreviated ; but even 
in these instances no violence is done to the general meaning 
of the original. 

490. Looking first to the phraseology of these quotations, 
it may be observed : 

1. To a certain extent the quotations from the LXX now 
Uses of this found in the New Testament may be applied to 
study. correct the text of that version. This rule applies, 
because the New Testament text has been more carefully 
guarded than the text of the LXX. On the other hand it is 
not of extensive application, from the fact that the New 
Testament writers do not care to copy verbally, and often 
leave the text of the LXX altogether for the Hebrew. 

2. Very occasionally the quotations in the New Testament 
may be applied to correct the Hebrew text of the Old. 

In Hab. 1. 5, for example, for e: among the heathen/' read " ye 
despisers/' as in Acts 13. 41, i.e. not D*fa2 B'goim, but D^TH B'zim. 
So Isa. 29. 13,, and Matt. 15. 8, 9: Gen. 47. 31: Heb. 11. 21: Psa. 
40. 6: Heb. 10. 5, 7: Amos 9. 11, 12, and Acts 15. 16: Psa. 16. 10: 
Heb. and Acts 2. 27: Hos. 13. 14, and 1 Cor. 15. 55 (for " I will 
be/' read " where.") 

3. As we have seen, several passages in the Hebrew may be 
translated in the same way as the quotations in the New 
Testament. As a rule, the LXX takes, in these instances, the 
secondary meaning of the words of the original, the English 
version the primary. 

In Psa. 19. 4, for example, the English version translates "line:'' 
the LXX, " sound/' and so in Rom. 10. 18. The word means a 
" string or chord/' and thence a musical or other sound. So in 
Isa. 28. 16, and 1 Pet. 2. 6: Isa. 31. 31-4, and Heb. 8. 9. 

After all these corrections have been made, however, a 






THEIR VARIATIONS. 236. 

Quotations large number of passages remain which doy not 

b the exact words either of the JJAX, or 
the =c vj 

of the Hebrew. About one-half of the quotations, 

^erfthe m ^ ct > S ive rat - er tin - ense fc ^ &e words. In 

very words. fc -,n ([- ma y be added;, the sense is given, even 

when the expressions are not exact : see in Rom, 15. 12 : 
sa. 11. 10) : 1 Cor. 2. 9 : (Isa, 64. 3) : 1 Cor. 1. 31 : (Jer. 9. 
24).- Sometimes, on the" oih-r hand, the whole argument is 
made to turn on the very t employed, as in Heb. 3. 7-10 : 

Gal. 3. i5 : 1 Cor. 15. 45. 

491. The principle on which these quotations are made 
seems to be the same as a competent scholar would adopt in 
quoting the present English version. Wherever the Septua- 
gint represents the meaning cf the original with sufficient 
accuracy, the inspired writers use it. but in particular pas- 
sages they translate directlv from the Hebrew 

Matthew, for example, frequently uses the LXX, but hi 
passages which refer to the Messiah he pays special attention 
c: the original, which he very closely follows. Paul on the 

her hand, in the Hebrews, quotes nearly always from the 
LXX. and generally verbatim. 

492. "While most of the variations between the Xew Tes- 
senfor tament and the Old are explained on the principle 

variations, that {j- jg rather the sense than the words that are 
guot :- ... there is sometimes an obvious purpose in the variation. 

To fit a quotation to the context, the number, or the person, or 
the tense, or the voice, is changed. Luke 4. 12 (Dent. 6. 16): Luke 
8. ro Isa. 6. 9), John 19. 36 Txod. 12. 46). 

To suit the argument, or to suggest an additional lesson, the 
meaning of the Heb. is narrowed in the quotation, the larger mean- 
ing mcluding the less : thu3, 

In Acts 5. 25, Peter in quoting Gen. 22. 18, u?e? •'•kindreds/' 
bastes 1 of "nations." suggesting to his Jewish hearers that the 
Gentiles were their brethren: 

So in Heb. 5. ic, Paul translates a word (JH3, cohenh which in "_. ? 
5th verse he had translated ••'priest/'' following the LXX. by a word 
equally accurate, but better suited to his argument, u I ; vest:* 3 

In Heb. 1. 6. we have angels instead of " gods/' as in Psa. 97. 7. 
The original means •'•'mighty ones," and is applied to God, false 
gc :h. angels, and generally to those high in authority. The apostle 
takes the narrower meaning, and omits the rest : 



336 THFJR UTILITY IN DOCTRINE. 

In Rom. ii. 26, 27, the word "Deliverer" is used instead of 
" Redeemer." After Christ had appeared, the latter term in this 
passage woudd have been ambiguous: 

So in 1 Cor. } *ao, quoted from Psa. 94. 11, for "men" the 
apostle reads " wise," a.nd in Matt. 4. 20, our Lord says "worship," 
instead of "fear." So Rom. 14. 11. 

493. Sometimes, again, parts of a prediction are omitted, 
Reason for because not required by the argument, or because 
omissions. likely to raise a question which the inspired writer 
did not at the time intend to discuss. 

In quoting Zech. 9. 9, for example, Matthew omits " bringing 
salvation," as that fact was not at the time apparent. 

So in quoting Jer. 31, 34, Paul omits a clause which contained a 
promise at that time unfulfilled, Heb. 10. 16. So Rom. 10. 15, and 
2 Cor. 6. 17. 

494. Sometimes, again, the New Testament quotation is 

more clearly expressed than the LXX, and some- 

Sometimes . . 

the variation times it brings out the idea more fully even than 

Ss? the original itself. 

more com- Compare, in illustration, the LXX version of 

Dletelv. 

Job 5. 13, with the apostle's quotation, 1 Cor. 3. 
19 ; and also the Heb. LXX and English version of Isa. 29. 
14, with 1 Cor. 1. 19. 

While therefore the general principle seems to be, that the 
inspired writers preserve rather the thoughts than the words 
of the original, we must not hastily conclude that verbal 
variations are without meaning ; still less that such variations 
are inaccurate. Nowhere is there a difference of sense, and 
the verbal variation is often itself suggestive of instructive 
lessons. 

495. The quotations in the book of Revelation, which are 
generally indirect, are of great interest. They connect the 
predictions of the two economies, and throw light upon the 
meaning of the symbolical language of the sacred volume. 

496. The chief instruction, however, to be gathered from 
New Testament quotations refers to the truths taught by 
them. They illustrate the doctrines and ethics of the ancient 
Scriptures, and of both dispensations ; they supply evidence 
of the truth of Scripture ; and they suggest important rules of 
Biblical interpretation. 



TRUTHS TAUGHT IN QUOTATIONS. 337 

i. Life by faith, salvation through Christ, and the duty of 

Salvation bv nonness are au * taught to the Jewish and Gentile 
faith, Christ's church from the ancient Scriptures. 

deity, and 

man's im- Salvation by faith, and through Christ proved by quo- 

mortalitv , , . . -^ ~ -, r ^ t, 

taught in the tations in Korn. I. 17: Gai. 3. 6-9, 14., 16: Kom. 4. 10.. 

Old Testa- n: 1 Pet. 2. 6, 7: John 8.56. Faith, from its relation 
shown by to something which is righteousness, is counted as right- 
quotations, eousness, Rom. 4. 3-8. Men are condemned through 
unbelief, Heb. 3. 7-10. See also Heb. 8. 9, 10. 

Election of grace, and the promise as wide as the fall, Rom. 11. 5 : 
ro. 10. 

Holiness essential, consists in love, and is enforced by Divine 
example, 2 Cor. 6. 16: Matt, 22. 37-39: 1 Pet. 1. 16: Matt. 23. 23. 

Grace given to the humble, and in largest measure to those who 
use it best, Jas. 4. 6. 

Present temporal blessing connected with obedience even under 
the gospel, Eph. 6. 2, 3 : 1 Pet. 3. 10, 11. 

The passages in the Old Testament to which we have re- 
ferred as implying the Divinity of the Messiah and the agency 
of the Holy Spirit are quoted in the New Testament with the 
same view. Read chap. iii. sec. 3, and mark the following. 

« 

The stone of stumbling on which Israel fell is said in Isaiah to be 
Jehovah himself, Isa. 8. 13, 14*. Rom. 10. 9, 11: 9. 32, 33. So in 
Isa. 45. 21-25, the speaker is called Jehovah, and to him every knee 
is to bow. His language is quoted by Paul, Rom. 14. 11, to prove 
that all must submit to Christ. 

The vision described in Isa. 6. 3-10, is spoken of by John as a 
sight of Christ's glory, John 12. 41; and the " voice of the Lord" 
which spake to the prophet is called by Paul, the Holy Ghost, 
Acts 28. 25. 

In the Epistle to the Hebrews (1. 6, 8, 10), the apostle applies to 
Christ, Psa. 97. 7: 45. 6, 7: 102. 25-27; in all of which passages 
the person spoken of is described as the ruler of the world, the 
unchangeable Creator. 

That the ancient church believed in immortalitv, in the 
resurrection, and in a future judgment may be gathered from 
Matt. 22. 32 : Heb. 11. 5, 13, 14 : 1 Cor. 15. 55 (see Jude 14. 
15) and the various passages in which the great day of the 
Lord is named, 1 Thess. 5. 2 : Rev. 6. 17 ; Joel 2. 31 : Mai. 4. 
5 : Psa. 17. 15 : Job 19. 26 : 21. 10 : Dan. 12. 2 : Hos. 13. 14. 

497. After all, however, particular quotations give a very 

Q 



338 RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 



imperfect idea of the identity of the principles of 
go^pd 11018 th e two covenants, 
trapped up « The entire religious system of the Jews, is in 

in the Old ,, , r . v , ' 

Testament, the most appropriate sense a prophecy ; and the 
individual passages of their sacred books are merely 
the strongest expressions of that spirit which enlivens the 
whole mass." Davison. 

498. 2. For the prophetic evidence supplied by these quo- 

tations see § 182. They refer in part to the person 

Quotations ' T 1 1 • . j n 

supply 01 our Lord, and m part, to the progress of his 

evMeraeof church. The immediate and undoubted prophecies 
the truth of a re upwards of 70 ; and the typical, with such as 

ScriT)tur Q • 

are either typical or immediate, amount to upwards 
of 50 more. 

499. 3. The rules of Biblical interpretation suggested by 

these quotations are highly important. 

Rules of ^ io J l 

interpreta- 
tion sug- i. The whole gospel, in its precepts and truths, may 

gested by -fo Q illustrated and proved from the Old Testament, 
quoiations. r 

2. Human nature, being the same in all ages, is set 
forth in the history and descriptions of the Old Testament. 

See human wickedness described in passages taken from Isaiah 
and the Psalms, Rom. 3. 13-18. 

The unbelief of Noah's time, and of Lot's, repeated under the 
gospel, Luke 17. 27-29: Matt. 24. 37. 

3. The principle involved in Old Testament precepts or state- 
ments may be applied inferentially to support gospel truths. 

See John 10. 34. If magistrates are addressed by a name descriptive 
of Divine authority (gods), how much more is the Son of God 
entitled to that name. 

So, from Deut. 25. 4, the apostle shows that the labourer is 
worthy of his hire, and that they who preach the gospel may live of 
the gospel, 1 Tim. 5. 18: 1 Cor. 9. 9. 

So, from Isa. 55. 3, " I will give you the sure mercies of («'. e., the 
favour pledged to) David," viz., that his seed should sit upon his 
throne for ever, the apostle' concludes that Christ, to whom it 
refers, must have risen from the dead. See also 2 Cor. 8. 15, Acts 
13. 34, and, generally, Rom. chaps. 9 to 15. 

4. The principles involved in Old Testament history may be 
applied in the same way to the experience of the church under the 
gospel: whether that history illustrate human character, or God's 
dispensations, Rom. 9. 7, 9: Gal. 4. 22-31: 1 Cor. 10. 4: Rom. 8, 
36: 1 Cor. 10. 1-11: Heb. 3. 7-10: 10. 26-30. 



RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 339 

From these quotations, it cannot justly be affirmed, of course, 
that the persons referred to in the original passages, are types of 
those to whom the quotation is applied: still less can it be said 
that in these quotations, we must understand by the persons named, 
the persons intended by the New Testament writer. The case 
quoted, is simply a case in point, proving and illustrating by 
example, a particular principle. In the 9th of Romans, for example, 
the apostle is proving that in all ages there has been (what his 
readers urged as an objection to the gospel), an election, even of 
Jews, according to grace: and he establishes this conclusion, by 
showing, that not all the descendants of Abraham were chosen, but 
only his descendant by Sarah : nor all the descendants of Isaac, but 
only his descendants through Jacob. 

5 . Passages in the prophets which contain general promises, or are 
descriptive of classes, are, of course, repeatedly fulfilled. They are, 
in fact, general principles. See the quotations of Isa. 6. 9, 10 : 
see Matt. 15. 8. 9: .Acts 13. 41. See also Isa. 54. 13: Hab. 2. 4: 
Heb. 13. 5 (from Joshua 1. 5). 

6. Predictions, properly so called, may have a double fulfilment; 
a fact, of which various explanations have been given. 

Sometimes, for example, the persons or things are types, one 
of the other ; a sometimes they are in certain aspects, identical, b 
and sometimes the events referred to, are so closely blended, as to 
be scarcely distinguishable. 

a The promise to Abraham, for example, that he should be the 
father of a numerous seed, is applied literally by Moses, Deut. r. 10: 
by Paul it is applied to those who are partakers of his faith, Rom. 
4.18. 

b In another epistle, he says expressly, that the seed in whom 
the nations are to be blessed, is Christ, and then, that all who are 
Christ's, are the seed and heirs of the promise, Gal. 3. 16, 29. To 
Class (a), belong such passages as Exod. 12. 46 (the paschal lamb,. 
John 19. 36), and the promise concerning Solomon, 2 Sam. 7. 14;, 
and the corresponding Psalms, as 132. 11. To (a) or (6), belong 
Psa. 8. 2-6, applicable first to man as the chief of God's creatures, 
and thence to our Lord, who is in this respect identified with us, or 
(it may be said), our antitype: Psa. 91. 11, 12, applicable first ta 
all who " say of the Lord - He is my refuge' "' (ver. 1), and pecu- 
liarly therefore, to Christ : and various Psalms, which, originally 
descriptive of the afflictions of individual believers, have their 
fullest accomplishment in our Lord, Psa. 69. 9, 21, 25: 109. 8: 
41. 9: 118. 19, 20, 25, 26. 

c Such are the predictions in Isa. 40. 3-5, where the coming of 
our Lord in the flesh, and the final extension of his truth, are 

Q 2 



340 SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES. 

500. If it be said that this double fulfilment (whatever the 
. • explanation) weakens the evidence of prophecy, it 

fiiinent con- should be remembered in reply, that the facts on 
wlSS? 11 which it is founded — the typical nature, for ex- 

]ll&UUCll\C. vx 1 

ample, of the two economies, or the complete 
identity of Christ's interests, and those of his church — them- 
selves supply both evidence and consolation ; while many of the 
Psalms a , and most of the predictions of our Lord, taken from 
the prophets, apply exclusively to Him. 

Sec. 2. Scripture Difficulties. 

" In divinity many things must be left abrupt and concluded with this : — Oh the 
depth! .... For the inditer of Scripture did know four things which no man 
attains to know, — the mysteries of the kingdom of glory, the perfection' of the laws 
of nature, the secrets of the heart of man, and the future succession of all ages." — 
Baco:<t. 

501. The Bible w r as written "for our learning," and by "in- 

spiration of God," and yet it is confessed that its 
inspired and general clearness is obscured by " things hard to 
intended for ^ understood." Christians are often harassed by 

our learning, J 

and yet objections deduced from them, and unbelievers 

make them an excuse for rejecting the authority of 
revelation. What, it may be asked, is their origin, their 
solution, their use, and how far are they consistent with the 
character and aim of the Bible as an inspired and instructive 
book ? 

502. Their origin, it may be answered, is sufficiently plain. 

The languages in which the Bible was composed 

Oritdn of & . 

Scripture are disused ; they are distinct from each other, and 
difficulties, different from our own ; the expressions, images, 
and thoughts, it contains belong to different ages, countries, 
and persons ; the manners and customs it describes have 
passed away ; its topics are the most various and compre- 
hensive, including the history, in part, of all nations and of 

blended; in Mai. 3 . 1-3, where we have the same double reference, and 
in Joel 2. 28-32. Compare the New Testament quotations. Of the 
same character are the predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem, 
as given in Matt. 24, 25, where are represented also some of the 
awful transactions of the last judgment. 

a Psalms 2, 22, 45, no; and probably, 40, 16. and 72: Psalms 
16, 22, 40, embody the experience of the suffering Messiah; 2, 45, 
72, and no, describe his victories and glory. 



THEIR ORIGIN. 341 

all times ; the system of truth it reveals is to influence 
both worlds ; and it contains precepts and disclosures which 
refer to both, expressed necessarily in terms taken from one 
only ; and the whole revelation is included in a brief volume. 
Let these and kindred facts be remembered, and it will be 
seen at once that, to give within so narrow a range, and even 
to give at all, to a mortal, finite mind amidst the changes in- 
cident to everything human, a revelation that shall be free- 
from difficulty is impossible. Difficulties there must be,, 
such as need a larger amount of inquiry than any one man 
can give, and such as will leave, after the utmost inquiry,, 
much to be hereafter explained. Either Scripture must have 
been written without reference to history or common expe- 
rience, without reference, moreover, to anything not familiar 
to every man of every age, or difficulties must abound : in some 
respects they do abound ; but it is the darkness of the readers, 
not of the writers which creates and continues them. 

503. Comparing the sections of chap. iv. ; chap. i. sec. 5, 

and the Introductions of Part ii. ; it will be seen. 

Difficulties that Scripture difficulties are such as are entailed 

classified. r 

upon us, (1st) by the uncertainties of the text ; 
(2ndly), by the meaning of words and phrases, the connection. 
of arguments, the scope and authorship of particular books \. 
(3rdly), by the customs and manners of the age and country 
in which inspired authors wrote ; (4thly), by the chronology, 
geography, and history of the sacred volume ; (5thly), by the 
apparent contradiction of the precepts or truths of revelation 
regarding them as matters of interpretation only ; and, lastly, 
by the objects with which revelation is conversant : the last 
description including the difficulties involved in the whole 
range of spiritual and moral truth as revealed in the sacred 
volume. 

Let us briefly illustrate each class : 

504. 1. It is sometimes difficult to ascertain the reading of 
_.„ _.. . the inspired text. 

Difficulties m x 

thereadiugs. Qem ^ ^ « digged a waU » ( n ^ s]im ^ but there is no 

such circumstance mentioned in the history, and it would have been 
comparatively innocent, see 34. 25. Some read (*X\W, shor), an ox; 
"they houghed the oxen," but this is not true, 34. 29; more pro- 
bably "l'^, sar, a prince: in their wrath or self-will, "they slew a 
prince." So the Syriac version. 



342 DIFFICULTIES IN PHRASES. 

505. 2. After the text has been fixed there are difficulties 
T , in the explanation of words and phrases, a the con- 

In tn6 sgiisg 

cennection, ' nection of arguments, b the scope and authorship of 
and scope. particular books, or in two or more combined/ e 

Many of the illustrations in chap. iv. sec. 6, once belonged 
to this class ; they were Scripture difficulties, and the solution 
of them is the result of modern inquiry. 

( a ) John 1. 16, " grace for grace," has created difficulty. "For 
the benefits of the law we have the blessings of the gospel/*' Chrys., 
Beza, Erasmus: "additional grace for grace properly used," Le 
Clerc: "grace on account of the grace of Christ," Grot.: "grace 
upon grace," », e., abundance, so Dodd, Wesley, Olshausen: probably 
correct, though fort (for), has not this meaning elsewhere in the 
New Testament. It may be a Hebraism for ?]/ al, upon, and there 
are instances of this meaning in classic authors. 

Heb. 12. 17, "though he sought it carefully with tears;" if it 
refers to the nearest antecedent, it means "repentance," either his 
own or his father's, Dodd. ; it may, however, refer to the remoter 
antecedent, his father's blessing ivXoyiav, and this agrees with the 
history, Gen. 27. 34. 

Heb. 9. 16, "where a testament is (Sik^kt/) there must also of 
necessity be the death of the testator," i. e. either where there is a 
will the testator must die before it can be proved or take effect ; 
so the English version, Guyse, Stuart : or, where there is a covenant 
the victim whose death is to ratify it must be slain, Mich., Mack., 
Dodd., Bloomfield. 

1 Cor. 11. 10, "For this cause ought the woman (1) to have 
power, (2) on her head, (3) because of the angels." "To have 
power on," that is, say some, to have a veil-covering, but the word 
never has this meaning elsewhere. Others understand it literally, 
and then (2) by "head" they understand her husband, and trans- 
late, "for this cause should she have power in or through the 
man," 1 Tim. 2. 11 — 13, (3) "because of the angels," i. e. either evil 
angels who will be gratified by indecency, or good angels who 
observe her conduct, Ecc. 5.6; or, the teacher of the churches, Rev. 
3 ; or, spies sent by the pagans. ' ' One of the very few passages of 
Scripture wholly inexplicable," Barnes. 

When the language is figurative the difficulty is often in- 
creased. 

Psa. 104. 1 — 3, for example, is figurative, and the expressions may 
be taken from nature, or they may be taken from the tabernacle ; 
light referring to the Shekinah, the curtain referring to the veil, 
the beams of his chamber to the pieces of which the tabernacle was 



DIFFICULTIES IN CONNECTION. 343 

composed, the clouds his chariot to the moving of the Shekinah, 
and cloud when the ark moved ; the latter verses of the Psalm, 
however, refer to nature. 

In Ezekiel's descriptions, some are clear, some purposely am- 
biguous. 

( b ) 2 Pet. i. 19, " a more sure word of prophecy," than what ? 
"Surer than fables," verse 16, Chandler; others, than the trans- 
figuration, Sherlock; but better, "the word of prophecy confirmed" 
either by the transfiguration or rather by JSTew Testament fulfil- 
ments. Prophecy was as a lamp in a dark place, the fulfilment in 
Christ is as the dawn. 

( c ) Of the difficulties of scope and authorship the Book of Job 
may be taken as an illustration. Some reckon it very ancient, as 
early as Moses or earlier, Michael. Schult. Lowth; others modern, 
during or after the Kings, Heath, Warburton : written by Job or 
Elihu, or some contemporary, so Dupin, Lowth, Schult. Lightfoot; 
translated by Moses, so Patrick, Grey; or written by him, Michael. 
Lowth: or by Solomon or some contemporary, Dupin, Spanheim; 
or by Ezra, Warburton: some regard it as real history, Lowth, 
Schult. ; others as an allegory, Michael. Warburton : its scope is to 
give an example of patience, Schult. Grey; to show that affliction 
is consistent with: piety, Lowth; to illustrate God's sovereignty, 
or contradict the Manichsean doctrine of the existence of a power 
of evil equal to God, Sherl.; to comfort the Israelite in Egypt, 
Michaelis ; or during the captivity, Heath ; or to explain the change 
in God's providential government after the captivity, viz., the sub- 
stitution of a more spiritual system for the system of earthly 
rewards which had previously prevailed, Warburton. It may be 
added that many of the foregoing ends are answered by this Book, 
and that comparatively recent investigation has thrown much light 
upon its meaning. 

( d ) Sometimes there are difficulties both in the words and 
in the connection. 

One of the most difficult words of Scripture is the particle %va. 
The question involved in it is whether it means only in order t/iat 9 
or also, v:iih the result that. If the former be its only meaning, 
then it always expresses the purpose or view with which a thing is 
done. If the latter be one meaning, then it may express the con- 
sequence of an act, without implying intention upon the part of the 
agent. The first is called its telic (reXos) meaning, and the second 
its ecbatic (e/e-jSaiya)). Authorities are divided. Tittman, Stuart, 
Robinson, Burton, all maintain that it is used in both senses; "Winer, 
Do Wette, Oishausen, that it is used in the first sense only. The 



344 DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 

telic sense is no doubt most consistent with classic usage, and so 
the word is generally used in Scripture ; some think the ecbatic 
pense preferable in the following passages, John 9. 2: Luke 11. 50: 
Horn. 11. 11 ; others maintain a telic sense even here. 

It is sometimes used also to express not the chief end of an act, 
but a subordinate one, as in Rom. 5. 20: Rom. 11. 32: John 5. 20: 
1. 7: 15. 6. 

This looser usage is probably owing to the employment of the 
word by the LXX in passages where there is nothing, either in the 
Hebrew or in the context, to indicate a telic sense, but the con- 
trary, Gen. 22. 14: (LXX). 

( e ) Sometimes there are difficulties both in the reading 
and the sense. 

Isa. 5 3 has been altered by transcribers and its meaning obscured. 
Mic. 5. 1-5, quoted in Matt. 2. 6, and many of the quotations in the 
ZSTew Testament. Isa. 3. 6, 7: 6. 10: 8. 12-18: 16. 1-7: 48. 16, on 
which see Lowth. 

506. (3.) When the meaning of words has been fixed, it is 
sometimes difficult to understand the custom to 
which they refer and the reasons for it. 

Ecc. 11. 1 : "Cast thy bread upon the waters: for thou shalt find 
it after many days :" " Give bread to those in affliction," Gill, 
"Sow thy corn without hope of harvest:" that is, be disinterested, 
in your liberality, Jebb. " Be liberal while you can," Boothroyd, 
Rather, exercise a large faith in God; act in your gifts and efforts 
as the busbandman, who casts his rice upon the waters and waits 
for the crop; the rice-grounds being inundated from seed-time till 
nearly harvest, Dr. Clarke. 

Various customs are mentioned in the following passages in 
Isaiah, and create difficulty; all of them, however, are explained by 
Lowth, in his notes, Isa. 3. 16, etc.: 49. 16, 23: 50. 1, 6: 51. 23: 
52. 2: 57. 6-9: 65. 3, 4. 

in chronology 507- (4-) Difficulties in chronology and history 
and history. are various. 

In Gen. 4. 17, the early building of a city by Cain has created 
difficulty, and it has been asked — who inhabited it? A little calcu- 
lation, however, will show that, 500 years after the creation, the 
descendants of our first parents must have amounted to many 
hundred thousand in all. Dr. A. Clarke. 



DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 345 

Difficulties in chronology and in numbers generally have often 
arisen, as we have seen, from false readings, the similarity between 
different numeral letters, and from the use of different modes ot 
reckoning. 

So among profane authors. Cyrus reigned thirty years, 'Cicero 
de Div., i.e., from his joining Cyaxares; nine years, Ptol. Canon,, 
i.e., from his taking Babylon; seven years, Xen. i. e., from his be- 
coming sole monarch. This last is perhaps Ezra's reckoning, Ez« 
I. "i. Shuckford. 

508. Historical difficulties are of two kinds : such as arise 
on comparison of different parts of Scripture, and such as 
arise from the comparison of Scripture with profane records. 

Sometimes difficulties arise from the proper names of 
Scripture, some of which are spelt differently,* or the re- 
ferring to the same person or place are entirely different. 15 

1 Eliam., Sam., Amiel., Chron., Nebuchad = nezzar, = rezzar. 
Correct such from parallel passages, ancient versions, and Josephus. 

b For a comparison of the discrepancies between 2 Sam. 5. 23 and 
Chron. n, see Kennicott's First Dissertation. 

509. (1.) Comparing parallel and apparently contradictory 
historical passages of Scripture, the following solutions are 
important : — 

(a.) Facts that seem contradictory are often really different. 

In Matt. 1. r, we have our Lord's genealogy through Joseph; in 
Luke 3. 23, through Mary. See Introd. to Gospels. 

(5.) In giving the same narrative different historians relate 
different circumstances, some giving more, some fewer than 
the rest ; the fuller account includes the shorter, and the 
shorter does not contradict the fuller. 

Compare Luke 2. 39, with Matt. 2. 22, 23, where they agree: 
in all the preceding verses they differ, though without contra- 
diction. 

Compare, on the call of the apostles, Luke 5. i-n: Matt. 4. 18- 
22: Mark 1. 16-20. Some (as Greswell) place the passage in Luke 
later; others (as Robinson) deem the whole, as they stand, recon- 
cilable. 

Compare, on the two demoniacs, Mark 5. 1-2 1: Matt. 3. 28-9. 1- 
Luke 8. 26-40. 

(c.) The same remark applies to the narrative of what w^as 
said on some particular occasion, one historian giving the 

Q 3 



346 DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 

very words and another the sense, or each a different part of 
what was said, or varying the order for a particular reason. 

The words of the Supper; the titles on the cross, Matt. 19. 3-12: 
Mark 10. 2-12. 

(d.) Things said to be done by one man are elsewhere said 
to be done by another who however acted on his behalf, a and 
sometimes the plural is used when the remark is applicable to 
one only. b Here there is no contradiction. 

a Matt. 8. 5, 6: Luke 7. 2, 3. Mark 10. 35, and Matt. 20. 20. 
b Matt. 26. 8, and John 12. 4. Matt. 27. 44, and Luke 23. 39-42 

(e.) Narrative of what was spoken or done may create diffi- 
culty from the fact that general expressions are to be limited 
by particular ones, obscure expressions to be explained by 
those that are plain. 

Matt. 10. 10: Mark 6. 8: Luke 9. 3. 

(/.) The narratives of Scripture are compiled on different 
principles and for different purposes. Some are written 
chronologically on the whole or in particular passages, or give 
incidents in groups. The principle of arrangement must be 
studied, and the whole harmonized in accordance with it. 

The order of Mark and Luke, is generally chronological. Matthew 
gives facts and parables in groups: see Har. of the Gospels, Pt. ii. 
Sometimes, however, Matthew gives the true order, and indicates 
the fact by the terms employed. In the history of the temptation, 
for example (Chap. 4), he affirms the order, "then:" again, Luke 4 
gives a different order, but the order is not affirmed, "and" — 

In Gen. 1. 27, the creation of man is mentioned briefly, at greater 
length in chap. 2. 7, 21, and so as to create an apparent contra- 
diction. 

The order of the Lord's supper, and the betrayal of Judas is given 
by John, Matthew, and Mark; between Matthew 26. 25, and 26: 
John 13. 26-35, nrust be inserted, and Luke's order will be, Luke 
22, 21-33, J 9- 20 - 

So the true order of Isa. 38. 21, 22, may be gathered from 
2 Kings 20. 7, 8. 

These difficulties are augmented by the present arrangement of 
the Psalms and prophecies. See chronological arrangement of the 
whole, Part ii. 

(g.) Sometimes there is an apparent discrepancy between 
an original narrative and the reference made to it elsewhere, 



DIFFICULTIES Of HISTORY. 347 

and in that case there is generally a false reading, or some- 
times another explanation. 

Mark 2. 25, 26, ei m the days of Abiathar," see 1 Sam. 21. 1, 2; 
Ahimelech was the priest: not a false reading; not about the time of,* 
rather in the days of Abiathar, afterwards so well known as high 
priest, and who was present at the time, 1 Sam. 22. 22. 

Matt. 23. 35, Zachariah, the son of Barachiah, see 2 Chron. 24. 
2 1, -where his father is called Jehoiada; the names have in Hebrew 
substantially the same meaning (whom Jehovah cares for or blesses) : 
as Uzziah (the strength of Jehovah), is called also Azariah (whom 
Jehovah helps), 2 Chron. 26. 1: 2 Kings 14. 21. 

Acts 7. 16, " which Abraham bought,*' — but Jacob bought it, 
Gen. 23. 19: Josh. 24. 32; and Jacob, moreover; was buried in 
Hebron, not in Syehem, Gen. $0. 13. Eead, probably, our father 
i. e., Jacob, and omit Abraham. 

(h.) Sometimes the reference contains more than the ori- 
ginal narrative, and the difficulty is removed by remembering 
that the earlier inspired historians do not relate all that hap- 
pened. 

Joseph fettered, Psa. 105. 18: the saying of our Lord, Acts 20. 35 : 
an appearance of "Christ to James, 1 Cor. 15. 7: the marriage of 
Salmon and Rahab, Ivlatt. 1. 5, is not recorded in the Old Testament. 
So Jude 9. 14: Rev. 2. 14. 

510. (2.) Comparing the narratives of Scripture with pro- 
fane records, there are several difficulties, most of which, 
however, have long since vielded additional evidence of its 
truth. 

In Luke 2. 2, it is said, that a taxing was first made when Cyrenius 
was governor of Syria. Greswell and Tholuck translate, this enrol- 
ment took place before Cyrenius was governor; Burton and others, 
the enrolment (which was ordered twelve years before), first took 
effect, i. e. money due in consequence of it was first paid, when 
Cyrenius was governor. The fact is, that the census or enrolment 
was ordered by Augustus, three years before the birth of Christ, 
but the tax was not paid till twelve years afterwards, when Cyrenius 
was president of Syria. 

See others in Paley's Evidences, Part ii. Chap. 6, Religious Tract 
Society, p. 260. The works of Lardner give the completest view of 
the accordance of sacred and profane records. 

Many similar difficulties have arisen and been explained by 
further inquiry. 



348 DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 

Daniel mentions four kings of Babylon and Persia — Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and Cyrus. The first is well 
known, the second is mentioned, though by other names ; Laby- 
netus, by Herod. ; Nabonadius, by Berosus : the third was no 
more than nominal king, and is not mentioned by any, but he 
is the Cyaxares n. of Xen., Prid. Con., Book 2. Cyrus was suc- 
ceeded by Cambyses ; he by Smerdis, and he by Darius Hystaspe^ 
Ezra 6. 1. His successor was Artaxerxes Longimanus, the Arta- 
xerxes of Nehemiah ; another Artaxerxes, and two other kings of 
the name of Darius filled the throne before the empire was subdued 
by Alexander, b. c. 331. The identity of the names and the confu- 
sion of all Persian and Assyrian chronology, combine to create 
several difficulties : but careful study reconciles most. 

See additional examples in Home, 2. 618, in Newton on the 
Prophecies, and in the connections of Prideaux, Shuckford, and 
Russell. 

511. (5.) There are apparent contradictions in the truths 
In truths and an( ^ precepts of Scripture, regarding them as 
precepts as matter of interpretation only. Between a literal 
interpreta- expression and a figurative one there is sometimes 
uon * an apparent contradiction which is removed by 

explaining the two harmoniously. 

Various kinds («■•) Sometimes the words of one j>assage must 
classified. i-^ explained figuratively. 

" Ye will not come," John 5, 40 ; " no man can come except the 
Father draw him," John 6. 44. The first implies, when compared 
with other passages, that to have eternal life, we must believe that 
every one who hears the gospel is bound to believe it ; that men 
are so depraved that they will not believe, and that therefore they 
are condemned. The second affirms that men cannot come. What, 
then, does this mean ? Is it want of power, which is the proper 
sense if they cannot, or is it want of will, which is the figurative 
sense ? Both senses are found in Scripture. " Ahijah could not see, 
by reason of age." So, Jonah 1. 13. " Joseph's brethren could not 
speak peaceably to him." ". How can ye, being evil, speak good 
things ?" where the dominion of a strong propensity is implied. It 
is to this latter our Lord refers ; nothing less than special Divine 
agency will subdue this propensity ; and, being in the will, it is our 
sin. 

So in all the passages which speak of God in expressions accommo- 
dated to the weakness of human conceptions. 

Compare also Matt. 11. 14, with John 1. 21. 



APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. 349 

Or the words of both, passages need to be explained figu- 
ratively. See § 262. 

(/>.) Sometimes general assertions in one text are to be re- 
stricted by others. 

In Luke 16. 18 : Mart A o. 11, 12, divorce is forbidden absolutely ; 
but in Matt. 5. 32: 19. 9, it is allowed, though for adultery only; 
while in 1 Cor. 7. 15, the believing party is said to be free to leave 
the- unbelieving husband or wife who is determined to separate. 

Restrict and explain in the same way Gen. 13. 17 : 23. 17, 18 : 
Acts 7. 5. 

(c.) Sometimes the same terms are nsed in different senses 
in different texts, and it is difficult to know how to restrict 
them in each. 

In Matt. 18. 21, 12, forgiveness is enjoined absolutely: in Luke 17. 
3, 4, on repentance; in the latter the word is used in a different sense 
(Gerard), or the condition of repentance is presupposed in Matt., or 
the phrase in Luke means, as often as one seeks forgiveness give it. 

A man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law, Rom. 3. 
28 : " by works a man is justified, and not by faith only," James 2. 
24. Paul speaks of the justification of the ungodly in relation to 
their acceptance by God ; James of the justification of the godly in 
relation to their approval by God: Fuller. Or Paul of justification 
in the sight of God ; James in the sight of man : Hoadley and 
Taylor. Or Paul speaks of faith with its effects, James of mere 
assent: Grofc. Macknight. Various writers restrict various words 
of each verse, but all agree that some restriction is necessary. 

So in 1 Cor. 10. 33 : Gal. 1. 10. Prov. 26. 4, 5. 

Ex. 20. 5 : Ezek. 18. 20, " visiting the iniquity of the fathers 
upon the children :" "the son shall not bear the iniquity of the 
father," Either God's plan towards the close of the Jewish dis- 
pensation was changed : at first the fathers were spared, but at last 
fathers and sons, and not sons only, were to suffer : Fuller. Or the 
first description applies only to those "who hate him." If Juclah, 
therefore, in the days of Ezekiel had been righteous, they would not 
have gone into captivity for the sins of Manasseh. In both passages 
men are spoken of, not as individuals, but as members of society, 
and both refer only to this life. 

(d.) Sometimes the same action is ascribed to different 
agents, and sometimes different and apparently inconsistent 
descriptions are given of the same object, in which case 
either the action is described in terms which are used in 



&30 DIFFICULTIES IN TRUTHS REVEALED. 

different senses, or there is a sense in which the terms are 
true ; but it is sometimes difficult to ascertain which is the 
orrect solution. See pp. 316, 317. 



<* 

^ 



Christ intercedes, Rom. 3. 34 : Heb. 7. 25, as does the Spirit, 
Rom. 8. 26, 27, the one in heaven and the other in our hearts. 
Christ is callsd the Comforter (or Advocate) 1 John 2. 1, as is the 
Spirit, John 16, 7. The one is within, and the other above. 

The teaching of Scripture on the coming of our Lord in- 
volves nearly all the difficulties of interpretation to which we 
have referred. 

512. (6.) After all these difficulties of interpretation have 
In the things been solved, there are others which apply to the 
revealed. things revealed or commanded in Scripture, and it is 
in objections founded upon those difficulties that men most 
indulge. 

(a.) Many passages have been placed under this head which 
properly involve questions of interpretation only. 

The creation of the rainbow after the deluge, and of the sun as d 
stars on the fourth day, are probably difficulties of interpretation 
only. Most Hebrew scholars affirm that the original means simply 
that the sun and stars were made or constituted on the fourth day 
to rule the day and the night, and that the rainbow was made or 
became after the deluge the sign of the covenant ; both were created 
by God, but had existed before, and were only then employed for 
these purposes. 

Lev. 27. 28, 29, has been quoted as authorizing human sacrifices, 
as has Jephthah's treatment of his daughter, Judges 11. 34; but 
human sacrifices were expressly forbidden, Deut. 12. 30, 31 : Ps. 66. 
3 : Ps. 106. 37, 38. All who even touched a dead body were un- 
clean ; and, moreover, no devoted thing could be sacrificed. 
Jephthah probably devoted his daughter to perpetual virginity ; 
and, at all events, the act is not commended. 

Predictions are sometimes stated, through a similar error, to be 
false, 2 Kings 8. 10. Elisha's- answer to Hazael (<j^ not ^ lo). The 
promise to Josiah, 2 Chron. 34. 28 : 35. 23. The history of Jonah, 
Some assertions that the last day was near, 1 Cor. 10. it, etc. 

Expressions in the Old Testament seem to imply vindictive feel- 
ing: but some of the expressions are figurative, Ps. 10. 15 ; some 
are predictions, only the tenses being indicative future rather than 
imperative; and others are the denunciations of Divine justice 
against transgressors, Deut. 28. 



DIFFICULTIES ENUMERATED. 351 

Some actions alleged to be done by prophets are said to be ridicu- 
lous or immoral : but they were either symbolical, or were repre- 
sented in vision only, or were merely related by the prophet, 
Is. 20. 3, naked ; i. e., without his upper garment, Lowth ; or in 
vision, Eosenm. Jer. 13. 4, 6, a vision (Lowth); Eze. 4; Hos. 1, 2, 

Precepts and statements are interpreted without the necessary 
restriction or explanation: John 6. 51-58^ eating Christ's flesh : 
Matt. 12. 36, " idle words" pernicious, calumnious: Matt. 19. 23, 
ik 'rich man," "one who trusts in riches:" Mark 10. 24. Matt. 5. 30, 
cut off a right hand: 5. 39, "Whosoever shall smite thee on the 
right cheek, turn to him the other also;" both spoken comparatively, 
rather do this than commit evil. 

All these passages involve important truths and some difficulty, 
but the difficulty refers to interpretation only. 

(b,) Of difficulties in the sense of Scripture the following 
The;;e may be taken as a sample, 

difficulties 1. There are alleged contrarieties between the 

Old Testament and the New, and between the 
teaching of our Lord and the teaching of his apostles. 

2. There is said to be much that is impossible in the his- 
tory of creation, and in the attempt to trace ail mankind to a 
common origin. 

3. Some of the miracles, — the history of the fall, of Balaam, 
the demoniacal possessions in the New Testament, for example, 
— are said to be incredible. 

4. Much was wrong in the applauded characters of Old 
Testament saints. 

5. Extraordinary commands were given to them, as to 
Abraham, and to the Israelites. 

6. The punishment of idolatry with death seems to sanction 
persecution, and many of the institutions of the law are un- 
accountable. 

7. Passages from the Old Testament are quoted in the New 
in altogether unnatural senses. 

8. Some of the moral and spiritual doctrines of the gospel 
as a remedial system are mysterious. 

9. Above all, the existence of difficulties in the Bible is in- 
consistent with its object as a universal revelation. 

513. The last of these objections we proceed to examine 
. first. There are, confessedly, difficulties in the 

Are they con- . . . 

sister.t with ' Bible : are they inconsistent with its inspiration 
and authenticity, and do they hinder its usefulness 



352 CLEARNESS OF SCRIPTURE STATEMENTS. 

for doctrine or teaching, and for instruction in righteous- 
ness 1 

514. Noticing the latter part of this question first, it is 

Quite clear that the Bible reveals in passages innu- 

ine useful- 

ness of merable and unmistakable, the essential principles 

Scripture. of tmth and duty< ■ Wq have but to 013en the 

New Testament in almost any of its pages to draw forth a 
scheme of holiness. The spirituality of the Divine nature, 
and of all acceptable woiship (John 4. 24) ; repentance and 
remission of sins in Christ's name (Luke 24. 47) ; salvation 
through no other (Acts 4. 12) ; the duty of all men every 
where to repent and believe (Acts 17. 30 : Mark 1. 15 ) ; eter- 
nal life through the Son ; eternal death as the consequence of 
unbelief (John 3); the necessity of holiness (Matt. 7. 21) ; 
the assurance of the help of the Spirit to control our corruption 
and to aid our infirmities. All these truths are written as with 
a sunbeam ; that " he may run that readeth." In every age, 
moreover, the great end of the Bible as a religiously instruc- 
tive book, the repository of saving truth, has been answered, 
Contrast the creed of the meanest Jew, in relation to God and 
law, with the errors and uncertaintv of the wisest of the 
heathen, the first Tusculan disputation of Cicero with the 
commonest Christian treatise on immortality and the resur- 
rection, and the difference will at once appear. The heathen 
philosopher falters at every step, and dreads the very conclu- 
sions to which his reasonings lead him ; while the opinion of 
the Christian is already formed ; his only difficulty being to im- 
press his own heart and the hearts of others with the truth. 
By the leading and undoubted precepts of Scripture the 
guiltiest may be " throughly furnished for every good work," 
and by its doctrines all men may be made " wise unto sal- 
vation." 

515. But do not these difficulties affect the authority of the 
Bible, and weaken the evidence of its inspiration ? Can a 
revelation be of universal authority which all do not under- 
stand ; and is it really a revektion where so much is con- 
cealed ? 

In answering this question it might be said, that whatever 
we know of the works of God in nature is liable to the same 
objection. Bishop Butler has shown most conclusively that 
natural religion, revealed religion, and the providence of God, 
together with every known law of human duty, are all cxpdsed 



DIFFICULTIES : THEIR OBJECT. 353 

to the same difficulties. There is in all an obscurity of 

meaning and deficiency of evidence, a mysterious- 

cuities in all ness of arrangement and treatment that bespeak 

cods works. Qur s ^ e ^o ^q one f incessant discipline. In 

truth these objections apply much less forcibly to Scripture 
than to our daily practice ; and the reasoning which seeks to 
set aside the Bible would, if true, rob God of all his authority, 
and. man of all motives to virtue. ... It might be said 
further that, so long as customs and language 
And , u f: change, revelation unless given to each nation and 

avoidable. ° ' ° 

to each age, cannot be free from difficulty. Cus- 
toms and terms are now obsolete which were once familiar ; 
facts once known are now forgotten ; the connection, therefore, 
between them and other facts is lost. The result is a degree 
of ignorance which admits no conceivable remedy, except what 
ail would feel to be inconsistent with our present condition. 
516. But we go further. The very difficulties of Scripture, 

philological and historical, afford cogent internal 
of theDMne proof of the genuineness and authenticity of the 
origin of Bible. No one can now doubt that it was revealed 

Scripture. . . , 

to successive generations, and m ancient tongues. 

The solution of its difficulties, too, has been gradual, and that 
for the best reasons. Each age has its own temptations to 
infidelity, and each has its peculiar evidence. Let any one 
read the Credibility of Lardner, a work which could not have 
been written in the age of the apostles, for the facts on which 
it is founded were later than their times ; or the Horse Paulince 
of Paley, or the Horse Apostolicse and Horse Evangelicse of 
Birks, on the apparent discrepancies and real agreement be- 
tween the statements of profane and sacred history, between 
the Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles, or between the dif- 
ferent Gospels, and he will at once perceive that the difficulties 
of Scripture create an internal evidence even more decisive 
than the external : it is throughout, the apparent discrepancy 
between the writers themselves, and profane records, and 
their obvious independence of one another and of everything 
but truth that forms the argument. We can dispense with 
nothing, not even difficulties. Every element (the apparent 
discrepancy among the rest) is essential to the force of the 
whole. 

And if it be said that these difficulties are too numerous, or 



354 DOCTRINAL DIFFICULTIES. 



that the solution of them has been too slow, it may be 
answered that this gradual solution is necessary in order to 
supply to each age fresh evidence, and to excite continued 
interest in Scripture, while the fact proves that the evidence 
of the Bible, like its doctrine is for all time. 

517. From the study of philological and historical dim- 
Their culties we proceed to investigate the doctrinal, — 

naturalness the great mysteries of godliness and iniquity, " the 
in other hard things'* connected with salvation, and the 



respects. veiled or dimly disclosed future. How obvious are 
such remarks as these ; men are fallen ; our nature is depraved ; 
our intellect is darkened. A revelation just such as our 
moral taste approved, could not fail to have marks of an 
origin much lower than heaven. We are finite : what more 
natural than that an omniscient being, when he speaks on 
matters which refer to eternal interests should speak occasion- 
ally what we but partially comprehend : certainly, the absence 
of difficulty (the thing pleaded for) in a communication from 
what professed to be infinite wisdom, would have had thrown 
upon it by that circumstance a strong, if not an unanswerable 
suspicion. See Objection 8. 

Let it be added that these difficulties have dignified every 
kind of human learning by rendering all eligible to the service 
of religion. Historically, the study of classical literature in 
modern times began with the study of the Bible ; and ever 
since, sound religion and true learning have been linked in 
inseparable bonds. All knowledge is thus sanctified ; and 
however individual Christians may have exposed themselves 
to the charge of being enemies of mental improvement it 
becomes impossible to include the Christian religion itself in 
this rebuke. 

No doubt it may be affirmed in reply to these reasonings, 
that the existence of Scripture difficulties is attended with 
one inconvenience : they are liable to excite distrust in the 
minds even of Christians, that is, they try our faith. But is 
not this again an evidence in their favour 1 What are all 
the dispensations of God but our discipline 1 What is life 
but a walking by faith ; that is, by habitual reliance on Him 
whose ways we cannot understand, and in circumstances that 
require such a trust. Perhaps inspiration might have re- 
moved all difficulties from Scripture though we cannot tell 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 3-35 

how ; but certainly we should have lost much, and gained 
little by the change. 

Rules for Instead of answering these objections in detail 

solving them. ]et the following rules be marked and applied. 
518. (1.) We must interpret Scripture, its announcements, 
and disclosures, in accordance with what it pro- 

Intemrct it 

as written fesses to be ; — an inspired volume designed to set 
ILgua^but forth the scheme of salvation by Christ, and to 
by a bivme bring men unto God. So far as it is like other 
books written in the language of man ; it must be 
interpreted by the same laws as other books ; we must ever 
look at the words, the context, the speaker and the customs 
and history of his age ; but so far as it differs from other 
books — being inspired and intended for all time, every part of 
it fore-shadowing or plainly exhibiting the cross, we must 
give to its phrases and intimations a plenary and spiritual* 
significance. The sacrificial enactments of the law, for 
example, considered in themselves alone, were sanguinary. 
They certainly contain no intimation that they prefigured the 
death of our Lord. Their ultimate purpose, however, is un- 
questioned ; and in the mean time they taught the great 
doctrine of substitution, to some probably most plainly ; and 
they impressed the hearts of men with some of the same 
sentiments as are now awakened by the cross. The promise 
to Abraham, again, has no such terms as point exclusively 
and clearly to the coming of the Messiah ; and such a promise 
found in Virgil or in Horner could not fairly be interpreted as 
having such a reference. But the Christian cannot doubt its 
meaning. If the writers of the Scriptures did not foresee all 
the truths which might be drawn from their words, God the 
Holy Spirit foresaw them ; and the business of interpretation 
is, to learn his purpose and end in what was revealed. To 
explain, therefore, the inspired Scriptures in all respects as if 
they were human compositions, with no wider range, and no 
spiritual rule, is, as Lord Bacon has expressed it, to " dis- 
honour the Scriptures and injure the church." See Objection 7. 
519. (2.) As doctrines are to be interpreted in accordance 
^o solution wn ^ n * ne comprehensiveness of Scripture, so no 
inconsistent solution of a difficulty must be admitted which is 

with inspira- , • -, .,-, , -, . r . P . 

tion to be ad- n °t m accordance with the great tact 01 mspira- 
mitted. tion. Many compare the- miracles of Moses with 



356 HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 

the prodigies of Livy, or the writings of Ezekiel with those of 
JEschylus, or the doctrines of our Lord with the philosophiz- 
ings of Plato, and the difficulties in each case may be removed 
in the same way. If it be said that the miracles are id cre- 
dible, and the imagery is extravagant, and the moral reasoning 
is fallacious or forced ; in that case the difficulties are re- 
moved on principles which set aside the authority of Scrip- 
ture. If we deny inspiration it becomes us to examine the 
evidence, and to attend co the moral and spiritual truths of 
the Bible ; but if we admit its inspiration, our solution of its 
difficulties must leave that glorious characteristic of it un- 
touched. Most, therefore, of the expressions employed in the 
preceding objections (2, 3, 9) must be rejected, because incon- 
sistent with the spirit of a devout humble inquirer. 

520. (3.) Scripture must be regarded as a system from 
"Bible a beginning to end ; and the different books and 

whole.- sentences must be interpreted as the component 

and connected parts of a great whole. All the light which 
the first page throws upon the last, or the last upon the first, 
may be freely used for purposes of illustration and defence ; 
not of course to prove that every passage has the same mean- 
ing, but to prove that all have the same end. 

This rule, it will be observed, does for facts and truths 
what the kindred rule on the analogy of faith or on parallel 
passages does for the interpretation of the words. " From him 
that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath," 
for example, is the sentence of our Lord. Separate these 
words from the context, from the parallel passage in another 
Gospel, from the principle of the Divine government which they 
illustrate, and we miss their sense ; explain them connectedly 
and the whole is clear. So of Bible truths. The sacrifice and 
the death of Abel, viewed in themselves, seem not more 
significant than the good deed and untimely end of any gocd 
man ; but view his death as the first fruit of sin, and his 
sacrifice as an evidence of the true nature of every acceptable 
offering ; as a proof, moreover, how conscious demerit ex- 
pressed itself in the first age, and how deeply it felt the need 
of vicarious suffering, and the whole narrative assumes an 
aspect of importance and dignity. Explain in the same way 
the ordinances of the law, the personal history of many an- 
cient saints, and incidents in themselves trivial become fresh 



HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 357 

-Larks of internal credibility, and even lessons for the instruc- 
tion of the church throughout every age. 

521. (4.) As it is important to study Scripture connectedly, 
And con- it is even more important to study it in its true 
nected. connection, and in that alone. A false system may 

be more mischievous than no system at all. 

The plagues of Egypt, for example, may be regarded as in- 
flicted only for the deliverance of a nation from slavery ; in 
that' light they may seem excessive, and some of them even 
absurd. Eegarded as manifestations of Divine power, as fore- 
shado wings of the destiny of the finally impenitent, or of the 
spoiling of principalities and powers by him who so signally 
triumphed over them in his cross, as public rebukes of ido- 
latry, every plague being inflicted upon an idol god, as confir- 
mations of the faith of the Israelites, long remembered, their 
significance is plain. 

If idolatry again be regarded as mental error merely, or if 
the Jews be regarded as an ordinary community, the punish- 
ment of that sin with death may seem severe. Really it 
was a penalty inflicted only on the apostate Israelite, who 
had repeatedly accepted Jehovah as his chosen king. In 
a theocracy it was civil treason ; and the great purpose, more- 
over of the whole institution was to redeem our race from 
the depraved and wretched condition which that sin in- 
volved. 

In the same way the truths of Scripture on the person of 
our Lord derive much of their significance, and all their con- 
sistency, from the union in him of our human nature with 
the Divine. Explain them on the supposition that he was 
man only or God only, and they appear contradictory : com- 
bine both views, and the whole is harmonious and highly 
consolatory. 

To find fault with the acts of ancient saints, and to con- 
clude that the record of their faults is as inconsistent with 
the Divine origin of the Bible as the acts themselves were 
derogatory to true religion, implies a false theory. Suppose, 
for example that the object of the Bible be — the revelation 
of God and the improvement of man, and the objections cease. 

Take, as an instance, the deception of Jacob, Gen. 27. 
33-35, and mark its lessons in relation to God and to our- 
selves. His superiority over his brother and his inheritance 



358 HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 

of the promise had been foretold at his birth. Isaac, Ee- 
becca, and Jacob himself all probably knew of this prediction. 
In spite of this knowledge, however, Isaac made a favourite 
of the elder brother, who had connected himself with a 
heathen family : Jacob had so little faith, moreover, in the 
Divine promise, that he needlessly removed the difficulty of 
his brother's priority by purchase : Eebecca, with no more 
faith, induced her son to practise the deception which ob- 
tained him the blessing. The guilt and folly of this whole 
transaction soon bore their appropriate fruits. The weakness 
of Isaac was punished by the alienation and dispersion of his 
children. The recklessness and profanity of Esau cost him 
the blessing ; Rebecca's unbelief ended in her becoming de- 
pendent upon the son she had wronged : her favourite son 
she never again saw. Jacob was driven from his home — 
was himself robbed and defrauded by Laban ; the wife he 
despised became the mother of the chosen tribe, and in the 
deception of his own children he learned the grievousness 
of his sin. Above all, though the promise was ultimately 
fulfilled, Jacob himself received no blessing from it. Instead 
of his mother's son bowing down before him, he, in his own 
person, bowed down before his mother's son, and at the close 
of his life he was dependent upon his children. The punish- 
ment, in fact, was complete : nor less so is the lesson. It may 
be said that, nevertheless, he inherited the blessing ; and this 
is true : for the gifts of God are without repentance, and his 
choice of his servants is founded upon no personal merit, but 
on reasons, w T hich, in most cases, as in this, he has seen it 
right to conceal. It may be said also, that the blessing was 
secured by means which no ingenuous mind can commend ; 
and this is true ; but the objection applies to providential 
dealings generally as much as to Scripture. Man's sin is con- 
stantly overruled for God's glory ; and neither the responsi- 
bility of man nor the holiness of God is affected by the 
arrangement : a revelation, in fact, without such incidents, 
would be neither just to God nor true to man. 

522. (5.) It becomes us to distrust the conclusions of 

human wisdom and of logical reasoning, whenever 

of human 18 applied to subjects beyond the reach of our ex- 

wisdom to be perience, and especially in matters of religious 

truth. Even in science we know really little be- 



HOAY SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 359 

vond what we have observed. "What is light ?" and "What 
is power ?" are questions which philosophy has not yet an- 
swered. We speak of the laws of gravitation, and affirm 
that they keep the planets in their orbits ; but gravitation 
(it is allowed) is itself nothing but the expression of a uni- 
form fact. The origin of disease, independently of second 
causes and symptoms, is entirely unknown ; nor can any- 
one tell how contagion or infection acts upon the frame. 
The most probable conclusion to which even philosophy is 
pointing is, that the great forces in this universe are put 
forth immediately by God. Miracles and mysteries every- 
where abound, and it is only their regularity and frequency 
that destroy our surprise. Combine with this fact the fallen 
condition and inherent littleness of man, and the propriety of 
the principle of Lord Bacon, when he bids us reverently 
question nature and not dogmatize on her processes, will ap« 
pear to be doubly just when applied to the Bible. 

523. (6.) Let no man attempt or expect the explanation of 
Expect not every difficulty. u Of the dark parts of Scripture," 
of^ii&ffi- 11 sa y s Warburtoiij " there are two sorts, one which 
cuities. may be cleared up by the studious application of 

well employed talents, the other which will always recede 
within the shadow of God's throne, where it would be impiety 
to intrude." "The last step of reason," says Pascal,. " is to 
know that there is an infinitude of things which surpass it." 
After all difficulties have been solved, and every word of the 
Bible explained, the weightiest difficulties of all will remain. 
The origin of evil, the mystery of Divine foreknowledge and 
free-agency, and much of the scheme of redemption will still 
exercise our faith. We shall sav even then, as it is our 
wisdom to say now, u Oh the depth of the riches, both of the 
wisdom and knowledge of God ! how unsearchable are his 
judgments, and his ways past finding out !" 

On the whole of this Section, see Home "On the Apparent Con- 
tradictions of Scripture," Davidson's "Hermeneutics," Gerard's 
"Biblical Criticism/' and, on the latter part especially, Bensou's 
u Huisean Lectures." 



360 PRACTICAL AND INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 



CHAPTER VII. 
On the Inferential and Practical Beading of the Bible, 

" All Scripture is practical and intended to minister to our improvement rather 
than to our curiosity." — Arnold ; Sermons (p. 2J9). 

" I know not a better rule of reading the Scripture than to read it through from 
beginning to end ; and when we have finished it once, to begin it again, We shall 
meet with many passages which we can make little improvement of; but not so 
many in the second reading as in the first ; and fewer in the third than in the 
second."— John Newtox, [\\. 418). 

524. As the great use of philosophy is the " endowment of 

man's life with commodities," so the great use of 
of Scripture Scripture is the increase of our wisdom and holi- 
is to apply it. ness ^ rp gather the meaning of Scripture, and 

sum up its doctrines is to accomplish but part of the purpose 
for which Scripture was given. Every precept and promise 
must be applied. Even from every verse we may gain some 
accession to our knowledge, some quickened impulse to our 
feelings, or some encouragement or guide in duty. Meditation 
on truth will reveal its fulness ; and the practical applicability 
of it on all sides will at once surprise and reward our in- 
quiries. 

525. By the practical and inferential reading of the Bible 

is meant that study of the sacred page which de- 

What meant J L & 

by the prao- duces and applies to ourselves, or to the great 
ierenriaL "*" questions of religious character and experience, 
reading of the truths it contains. It is not distinct from in- 
terpretation, it is rather the continuance and end 
of it. Interpretation answers the question, What is the 
meaning of the words of a particular passage 1 Systematic 
theology decides the connection between that meaning and 
the whole system of truth. The inferential and practical study 
of Scripture answers the question, What do these words im- 
ply, and what truth or duty do they illustrate or suggest in 
relation to the Divine life and my personal history ? The 
foundation of such study is the perpetual harmony of Divine 
truth, and the practicalness of the whole. Its pre-requisite 
is a general knowledge of the teaching of Scripture, and a 
Spirit imbued with " the form of sound words in faith and 
love which is in Christ Jesus " (2 Tim. 1. 13). With these pre- 
requisites it will be easv (so closely is one truth connected 



LESSONS FROM WORDS, ETC. 36*1 

with another) for a Christian " to diffuse himself," as Francke 
expressed it, " from one word over the whole Scripture." 

526. In drawing such inferences from Scripture we need 
Inferences * ne same rules which we have already laid down 
may be f or Scripture interpretation. 

various The words — the words in their place in the 

sources. sentence — the words in connection with the scope 

of the writer — the words in connection with other parts of 
Scripture — is the division which includes all the inferences 
that can be legitimately drawn from the teachings of Divine 
truth. 

527. (1.) Lessons may be drawn from the ivords of Scrip- 
ture. 

In Eom. 14. 17, we have a description of the "kingdom of God:" 
such is the gospel: it is God's reign; it originates in his grace; it is 
founded upon his power; it will illustrate his government. 

In Heb. 3. 1, Christ is called the "High Priest and the Apostle 
of our profession." Each word is significant; he was first selected 
and ordained of God; he was commissioned and sent by Him. The 
guilt of rejecting him is proportioned to his dignity. The efficacy 
of his salvation is secured by Divine appointment. He is High 
Priest under the gospel; therefore, though it is a dispensation of 
mercy, we need sacrifice and acceptance, and are dependent for 
both upon him. 

528. (2.) Lessons may be drawn from the ivords in their place 
in the sentence. 

In 1 Pet. 5. 5, we are commanded to be clothed with humility, 
for God resisteth the proud. Clearly (1), humility, though despised 
by the heathen, is a Christian grace. (2). Our truest ornament (for 
this the Greek word for " be clothed" involves) is a just, that is. a 
humble estimate of ourselves, and that ornament must be so closely 
connected with us as that none shall be able to tear it away (so the 
Greek implies). (3). Every duty may be enforced by a reference to 
God's character. (4). Pride is a public conspicuous sin (so the 
Greek implies). (5). It braves God, and he sets himself in array 
against it. 

So in Rom. 14. 17, the kingdom of God is described as righteous- 
ness, peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. Hence it may be inferred 
(1), that peace is through righteousness only, (2), and joy is the 
fruit of righteousness and peace; (3), that a righteousness which 
brings with it neither peace nor joy is not the righteousness of the 



kingdom of God. 



R 



*>«•"? 



62 LESSONS FROM SCOPE, ETC. 

529. (3.) Lessons may be drawn from words in connection 
with the context. 

Thus in Matt. 27. 52, we read that many bodies of the saints 
which slept arose, but (ver. 53) it was after the resurrection of our 
Lord; he therefore was the first-fruits of them that slept, and 
whatever his saints received they owed to him. 

Contrast 1 Tim. 1. 15 with ver. 4, and we shall gather that the 
legends of the Jews and the stories of the Gentiles are compared to 
fables, the gospel to undoubted truth. 

530. (4.) Lessons may be drawn from the scope either of the 
book or of the particular passage. 

Compare, for example, John 8. 51, "If a man keep my sayings 
he shall never see death," with John 20. 31, "These are written 
that ye might believe . . . and that believing ye might have life 
through his name," and it follows that faith in Christ is shown by 
obedience to his words; that faith receives not only his sacrifice, 
but his teaching; that whoever has life through his name shall 
never see death. Comparing this passage with the immediate object 
of our Lord (which was to prove that he was not possessed of an 
evil spirit), it follows that a doctrine which secures eternal life is 
not likely to be false; that saving truth is to be set forth, even 
before those who calumniate it; and that though Christ's teaching 
is foolishness with men, it must be received and obeyed. 

531. (5.) Lessons may be drawn from parallel passages. In- 
Parallel stead, however of multiplying examples, let us take 
passages. a passage and apply the rules now given to illus- 
trate and expound it. 

532. In 2 Tim. 1. 8, we read, "Be not thou therefore 

ashamed of the testimony of our Lord, nor of me 
his prisoner : but be thou partaker of the afflic- 
tions of the gospel.*' The meaning of the verse having been 
ascertained ; take first the words : 

i. The gospel is called a- testimony. It is therefore not an un- 
supported assertion. 

2. Of this gospel the Christian is not to be ashamed. Boldness 
in giving witness for Christ is often required, especially in times of 
persecution. 

3. This boldness is not unfounded presumption, but a rational 
assurance, " Be not thou therefore ashamed." 

a. The gospel is the testimony of our Lord; its end is "to bear 




INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BLBLE. 363 

witness of Christ, who is our Lord." Paul and Timothy were fellow- 
servants (Phil. i. i), and therefore stood in the same relation to 
Christ their Lord, whom therefore they were bound to obey. 

5. Paul was His prisoner; men had confined hiim but he was not 
in their power, nor did he suffer as an evil doer. 

Secondly. Take each word in connection with the other 
words of the sentence, and we gather such inferences as these. 

1. Not to partake of the afflictions of the gospel when called upon 
to share them is to be ashamed of the testimony of our Lord. 

2. lie who is ashamed of suffering Christians, who suffer as 
Christians, is ashamed of Christ himself. 

3. Our testimony to Christ must be borne, not only in seasons of 
prosperity, but in seasons of affliction. 

4. Even in his bonds Paul preached the gospel. 

5. Paul bore a consistent testimony to the truth, and yet he re- 
quired the testimonv of Timothv. It is therefore necessarv that 
the testimony of God's servants should be multiplied. 

6. A timid and distrustful heart is not fit to bear testimony for 
Christ, nor to endure affliction for his cause. 

TJiirdly. Take the words in connection with the context. 
The general object of the apostle, in this part of the chapter 
is, to exhort Timothy to undergo affliction for the cause of 
Christ, and he enforces this exhortation by cogent arguments. 



C< 



Comparing the passage with the fourth verse, we conclude that the 
godly, though surrounded by calamity, can rejoice, and have de- 
lightful communion with one another. 

With the third verse, that those who are about to suffer for the 
testimony of Jesus need our prayers " night and day." 

With the fifth verse, that the remembrance of a pious ancestry 
may happily increase our boldness and fidelity in seasons of per- 
secution. 

With the sixth verse, that the gift which a minister has received 
from God is to be stirred up, in order not only to teach, but to 
suffer. 

With the seventh verse, that the gifts of power and of love (to 
Christ and the souls of men), and of a sound mind, in the discharge 
of arduous duties, all bind the Christian to fidelity in suffering. 

With the ninth verse, that the remembrance of our salvation, and 
of the grace and purpose of God towards us, will dispel the fear of 
temporal affliction. 

With the tenth verse, that the superiority of the gospel dispensa- 

R 2 . 



364 INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 

tion, and the confirmation of our faith by the appearance and 
resurrection of Christ, should make us the more willing to suffer : 
our sufferings are not for a cunningly-devised fable, but for the 
truth of God. 

Comparing the words of the verse with the words of the preceding 
verses, we gather other lessons. The fear of persecution is one 
frequent cause of apostasy. Men are ashamed of the testimony of 
Christ, because not willing to be partakers of the afflictions of the 
gospel. A sound mind, or real wisdom, is seen in willingness to 
endure affliction rather than deny Christ. Mere worldly prudence- 
is tested and discovered by affliction. The spirit of fear is injurious 
to our steadfastness, and is not God's gift. True power is seen in 
endurance and fidelity. Love has such influence over the soul that, 
were we exposed to the severest calamities, or even to death, it 
will keep us unmoved. Apostasy implies feebleness, coldness, 
folly; for steadfastness is the fruit of power, prudence, and love. 

Fourthly. If we look to the scope of the Epistle, and the 
circumstances of the writer, we learn other lessons equally 
important. The general scope of the Epistle is, that Paul, 
now the prisoner of the Lord, asks Timothy to come to him, 
and endeavours, previously, to prepare and fortify his mind 
against the afflictions which at that period threatened the 
churches at Ephesus and in Eome. 

Looking at Paul's circumstances, we learn that one who is im- 
prisoned for Christ may still, by letter, incite others to serve him; 
and that, so far from a Christian losing his consolation through im- 
prisonment, he may even exhort others to suffer, and to gather 
encouragement from himself: that in affliction we should take 
special care lest others be discouraged by our sufferings: that we 
may ask others to share our sufferings if it be for the furtherance 
of the gospel, but that we must first fortify their minds for what 
they may have to bear: that Christians may be tempted to apostasy 
by calamity, and that therefore they should be kindly warned and 
prayed fcr by those that see its approach. 

In looking at Timothy, we may learn that a Christian should 
neither accelerate his removal from one sphere of duty nor defer 
going to another through fear of affliction : that he ought to 
strengthen his own mind for what may befall him : that the danger 
of others ought not to intimidate him, but to render him at once 
prudent, and willing to undergo similar sufferings: that even in the 
case of eminent Christians, when calling them \o the service of God, 
it may be important to remove the scruples and difficulties they 
may feel in relation to the call 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 365 

In looking generally at the scojoe of the Epistle, and connecting 
it with the words of the text, we may learn such lessons as these. 
In seasons of persecution, the spiritual boldness of love and of a 
sound mind is peculiarly required. In such seasons the servants of 
God may justly stir up each other to promote the common cause; 
to preserve each other's fidelity in obedience and in suffering. Be- 
fore we bid another to engage in a difficult service, we mnst, by 
prayer and exhortation, seek to prepare him for it. The qualifica- 
tions for service in the kingdom of Christ are gifts of the Koly 
Spirit. 

The fifth source of inferential reading is the comparison of 
a passage with other passages throughout the sacred writings. 
In this case it is not a merely verbal parallelism which sug- 
gests the lesson but the parallelism of thought and truth. 

Let us take phrase by phrase. ' 'Be not thou therefore ashamed.'* 
In Bom. i. 16 and Phil. i. 20, Paul affirms that he is "not 
ashamed of the gospel of Christ," and it is the same boldness he 
requires in Timothy. Hence it may be said that faithful teachers 
require of others what they themselves know is not impossible; 
and again, he who best inculcates patience manifests it by example 
before he enjoins it by precept. 

" Be thou partaker of the afflictions of the gospel." 
From 1 Thess. 3. 2-4, we learn that tTimothy had been sent to 
Thessalonica to establish and comfort the church, that no man 
might be moved by their afflictions; and from Bom. 8. 17 and 18, 
we gather that participation in sufferings is essential to participa- 
tion in glory. Hence we may infer that Timothy was specially 
bound to observe what he himself taught ; and that the prospect of 
everlasting blessedness proportioned to our holy and devoted suf- 
fering may well repress our shame of present affliction. 

By comparing the second clause of the verse with other passages 
lessons equally important and interesting may be obtained. See 
1 Cor. 4. 9: 2 Cor. 11. 13-33, where affliction is said by the apostle 
to be the seal of his apostleship; and 1 Pet. 4. 13 and Col. 1. 24, 
where Christians are exhorted not only to bear afflictions, but to 
rejoice in them; and Bev. 12. 11, where the end of affliction is set 
forth in the blessedness of those who are now before the throne. 
By a reference to 1 Pet. 3. 13 and 4. 17, it will be seen that even 
the ungodly are not free from sufferings, and that the surest way 
of avoiding afflictions, or, if it cannot be avoided, of having comfort 
in it, is to cherish fidelity as Christians. 

533. These rules are of extensive use. They may be ap- 



36(5 INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 

plied to nearly the whole of the Bible : and as this 
kind of study is highly instructive it may be well 
to give another instance or two of the application of them. 



We take a passage from the history of our Lord. In John u. 15 
we read, "I am glad for your sakes that I was not there to the 
intent ye may believe; nevertheless let us go unto him." The 
meaning of the words we suppose to have been gathered from the 
general usage of language and from comparison with other parts of 
Scripture. The obvious facts of the passage are the following. 
Christ was glad. He was glad for the sake of his disciples : he was 
glad that he was not there. To the intent that they might believe. 
He nevertheless loved Lazarus, and determined to restore him, and 
therefore (said he) " let us go unto him." 

1. Christ was glad. 

Joy may be at times becoming; on connecting this fact with 
verses 14, 35, 36, we infer that an event, in itself painful, may be a 
source of joy to the Christian; or, connecting it with similar facts 
in Scripture, it may be gathered that our Saviour's joy was always 
found in what contributed to the good of his disciples or to the 
glory of His Father. 

2. He was glad for the sake of his disciples. 

That a benevolent mind finds happiness in the improvement of 
others is one obvious inference; that some of the dealings of Christ 
were prompted by a regard to the welfare of his disciples is another. 
Both these truths are in the sentence. Looking to the context, we 
find that one Christian may sometimes suffer for the good of others. 
Comparing this expression with other parts of Scripture, we gather 
a conclusion more general still. All that Christ did or suffered was 
done for the sake of his church. Did he empty himself of glory, 
and come into our world in circumstances of the deepest humiliation? 
"For our sakes he became poor." Did he here endure sufferings 
more diversified and intense than human nature had ever known? 
" He bore our griefs and he carried our sorrows/' Did he devote 
himself to our interests and sanctify himself for the work of 
mediation? It was for our sakes and that we might be sanctified by 
the truth (John 17. 19). Did a voice from Heaven comfort Him ? 
"This voice came," says he, "not because of me, but for your 
sakes" (John 12. 30). Did he, after he had suffered, leave the 
world? It was because it was expedient for us. Is He now at the 
right hand of the Majesty on high? It is that if any man sin he 
may have "an Advocate with the Father.'' Even the conduct of 
his providence is regulated by a regard for the interests of His 
church. "He rebuked kings for their sakes." He spared ancient 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 367 

Israel, thougli guilty, and He tells thera that they were spared for 
the sake of his true servants who were found among them, Isa. 65. 8. 
More comprehensively still, he assures us that all things are for our 
sokes, that life is ours and death, and things present and things to 
come, Rom. 8. 28: 2 Cor. 4. 15. 

3 . He was glad that he was not there, i. e., to heal the sick. 

To withhold deliverance may be a blessing. On comparing this 
verse with verses 21 and 32, where Martha and Mary expressed 
their Surprise that Christ was not there; and again, with verses 44, 
45, where it is said that the Jews believed, we infer that Christ's 
purpose is sometimes accomplished by means which are not con- 
sistent with the expectations of his disciples. This truth is taught, 
in a limited form by the context. Comparing the truth thus ascer- 
tained with other similar histories, we gather the general conclusion 
that God's ways are not as our ways, nor his thoughts as our 
thoughts. Joseph, for instance, was sold into Egypt in the anguish 
of his soul, and amidst the lamentations of his father. In Egypt, he 
endured bitter temptation and imprisonment, yet the whole of his 
affliction seems now to have been part of the Divine plan, and was 
certainly the means of preserving his family alive. It proved ad- 
vantageous, moreover, to his own honour; and the history of his 
trial suggests many a lesson for the improvement of young men in 
every age. 

The sufferings of Job must at first have seemed mysterious. At 
the close of his history, however, all is explained; for God blessed 
his latter end more than his beginning, gave him honour in propor- 
tion to his previous afflictions, and has handed down his history as 
a permanent lesson of patience and faith. 

The three Hebrew youths in Babylon were found faithful among 
the faithless, and for their conscientious obedience to the Divine 
law were thrown into the fierv furnace Was God there, and did 
he interpose on their behalf ? Not in the way we might have hoped ; 
but in his own. He made their sufferings the means of giving to 
his church a new promise of the Messiah (for a fourth was seen 
walking with them); and they themselves were uninjured, so that 
even the smell of lire was not upon them. In the end too, not at 
the beginning, a heathen king was compelled to acknowledge that 
no god was able to deliver like the God of the Hebrews. In each 
of these cases the Divine purpose was accomplished by a process 
very different from the expectation of the sufferers. The folly of 
judging the dispensations of God during their operation, and the 
wisdom of waiting till the day when all shall be made plain, is 
equally a lesson of this part of the vei'se. and might be illustrated 
in the same way. 



368 INFERENTIAL HEADING OF THE BIBLE. 

4. All this was done to the intent that the disciples might believe, 
Christ, therefore, is anxious in his dealings to increase our faith. 

His disciples were not credulous, as has been supposed, but the 
contrary. Their faith was not inclination, but conviction, and the 
result of evidence. That they believed the things they describe, 
ought therefore to add to the weight of their testimon}". Com- 
paring this clause with ver. 45, where it is said that, as the result 
of the miracle, many of the Jews believed, it may be inferred that 
the same exhibition of Divine power which is adapted to increase 
a believer's faith is adapted to produce conviction in the undecided. 
Comparing it with John 20. 3 1, we gather that the miracles of the 
gospel should have the same influence upon us as they had upon 
those that witnessed them; the record of them by credible wit- 
nesses making them standing miracles. Comparing it with passages 
in which it is implied that the disciples had believed, we gather 
that faith admits of increase; and comparing it with Romans 5. 1, 
where Christians are said to be "justified by faith:" and with Acts 
26. .18, where they are said to be "sanctified by faith;" and with 
Gal. 2. 20: 2 Cor. 1. 24, where faith is said to be the secret of 
their life and steadfastness, we gather that this increase of faith is 
thus precious in the esteem of our Lord, because it brings with it 
to the Christian an increase both of usefulness and of peace. 

5 . Christ had nevertheless resolved to go unto him. 

His case might seem desperate, but it was not beyond the reach 
of Divine power. Christ often does above what we think. The 
extremity of the sufferer was the opportunity of the Redeemer. 

Comparing this verse with the following, it is plain that the 
words of our Lord are often misunderstood, and misunderstood 
through unbelief. 

Comparing this clause with ver. "8, we learn that Christ is ready 
to expose himself to personal peril in order to comfort or relieve 
Ins disciples. 

Comparing it with ver. 42-44, we gather that when the purpose 
of affliction is answered the affliction itself is removed. From the 
whole verse we gather that God speaks to us in the afflictions of 
others, and that if we disregard his voice we are the more likely to 
be chastised ourselves. 

534. Sometimes the student of Scripture is anxious to 
ascertain what it teaches on some one question. In which 
case he uses each passage with a special reference not to all it 
contains, but to the truth which he is investigating : an ex- 
ercise which combines the systematic with the inferential 
study of the Bible. 



INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 369 

If, for example, he wishes to obtain a full view of what is taught in 
Scripture on affliction, he examines a few passages, and soon finds 
that they begin to arrange themselves in his mind. Some treat of 
affliction generally, some of the afflictions of Christians, and some of 
the afflictions of the impenitent ; while throughout he finds truths 
and duties most instructively blended. In the end he ascertains 
such results as these : — 

Affliction: — Men born to it, Job 5. 6, 7. Is the consequence 
and a punishment of sin, Gen. 3. 16-19 : Prov. 1. 31 : 2 Sam. 12. 
14 : Ps. 89. 30-32 : Is. 57. 17 : Jer. 2. 14-17. For which, how- 
ever, it cannot atone, Is. 5. 25 : Lev. 26. 14-39 : Lam. 3. 1-22 : 
Dan. 9. 16-19. Is appointed by God, who regulates the measure 
and continuance of it, Ps. 66. u : Job. 1. 21 : Lam. 3.33 ; 2 Kings 14. 
26, 27: Is. 9. 1: Jer. 46. 28: Gen. 15. 13, 14: Jer. 29. 10. Is often 
deep and severe, Ps. 18. 4, 5 : 1 Pet. 4. 12. But tempered with 
mercy and less than we deserve, Ps. 78. 38, 39: Is. 30. 20: Ezra 
9. 13. 

Affliction is often blessed to the Christian — showing him his 
errors, Xumb. 21. 6, 7: Luke 15, 16, 17. Bringing him back to 
God and keeping him there, Ps. 78. 34: Hos. 2. 6, 7: Is. 10. 20 ; 
Ezek. 14. 10, 11. Humbling him, trying and perfecting his pa- 
tience, faith, and obedience, Rom. 5. 3 : 1 Pet. 1. 7: Jud. 3. 4: 
Heb. 11. 17. Testing and exhibiting his sincerity, Job 23. 10 : 
Prov. 17. 3. Fitting him for greater' usefulness : explaining the 
Bible: purifying the heart, Mai. 3. 23. Tending to the furtherance 
of the gospel, Acts 8. 3, 4: 2 Tim. 4. 17. Illustrating the power 
and love of God, 2 Cor. 4. 7-1 1 : John 9. 1-3 : 11. 4. Ending, when 
rightly endured, in the greater blessedness, 1 Pet. 4. 1^, 14, etc. 

Its influence is exemplified in Joseph's brethren, Gen. 42. 21: in 
Israel, Deut. 8. 3. 5: David, 2 Sam. 16. 12: Josiah, 2 Kings 22. 19: 
Hezekiah, 2 Chron. 32. 25, 26: Manasseh, 2 Chron. 33. 12. 

In the case of the impenitent, affliction is multiplied and often 
sudden, Ps. 32. 10: 16. 4: Prov. 6. 15 : Is. 30. 13. Is a conse- 
quence of impenitence, Zech, 7. 11, 12: Prov. 1. 24-33. ^ s of itself 
ineffectual for conversion, often hardens the heart, or produces 
slavish fear, Is. 1. 5 : Jer. 2. 30: Xeh. 9. 27-29: Jer. 49. 5. Is no 
cause of fear to the righteous, Ps. 90. 1, 5. Is a warning to others, 

1 Cor. 10. 5-11: 2 Pet. 2. 6. God will be glorified in it, Eze. 28. 
22, 23. 

Its influence exemplified in Pharaoh, Ex. 8. 8-15 : Ahaziah, 

2 Kings 1. 1-4 : Gehazi, 2 Kings 5. 27 : Jehoram, 2 Chron. 21, 
12-19 : Athaliah, 2 Chron. 22. 10 : Uzziah, 2 Chron. 26. 19, 21 : 
Ahaz, 2 Chron. 28. 5-8, 22. 

The afflicted Christian should exercise resignation and pa- 

B 3 



370 INFERENCES : PARABLES. 

tience, Ps. 39. 9: James 1. 4: 1 Pet. 2. 20. Acknowledge the just- 
ness of his chastisements, Mic. 7. 9. Avoid sin, John 5. 14. Trust- 
in God, Ps. 71. 20 : Ps. 56. 11. Praise him, Ps. 15. 18 : Ps. 56. 
8-12. Take encouragement from past mercies, Ps. 42. 4, 5 : 2 Cor. 1. 
ic. Remember that God has promised that in time of trouble He 
will be with him ; will support, comfort, and finally deliver him, 
Is. 43. 2: Ps. 27. 5, 6: 2 Cor. 7. 6. Ps. 107. 13. 

The afflicted Christiax should be visited, pitied, protected, 
comforted, and relieved, James 1. 27 : Job 6. 14: Ps. 82. 3 : 

1 Thess. 4. 18: 1 Tim. 5. 10. 

The character of the afflicted Christian is illustrated in Joseph, 
Gen. 39. 20-23: Moses, Deut. 9. 18, 19: Job 1. 22: Eli, 1 Sam. 3. 
18: Ezra, Ezr. 9. 5 : Xehemiah, Keh. 1. 1: Daniel, Dan. 9. 3-19 : 
Paul, Acts 20. 22-24 : 2 Cor. 12. 7-9 : Apostles, 1 Cor. 4. 9-13 : 

2 Cor. 6. 4-10. 

535. Sometimes, again the student of Scripture is desirous 
of investigating the history of Scripture practically with re- 
ference to some particular fact ; or parables with reference to 
their scope ; and then the question is what is taught on the 
subject of inquiry by each phrase or verse. 

The parable, for example, of the Prodigal Son may be variously 
regarded ; either with Xeander, as an exhibition of Pharisaism and 
its opposite, or with Lisco, as an exhibition of true penitence, and 
of the treatment it receives from God and man. Taking the second 
view, we have the following connection of thoughts : — 

i, "VYe have the necessity of repentance, grounded (Luke 15. 
11-32)— 

1. In the state of preceding sinfulness: — 

(a.) Its origin, ver. 12. Self-sufficient waywardness: give 

me, father. 
(6.) Its nature, ver. 13. And not long after, 
(c.) Its manifestation, ver. 13. And there wasted. 

2. In the misery consequent upon sin: — 

(a.) The man has still a desire after blessedness, ver. 14. 
(6.) And feels his misery, ver. 14. Began to be in want, 
(c.) And seeks in vain for relief, ver. 15. Went and joined 

himself. 
(cl.) And sinks the longer the deeper, ver. 15. Sent to feed 

swine. 
(<?.) Without finding the longed-for satisfaction, ver. 16. 

11. The nature of repentance is described : — 

1. The sinner comes to a right understanding, ver. 17, 



INFERENCES : PARABLES. 371 

2. Perceives the greatness of his misery, ver. 17. How many, etc, 

3. Forms a good resolution, ver. 18. I will arise. 

4. Recognises his guilt, ver. 18. Father, I have sinned. 

5. Humbles himself, ver. 19. 

6. By faith actually returns, ver. 20. He arose and came to his 

father. 

iii. The results of repentance, ver. 20-30. 

1. In reference to a compassionate God, ver. 20-24. 

(a.) God descries the repentant feeling, ver. 20. When yet a 

great way. 
(5.) Graciously receives the sinner, ver. 20. Had compassion, 
(c.) Facilitates the execution of his purpose, ver. 21. 
(d.) Heaps upon him marks of love, and goodness, ver. 22, 

23. 

(<?.) And calls for a general expression of joy, ver. 24. 

2. In reference to the self-righteous, ver. 25-32. 

(a.) Their cold-hearted envy is excited, ver. 28. He was 

angry. 
(&,) They accuse God of unrighteousness, ver. 29, 30. 
(c.) They overlook God's gracious goodness to themselves, 

v. 31. 
(d.) And violate the obligations of mutual love, ver. 32. 
So, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus we have worldly 
unbelief, Luke 16. 19-31 — 

i. In its manifestations — 

1. Insatiable thirst for enjoyment, ver. 19. Clothes in purple, 

lives sumptuously. 
(«.) It seeks all sorts of enjoyment. 
(6). It seeks in these all its- satisfaction — everyday. 
(c.) It regards the temporal as its only good. 

2. Cold-hearted uncharitableness, ver. 20, 21. 

(a.) It despises the poor as worthless, ver. 20. 

(6.) It hardens itself against the rights of misery, ver. 20. 

(c.) It gives no relief, ver. 21. 

ii. In its final condition: — 

1. It is fearfully undeceived, ver. 22, 23. 

(a.) In regard to the value of its enjoyments, ver. 23. 

(6.) In regard to the value of salvation now imperfectly ap- 
prehended. 

(c.) In regard to the relation between Lazarus and God, in 
Abraham's bosom. 

2. Its sinful misapprehensions remain, ver. 24. 

(a.) As to trust in descent from Abraham. Father Abraham. 



372 INFERENCES : PARABLES. 

(6.) As to imaginary hopes of salvation. Have mercy. 
(c.) As to its unholy preference for personal comfort. Dip 
the tip, and cool my tongue. 
3. It is self-condemned by an evil conscience, ver. 25-31. 

(a.) As dealt with justly, ver. 25. 

(6.) As incapable, from its state of mind, of deliverance, 

ver. 26. 
(c.) As being without excuse. 

Because no want of means of grace, ver. 27-29. 

Because these means sufficient for salvation, ver. 30, 31* 

536. The results in these examples (which might be greatly 
extended) are reached in an order different from the one in 
which they are now given. Here w T e have first the result 
and then the proof passage ; but in investigating a subject 
we turn first from passage to passage, and then state their 
import in the form of a general lesson. The text and the 
lesson is the order of inquiry ; the lesson and the proof is 
the order of instruction. 

The exercise of following out truth in this way is one of the 
most instructive in which a Christian can engage. 

537. For the further study of this part of the subject see 
any common-place book of the Bible — especially " Talbot's 
Bible," and the common-place books of Strutt and Locke. 
" Scripture Texts arranged,'* is a very useful manual of sub- 
jects classified under their respective heads and illustrated 
by Scripture examples. 

On the subject of this chapter, the inferential reading of Scrip- 
ture, see Rambaeh's " Institutiones Hermeneuticse," lib. iv., c. 3; 
Francke's " Guide to the Study of the Scriptures;" Claude's 
" Essay on the Composition of a Sermon;" and especially, for 
illustrations, the " CommeDtary " of Matth. Henry, one of the 
richest storehouses of evangelical truth. Felicitous examples 
abound, also, in the writings of Rev. R. Cecil and Rev. W. Jay. 

a See Li sco on the Parables. 



THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. 373 



PART II. 

The Books of the Bible. 

Introductory. 

" Though many other books are comparable to cloth, in which, by a small pat* 
tern, we may safely judge of the whole piece, yet the Bible is like a fair suit of 
arras, of which, though a shred may assure you of the fineness of the colours and 
richness of the stuff, yet the hangings never appear to their true advantage but 
when they are displayed to their full dimensions and are seen together." — Boyle 
On the Style of Scripture. 

i. We now come to the study of the books of the Bible. 
Subjects Already we have considered — 
already con- The general divisions of Scripture : the two 
Testaments : the law, the prophets, and the holy 
writings of the Old : the Gospels, Epistles, and Acts, and the 
.Revelation of the New : chapters, verses, and other sections : 

The claims of Scripture as genuine, as authentic, and as 
inspired, with the evidences of its claims (Chaps, i. ii.) : 

The peculiarities of Scripture as a revelation of God, of 
man, and of the plan of salvation reconciling both, securing 
at once peace and holiness : a revelation gradually communi- 
cated, everywhere consistent ; taught, however, without a 
formally- announced system, though all centring in the cross 
(Chap. iii. 1-5) : 

The principles of interpretation, and the use of external 
helps ; the spirit, above all, in which inquiries into the 
meaning of Scripture should be conducted (iv. especially § 2) : 

The systematic study of Scripture ; the best methods of 
applying it to practical life, and the difficulties of various 
kinds connected with all these questions (v. vi. vii.). 

Having thus viewed sacred Scripture as a whole, we pro- 
ceed to examine particular portions and to apply more 
minutely the rules and principles already discussed. 

TJie two Parts of the Bible. 
2. The Bible is composed of two parts : the Old Testa- 
The two ment and the New. The second containing a full 
parts of the revelation of tne Divine will, and a plan of salva- 
tion addressed to all. The first containing not all 



874 USE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT . 

probably that God revealed in early times to our race, 
but as. much as lie deemed it necessary to preserve. Every 
part of what is thus revealed being " profitable for instruc- 
tion, for reproof, for rectification, and for establishment in 
righteousness." 

3. The use of the first Testament is highly important : and 
u<e of the a simple statement of the use will show the con- 
firm, nection of the two. 

1. Though most of it was addressed to one nation, yet it enjoins 
much on man as man, and contains principles of morality which are 
universal and eternal. The precepts which were given to Adam, 
the decalogue, and the appeals of the whole book illustrate and 
enforce moral truth. 

2. Much of the history of the Old Testament is the history of 
God's government. In that government he illustrates his own 
character and ours ; and whatever advantage an inspired record of 
this kind can give, we derive from this part of the sacred volumes. 

3. Further, the hopelessness of salvation by lav: is clearly taught 
in this earlier dispensation. The patriarchal faith, with its imme- 
diate or traditional communications ended in a corruption, which 
not even the Deluge could check. Solemn legal institutes, with 
rites and sanctions most instructive and awful, failed to preserve 
the people from idolatry, though the Great Legislator himself re- 
peatedly interposed; and when, after the captivity, idolatry ceased, 
formalism and infidelity extended on every side, and at length pre- 
vailed (Part ii., Chap, iv.) In the meantime, the power of natural 
religion was tried among the heathen : and the result of the whole, 
the result of an experiment carried on under every form of govern- 
ment, amidst different degrees of civilization, with traditional know- 
ledge and immediate light, is a demonstration, that in our fallen state, 
reformation h>j lav: is hopeless, and that unless some other plan be 
introduced, our race must perish. The Old Testament was given, 
therefore, in part to show us our sins, and to shut us up unto the 
faith (Gal. 3. 23). 

4. To this new faith it is also an introduction, teaching to the 
spiritual and humble under the first dispensation, more or less of 
the plan of salvation to be revealed under the second. Hence its 
types, prophecies, sacrifices; hence assurances of pardon to the 
penitent, and the revelation of a God ready to forgive, though the 
procuring cause of pardon, the provision that was to reconcile justice 
and mercy is not fully stated, nor was it fully understood till the 
remedial work of Christ was accomplished. 

Other purposes also were no doubt answered by this first dispell- 



CONNECTION. 01-' DIFFESE2JT BOOKS. 375 

sation. A knowledge of the true God, which might otherwise have 
died away, was preserved; and the effect of true religion, even in it,? 
less perfect forms was illustrated; but the foregoing are probably 
the chief; 

The relation of the New Testament to these purposes of 
The New the Old is plain. The second, or new covenant, is 
Testament a double completion of the first. As the first was 

Fulininent of L , . . -, 

the Old. a covenant of types and predictions, the second 

fulfils it ; putting the fact in the place of the prophecy, and 
in the place of the shadow, the substance. As under the 
first, moreover, the revelation of God and of duty was im- 
perfect, and holiness was made, or became, ceremonial, na- 
tional, and contracted, the second filled up the system of 
truth and of precept which was thus but partially disclosed, 
developing and explaining it with more of spiritual applica- 
tion, and securing for it in a richer degree the influence of 
the Spirit. In a double sense, then, the gospel is the com- 
pletion (7rX)]pio(jLc) of the law. 

4. Regarding the whole Bible in its connections, we are 
Summary of prepared to trace the continual development of 
the whole. Divine truth in its different parts. 

In the first eleven chapters of Genesis, and hi Job, we have the- 
outlines of the patriarchal religion; in the later chapters of Genesis, 
the history of the transition from it, to the temporary and typical 
dispensation of the law. In the other books of the Pentateuch, 
we have the moral law, illustrative at once of God's character, and 
of human duty; the ceremonial, with its foreshadowings of the great 
atonement; and the civil, the means of the preservation of the other 
two. In the settlement of the Jews under Joshua, whether con- 
sidered in itself, or as an emblem of the future; in the apostasy of 
the Jews, their punishment and deliverance under the Judges; in 
the establishment of the prophetic and kingly offices of later, 
books, in addition to the priestly; and in the unchanging yet diver- 
sified tenor of God's providence to his separated people, we have- 
our knowledge of the Divine character and purpose varied and aug- 
mented. In the Psalms, we have the utterances of devout hearts, 
and much that is predictive of Him in whom all devout hearts trust. 
In the words of Solomon, we learn both the wisdom and the vanity 
of the world, and are led forward to that world where there is neither 
vanity nor vexation, and are at the same time conducted bevond the 
maxims of worldly prudence, to Him who is the eternal wisdom. 
In hie nuntial song, we see God in a new relation to his church, no 



376 CONNECTION OF DIFFERENT BOOKS. 

longer her Lord (Baali), but her husband (Ishi). In Isaiah, we 
have Messiah, as prophet, sacrifice and king, gathering from scenes of 
the captivity descriptions of a double deliverance. In Jeremiah, 
the same scenes are revealed, though dimly, and as in a cloudy and 
dark day. In Ezekiel, the shadowy priesthood of the Jews is 
enlarged into a more glorious and spiritual worship : and in Daniel 
we see the termination of all kingly power in the never ending 
empire of the Messiah. The minor prophets present the same views 
of the Divine government, either in Providence or in grace, and 
Malachi closes the old revelation with predictions of the coming 
appearance of the Sun of righteousness. 

In the New Testament, Matthew, after a silence of the prophetic 
spirit for 400 years, connects the ancient Scriptures with the more 
recent, and completes prophecy by pointing out its fulfilment in 
Christ. Luke reveals Him as a light to lighten the Gentiles; 
Mark, as the mighty God; John as the everlasting Father, and as 
the Prince of peace. The Acts continue the illustration of the ful- 
filment of ancient predictions, and connect the facts of the gospel 
history with the Epistles. Each Epistle, while giving most of the 
doctrines of the gospel, embodies distinctly some particular truth. 
The Epistles to the Thessalonians, exhibit the self -evidencing 
power of the gospel in the hearts of believers, and set forth the 
antecedents and result of the second coming. The Epistles to the 
Corinthians explain Christian unity, and the doctrine of the re- 
surrection. The Epistle to the Romans gives to those whom Paul 
had not then visited, a full view of the gospel without reference to 
any previous communication, enlarging most on the great truth of 
"justification by faith." The simplicity of that faith, and its in- 
dependence of the law, in opposition to the legality of Judaizing 
teachers, is maintained in the Epistle to the Galatians. The Epistle 
to the Hebrews shows the connection between the Christian faith 
and the law; James and John (i Ep.), the connection between 
the Christian faith and practical holiness; while the Epistle to the 
Ephesians, shows that language is unequal to express the fulness 
which is communicated in all abounding grace, from the Head to the 
body. Other Epistles treat of specific duties or truths, and the 
system of revelation is completed by the Apocalypse, which unites 
and closes the prophecies that go before, and introduces the church 
after all her trials and changes, first into millennial rest on earth, 
and then into never ending blessedness in Heaven. a 

The volume that speaks of these topics may be described 
Really one as consisting of two parts ; but they form really 
book - one book : and the truths it reveals are ever the 

a See Douglas on the " Truths of Religion." 



BOOKS : HOW CLASSIFIED. 377 

same, dimly seen or fully disclosed, according to their position 
in relation to the cross. 

5. It becomes us, then, duly to appreciate both Testaments, 
importance Study the Old to see what God has done, and 
and int'e- what therefore he is. See in it a solemn protest 
Old Testa- against idolatry ; a proof that none can be justified 
ment. ^ ^q deeds of the law ; a gradual disclosure of 
the Divine will and of the plan of redemption. Prize it for 
these reasons, but remember also that, as contrasted with 
the New, inspired writers speak of it in depreciating terms. 
They call it "darkness," "flesh," "letter," "bondage," "the 
elements of the world " (Gal. 4. 3), while the gospel is 
"light," "spirit," "liberty," "a heavenly kingdom." Im- 
portant principles of interpretation are thus suggested, nor 
less the peculiar obligations of our position. It is now 
doubly binding upon us to be complete in all His will. Our 
dispensation is light, let us be wise : it is spirit, let us be 
holy : it is power, let us be strong. 

6. The thirty-nine books of the Old Testament may be 
Old Testa- arranged on different principles. Sometimes they 
ment, how are classed according to their contents : the Pen- 

divided. 

tateuch, the historical books, the poetical books, 
and the prophets. This division is sufficiently accurate, 
though several of the books belong to two or more classes, 
and the division has not been uniformly observed. Some- 
times they are classed in the order of time ; and as much of 
the meaning of Scripture is elicited by the chronological 
study of the different books, we shall arrange them in this 
order, not overlooking, however, the difference of object and 
of contents on which the other division rests. 

The importance of specific introductions to each of the 
importance books of the Bible must not be disregarded. Such 
of specific in- introductions will often prove, as Bishop Percy 
has observed, "the best of commentaries, and fre- 
quently supersede the want of any. Like an intelligent 
guide, they direct the reader right at his first setting out, 
and thereby save him the trouble of much after inquiry ; or, 
like a map of the country through which he is to travel, they 
give him a general view of his journey, and prevent his being 
afterwards bewildered and lost." 

We begin with the Pentateuch and the book of Job. 



373 THE PENTATEUCH. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Pentateuch and the Book of Job. 

Sec. i. Genuineness and Authenticity of the Pentateuch, 

7. All complete copies of Holy Scripture begin with the 

Pentateuch. It was called by the Jews "the law," 

1 ltl93. 

or, more fully, "the five-fifths of the law;" or 
simply, the fifths ; a single book being called " a fifth,"* The 
several books take their names in Plebrew from the first 
word or words. The English names are taken from the 
Greek version, and indicate in part the subjects of which 
they treat. Pentateuch means, in Alexandrian Greek, "the 
five volumes ;" a name first used, as was probably the divi- 
sion into five books, by Alexandrian critics. b 

8. That Moses was the author of the Pentateuch is the 
Genuineness testimony 0I> a ^ tradition, both Jewish and heathen ; 
proved from and this testimony is sustained by the record it- 
self. The book is quoted, moreover, by nearly all 

the sacred writers as his work/ and is appealed to as genuine 
and authentic by our Lord and his apostles. 6 The Old 
Testament quotations begin with Joshua, B. c. 145 1, and ex- 
tend over more than a thousand years, B. c. 430. Indeed, the 
coincidences between the Pentateuch and the later books are 
so numerous and exact, that the sense of the law might have 
been gathered, if the law itself had perished, from other parts 
of the Bible ; every allusion in the later books having also its 
corresponding passage in the Pentateuch.*' 

a «nn ncfeHn rfteton ^D-in, and t^sn. 

• T — * T • 

b Havernick. revxos ordinarily means an implement. 

c Deut. 31. 9, 24, 26: Exod. 17. 14: 24. 4-7: 34. 27, 28: Numb. 
33. 2: Deut. 28. 58-61. 

d Josh. 1. 7, 8: 23. 6: Comp. 24. 26: 8. 32, 34: 1 Kings 2. 3: 
2 Kings 22. 8: 2 Chron. 34. 14. 

c Matt. 15. 4: 5. 17, 18, etc. 

f 1 Kings 14. 6, and Deut. 24. 16. 2 Kings 23. 2-25, and Lev. 26. 
3-45: Deut. 27. 11 to 28. 68. Ezra 3. 2-6, and Lev. chaps. 6. 7. 
Neh. 1. 7, 8: and Lev. 26: Deut. 4. 26, 27. Isa. 1. 9, and Gen. 
19. 2-4. Isa. 12, and Exod. 15. 2. Micah 6. 5, and Numb. 22. 5, etc. 
Amos 2. 9, and Numb. 21. 21-24. Amos 4. 11, and Gen. 19. 24, 25. 



GENUINENESS OP THE PENTATEUCH. 370 

The testimony of profane history is, of course, much later 
From profane than Scripture. Mahomet (a. d. 569) maintained 
history. jfogfc ]\£ ses was inspired, and the Jewish law 

divine. Julian, the apostate (331), acknowledged that per- 
sons instructed of God once lived amongst the Israelites, and 
maintained both the genuineness and the authenticity of 
these books. Porphyry (233) admits their genuineness, and 
contends for the truth of Sanconiathon's accounts, from 
their accordance with the Mosaic history. Nicolaus of 
Damascus, an eminent orator, and Strabo, both contem- 
poraries of Augustus, ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses ; as 
do Tacitus, tTuvenal, and Longinus (a. d. 273). 

Internal evidence corroborates this view. (i)< The books 
internal were evidently written by a Hebrew, speaking the 
evidence of language and cherishing the sentiments of his 

genuineness. . • / \ m •.. -1 TT i 

nation. (2). lney were written by a Hebrew 
acquainted with Egypt and Arabia, their customs and learn- 
ing a But Egyptian learning was carefully concealed from 
foreigners (Her. ii. c. 3, 100, 101, 164, 168). The priests 
alone, and the royal family, who were reckoned as priests,, 
had access to it. To this class, therefore, the writer must 
have belonged. (3). There is, moreover, an exact correspond- 
ence between the narrative and the institutions, showing 
that both had one author. The laws are not given in the 
form of statutes, but are mixed with narrative, and are in- 
serted as the exigencies requiring them arose. They are 
often briefly sketched, and afterwards repeated at greater 
length, with such modifications as were demanded by altered 
circumstances. 13 (4). No less remarkable is the agreement 
between the style of the different books and the circum- 
stances of Moses. In the earlier narrative of Exodus and 
Numbers, the style is broken and abrupt. In Deuteronomy, 
it is continuous and parental. The history of the antedi- 
luvians is brief and simple ; of the Jews, full and explicit ; 
and the whole exhibits the unity of design which bespeaks a 
single author. 

* See Gen. 13. 10: 40. 11, 16: (see pp. 380-1), 42. 9: 47. 20-6: 
Dent. 11. 10: Numb. 13. 22. 

b Compare Exod. 21. 27, and Deut. 15. 12, 17. Numb. 4. 24-3 3, 
and 7. 1-9. Lev. 17. 3, 4. and Deut. 12. 5, 6, 21. Exod. 22. 26, 
and Deut. 24. 6, 10-15. 



380 AUTHENTICITY OF THE PENTATEUCH. 

The first doubt expressed on this question in England was by- 
Thomas Hobbes, a. d. 1650, at least three thousand years after the 
first publication of the Pentateuch. Nor were doubts expressed by 
any known writer earlier than the 13 th century. 

9. The evidence of the authenticity of the Pentateuch is no 
.. x . #i less decisive ; though, as many of the events are 

Authenticity. V ° ' . J 

recorded only here, it is necessarily less compre- 
hensive than similar evidence in the case of ordinary history, 
its state- Several of the historical statements of the 

firmed by " Pentateuch are confirmed by the traditions of 
tradition. ancient nations. 

In proof of its general accuracy, Josephus appeals to various 
public records, and to books extant in his time (a. d. 70,) confirming 
in this way the history of the flood, of the delivery from Egypt, and 
of the expulsion of the Canaanites. Creation completed in six 
distinct days, or in six distinct periods, the division of time into 
weeks, the seventh day being holy, the state of innocency or the 
golden age, the promise of a Mighty Deliverer, the flood, the ark — 
are traditions preserved among nearly all nations, and have been 
shown to exist in the East, though strangely disguised, in the very 
age when Moses lived. Faber's Hora) Mosaics, i. 1-136; Graves on 
the Pentateuch, i. ; Sir William Jones's Works, and Maurice's Hin- 
dostan. See other traditions in S. Turner's Sacred History, i., and 
Kitto's Daily Bible 111. Antedil. and Patriarchs. 

A new kind of proof has sprung up in our own days. It has been 
Raid, for example, that the following customs, or allusions, are 
Asiatic, and not Egyptian, or are later than the exode: building 
with bricks, Exod. 1. 14; keeping asses — animals odious to the 
Egyptians; the presence of eunuchs, implied in the name given to 
the captain of the guard, Gen. 37. 36; the freedom of domestic life 
implied in Gen. 39; the use of wine, which Herodotus says was not 
made in Egypt; of rings and other ornaments, 41. 42; the appoint- 
ment of stewards, 43. 16, 19: 44. i; the custom of sitting at table, 
43. 32. All, however, have been confirmed by the discovery of 
ancient Egyptian monuments. Bricks are still found with the 
names of the oldest Egyptian dynasties stamped upon them. To 
the art of wine-making, Rosellini devotes a section of his work; and 
upon the very monuments whence his illustrations are taken appear 
eunuchs, stewards, ornaments, and entertainments, exhibiting habits 
of social intercourse, and modes of sitting, such as the Pentateuch 
implies. 

That the Egyptians shaved, Gen. 41. 14, and carried burdens, not 



AUTHENTICITY I EXTERNAL EVIDENCE. 3S1 

on the shoulder, but on the head, 40. 16; that shepherds were 
treated with great contempt — the butts of Egyptian wit; that caste 
existed; that foreigners were naturalized, by clothing them in the 
celebrated Egyptian linen, Gen. 41. 42 ; are facts confirmed by 
ancient sculptures, or expressly mentioned by Herodotus as peculiar 
to Egypt. 

See Hengstenberg's " Egypt, and the Books of Moses." 

The statements of the Pentateuch are confirmed, more- 
liy various over, by the facts of history (a), ethnography (&), 
facts. an( j geology (c), so far as these have been clearly 

ascertained. 

(a). No nation has credible, or even intelligible, records ex- 
tending earlier than the flood. The dynasties of Egypt run up, on 
the largest interpretation, no higher than b. c, 2200 (Champollion), 
The reign of Yoa, the first Chinese emperor mentioned by Con* 
fucius (B. c. 450), cannot be earlier than b. c. 2500; nor is there any 
historical certainty till the year B.C. 782 (Klaproth). The cele- 
brated chronology of India reaches no higher than B.C. 2256, and 
then we have Buddha himself, the representative, perhaps, of Noah 
Col. Tod.) Such is the testimony of witnesses who have examined 
the most ancient chronological systems avowedly without any 
leaning to the Pentateuch. 

(b). Ethnography in its threefold division, philological, physio- 
logical, and ethical, is equally in favour of the Mosaic account. 
The mythological systems of India, China, Greece, and Scandinavia, 
are really identical (Sir TV*. Jones) ; while Shemitic nations are all 
monotheistic, indicating, in each case, identity of origin. All 
known languages, it is admitted, are reducible to a few families: 
the Indo-Europoean, the Shemitic, the Ugro-Tartarian, the Malayan, 
the Transfengetic, which are chiefly monosyllabic; the American, 
and the African. Chev. Bunsen and Mr. Schon have already traced 
the Egyptian, and several of the African dialects, to a Shemitic 
origin. The American languages are proved to be chiefly Asiatic, 
and the ablest scholars find, among all, such affinities as bespeak 
original unity (so Humboldt, Klaproth, F. Schlegel, Balbi, Herder). 
Philologically and physiologically, "the human race/' says the 
last-named, "is a progressive whole, dependent upon a common 
origin." "With the increase of knowledge in every direction/' is 
the last testimony of Dr. Pritchard, "we find continually less and 
less reason for believing that the diversified races of men are sepa- 
rated from each other by insuperable barriers. " 

(c). Nor is geology an unimportant witness. One of its clearest 
lessons is the recentness of the "last great geological change." 



382 AUTHENTICITY : LNTERXAL EVIDENCE. 

The present state of the globe " cannot date nruch farther than five 
or six thousand years " (Saussure, Cuvier, De Luc.) 

Independently, even, of external evidence, the internal is 
internal itself decisive. The artlessness of the style, the 
•evidence. frequent genealogies, the impartiality of the author 
in recording the faults of the Jews and his own, a are all 
obvious. Add to this, that Judaism is founded upon the 
supposed truthfulness of these records. They give the 
history of Jewish institutions, and the reasons for the ob- 
servance of them. If there be a forgery, when could it have 
been executed ? Not when the version of the LXX was 
made (b. c. 275). Not on the return from Babylon (b. c. 536), 
Ez. 2. 62. Not on the division of the kingdom (975). Not 
in the days of Samuel (1095). Not in the four hundred years 
preceding. For at each successive era there were thousands 
interested in detecting the forgery, and in setting aside the 
burdensome and peculiar institutions founded upon it. To 
suppose that any man could secure the observance of Circum- 
cision, of the Passover, of the feast of Pentecost, or of Taber- 
nacles, on the plea that these rules had been observed from 
the first, and for the reasons assigned, when it must have 
been known that this statement was untrue, is to suppose a 
greater miracle than any the record contains. And these 
institutions had their origin, it will be noticed, not in the 
ordinary events of the history, but in the miracles : so that 
by them, not only the history, but each miracle is con- 
firmed. 15 

10. It may be added, that it is supposed by some writers 
,- . „ a that the author of the Pentateuch used various 
^documents ancient documents in preparing this volume. 
Hence quotations from other books, and hence, 
perhaps, the different names applied, in different parts, with 
marked uniformity to God. 

In Numb. 21, 14, 15, for example, the "book of the wars of 
Jehovah" is quoted, and in ver. 27-30 is an extract from a war- 
song of the Amorites. So in Gen. 1.-2. 3, the name applied to God 

n See history of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob; also Deut. 26. 5: Exod. 
2. 14: Numb. 20. 10-13. 

b Graves has expanded this argument with great force : " Lectures 
on the Pentateuch/' i. ii. 



PENTATEUCH EPITOMIZED. 383 

is uniformly God (DTl^K Elohhn). In Gen. 2. 4-3, it is Jehovah - 
God. In chap, 5, it is God only, except in ver. 29, where a quotation 
is made. In Gen. 6-9, God and Jehovah are used indiscriminately 
everywhere, except in 9. 29, where a quotation is made; and in 
chaps. 12, 13, Jehovah only. In chap. 14, a new name is introduced, 
"God most High," and is used throughout the chapter. 

This opinion was first advanced by Vitringa, Obs. Sac. i. 
chap. 4, § 23, and has been advocated by Camiet, Home, Pye 
Smith, Stuart, and others. The errors and refinements of 
some modern writers have brought it into, perhaps, unde- 
served discredit. 
AndacTdi- XI There are also passages which must have 

nons made to _ x ° 

the original been added after the death of Moses. 

narrative. 

Deut. 34 records his death and burial. Gen. 36. 31-39 gives a 
supplementary list of Edomitish chiefs, and in several passages the 
later designation of a place has been substituted for, or is given 
with the original name, as in Gen. 14. 14, where Dan is put for 
Laish (see Josh. 19. 47): so Gen. 13. i3 (Josh. 14. 15): Gen. 13. 3 
,Gen. 28. 19): 14. 2, 7, 8: Deut. 3. 9: 4. 48. 

12. In the Jewish canon, the Pentateuch is kept distinct 

True nature fr° m '^ ne res ^ °f Scripture, as it is the basis of the 
of the Penta- theocracy. The title " law " describes the prin- 

t euch 

cipal subject of the books, though their true 
central point is the covenant relation between Jehovah and 
Israel. The whole of the Old Testament is, indeed, the 
history of that covenant, of the preparation for it, and of its 
progressive development, till it gave place to the gospel. 
Briefly 13. The events recorded in these books may^be 

•epitomized, arranged as follows : — 

^Genesis. — The Creation, 1, 2: the fall and antediluvian world, 3-6: 
the deluge, 7, 8, a consequence of wickedness: the blessing of 
Xoah and the re-peopling of the earth, 9, 10: the dispersion, n: 
call and history of Abraham, 12-25: of Isaac, 26, 27: of Jacob, 
etc., to the death of Joseph, 28-50. — A period of 2369 years (or 
of 3619, Hales). 

Exodus. — The Israelites after Joseph's death, 1 : birth and training 
of Moses, 2-6: the Exode, 7-15. 21: first year's journey, their 
covenant, moral and other laws, the tabernacle, 15. 22-40. — A 
period of 145 years. 

Leviticus.— Laws on sacrifices, 1-7: on the Levit teal pries the od, 



384 PENTATEUCH, AND THE BOOK OF JOB. 

8-10: on purifications, 11-22: on festivals, etc., 23-27. — One 

month. 
Numbers. — Events from the numbering of the people, 1-4: in the 

second year to the thirty -ninth year, several laws, 5-10. to: and 

the journeys of the Israelites, 10. 11-36. — Nearly 39 years. 
Deuteronomy, or the law repeated, has seven parts, giving — 

1. A summary of privileges and history of the Israelites, 

1-4. 40. 

2. A summary of their laws, moral, civil, and ceremonial, 

4. 40-26. 

3. Directions as to what is to be done after crossing Jordan, 

including the blessings and curses, 27, 28. 

4. Exhortations to obedience, 29, 30. 

5. A narrative of events subsequent, with the song of Moses, 

3i, 32. 

6. The benediction of Moses, 3 3 ; and 

7. An account of his death, 34. — A period of five or eight weeks. 

Sec. 2. Hie Booh of Job. 

14. This book takes its name from the venerable patriarch 
whose history it records. Its antiquity, and the brevity of 
its style, make it confessedly difficult of interpretation. But 
these difficulties seldom refer to topics of religious im- 
portance. 

As Job is mentioned in Scripture in connection with other 
known saints (Ezek. 14. 14 : Jas. 5. 11), it may be 
safely concluded that he was a real person, and 
that the narrative is no fiction. This conclusion is sustained 
by the details given of persons and places, and by other in- 
ternal evidence. Uz, the country which he inhabited, was 
probably in the north-east of Arabia Deserta. 

The age in which Job lived is a question that has created 
When he much discussion. The most probable opinions 
lived. fixes it as earlier than Abraham. The book may 

be read, therefore, between the nth and 12th chapters of 
Genesis, as a supplement to the concise record of the early 
condition of our race, given by Moses. 

The arguments adduced in support of the latter opinion 
are as follows. (1.) The long life of Job, extending to 200 
years. (2.) The absence of any allusion to the Mosaic law, 
or the wonderful works of God towards Israel in their de- 
parture from the land of bondage, and their journey to 



JOB : DATE AND AUTHOB.SHIP. 385 

Canaan ; which are constantly referred to by the other sacred 
writers, as illustrating the character and government of 
Jehovah. (3.) The absence of any reference to the destruc- 
tion of Sodom and Gornorrha ; which memorable event oc- 
curred in the vicinity of the country where Job resided ; and 
which, as a signal and direct judgment of the Almighty upon 
the wicked, would hardly have been omitted in an argument 
of this nature. (4.) The worship of the sun and moon being 
the only form 01 idolatry mentioned ; which was. without 
question, the most ancient, chap. 31. 26-28. (5.) The man- 
ners and customs described, which are those of the earliest 
patriarchs. (6.) The religion of Job is of the same kind as 
that which prevailed among the patriarchs before the Mosaic 
economy. It is the religion of sacrifices ; but without any 
officiating priest, or sacred place. (7.) To these arguments 
Dr. Hales has added one derived from astronomy, founded on 
chaps. 9. 9, and 38. 31, 32. He states, that the principal 
stars there referred to, appear, by a retrograde calculation, to 
have been the cardinal constellations of spring and autumn 
about B. c. 2130, or about 184 years before the birth of 
Abraham. 

It i's worthy of notice, that if Job lived between the deluge 
and the call of Abraham, we have an additional proof that 
God has never left the world without witnesses to his truth. 

On the other hand, some think they detect allusions to the 
destruction of Sodom, etc. in chap. 15. 34 : 18. 15 : 20. 26 ; 
and adduce the coincidence of many names occurring in this 
book, with those of some of Abraham's descendants, through 
Ishmael and Esau, as indications of a somewhat later age. 
By some of these writers it is assigned to the earlier period 
of the sojourn in Egypt. 

Eespecting the author of the book, a difference of opinion 

prevails. Some ascribe it to Job, others to Elihu ; 

and others to Moses. Whoever was its author, 

its canonical authority is proved by its place in the Jewish 

Scriptures, and the recognition of the whole collection by our 

Lord and his apostles. 

15. The book may be divided into three parts : — 

Contents i. The historical introduction in prose, 1. 2., giving a 

narrative of sudden and severe affliction, borne with 
exemplary patience. 

ii. The argument or controversy, in poetry, in five divisions ; 

- . S 



28G JOB : CONTEXTS AND OBJECT. 

i. The first series of discussions, comprising Job's complaint, 3.; 
the speech of Eiiphaz, 4. 5.; and Job's answer, 6. 7.; of 
Bildad, 8.; and Job's answer, 9. 10.; of Zophar, 11.; and 
Job's answer, 12.-14. 

2. The second series, comprising the speech of Eiiphaz, 15.; and 

Job's answer, 16. 17.; of Bildad, 18.; and Job's answer, 
19.; of Zophar, 20.; and Job's answer, 21. 

3. The third series, comprising the speech of Eiiphaz, 22.; and 

Job's answer, 23. 24.; of Bildad, 25.; and Job's answer, 

26.-31. 
The question discussed thus far is, whether great suffering be not 
an evidence of great guilt. Job's friends affirm it, and exhort him 
to repent and reform. Job denies it, appeals to facts, and complains 
bitterly of his friends for aggravating his distress by false charges. 

4. The speech of Elihu, 32.-37. 

Elihu maintains, that T afflictions are meant for the good of the 
sufferer; even when not properly the consequences of sin; he 
reproves Job for justifying himself, rather than God, and vindicates 
the Divine character and government. 

5 . The close of the discussion, by the address of the Almighty 

(not condescending to explain his conduct, but), illus- 
trating his power and wisdom, 38.-41.; and Job's response 
and penitential confession, 42. 1-6. 
iii. The conclusion in prose, 42. 7-17, giving an account of Job's 
acceptance and prosperity. 

16. The precise object of the book has given rise to much dis- 
cussion. Mercenary selfishness was the charge 
brought against Job, 1. In the end the charge is 
disproved. Job is assured that the Judge of all the earth 
will do right, and resolves still to trust, though God should 
slay him, 19. 23-26. The nature and power of faith are thus 
illustrated, as is the identity of true piety in every age. 
Such perhaps was one chief object of the inspired writer in 
this composition. The book, moreover, displays the Provi- 
dence of God in its inscrutableness and mercy, and sets forth 
in unrivalled magnificence the glory of the Divine attributes. 
It illustrates human depravity, a exhibits faith in a coming 
Iledeemer and a future life, b speaks of sacrifice as the ap- 
pointed means of acceptance, and shows the benefit of inter- 
cessory prayer. d 

Not all, of course, that even Job said in these discussions, 

a 33- 3, 9: 34. S> 9, 35- h 19. 25-29: ^. 23-28. 

c t. $: 42. 8, d 4- 8, 9. 



JOB : LESSONS : HEBREW POETRY. 387 

is to be commended. The principles advanced are sometimes 
erroneous, and sometimes also the conclusions. Inspiration 
describes accurately what was said or done, without neces- 
sarily sanctioning either. 

1 7. The practical lessons suggested by the book, are obvious 

and important. Copy Elihu's humility. Though 
able to speak best, he spoke last. Uncharitableness 
is of the devil (i. 9, 10). Its origin, no less than its unlove- 
liness, should put us on our guard against it. . . . Perfect 
and upright men are among the first to confess their vileness 
(1. 1 : 40. 4 : 42. 6). Our progress in holiness may be mea- 
sured by our humility. ." . . What wisdom is needed to con- 
duct controversy wisely, when even Job failed. . . . How 
needful is a specific revelation, when even good men, with an 
accurate knowledge of God, and of many principles of his 
government, misread the lessons written upon his works. 
To correct human misapprehension on such questions, God 
had himself to interpose. 

Sec. 3. On Hebrew Poetry and the Poetical Boohs. 

18. As Job is the earliest of the poetical books of the 
Hebrew Bible, it may be convenient to make here a few 
poetry. remarks on the nature of Hebrew poetry. 

The division of the Holy Scriptures usually called the poetical 
books comprises Job, Psalms, and Proverbs; some adding Eccle- 
siastes and the Song of Solomon. In point of date, some portions 
of them are earlier, and others are later, than many parts of the 
historical books; but they are classed by themselves, as being 
almost wholly composed in Hebrew verse. In the Jewish Canon ot 
Scripture, they are included in the Hagiographa, or Holy Writings. 
The writings of the prophets are, for the most part, also in a 
poetical form. 

The peculiar excellence of the Hebrew poetry is to be ascribed to 
the employment of it in the noblest service, that of religion. It 
presents the loftiest and most precious truths, expressed in the 
most appropriate language. 

There is so nmch uncertainty respecting the ancient pronunciation 
of the language, that it is not easy to determine the nature of the 
Hebrew versification. But much light has been thrown upon the 
subject, in later times, by Lowth, Jebb, and other scholars. The 
leading characteristics of Hebrew poetry may be described generally 
as consisting in the ornate and elevated character of the style, in 
the use of certain words and forms of words, in the sententious 

8 2 



388 HEBREW POETRY. 

manner of expression, and in certain peculiarities in the structure 
and combination of the sentences. These peculiarities appear in 
the following artificial forms. 

There is sometimes an alphabetical arrangement of the whole 
poem; each line commencing with one of the letters of the alphabet, 
or every alternate verse beginning w r ith a succeeding letter, or a 
series of verses with the same initial letter: see Psa. 119 and Lam. 3. 
In Psa. 119, in the original, eight verses in succession begin with 
the same letter, followed by eight more beginning with the suc- 
ceeding letter; and so on, through the alphabet, dividing the whole 
Psalm into alphabetical strophes. There are twelve of these alpha- 
betical poems in the Old Testament. 

Another artificial form of poetry appears to have consisted in the 
repetition of the same verse or sentiment, at somewhat distant in- 
tervals, or after a certain number of verses, as in Psa. 42. 5, 11: 
43. 5: 107. 8, 15, 21, 3r: Isa. 9. 12, 17, 21: 10. 4: Amos 1. 3, 6, 
9, 11, 13: 2. 1, 4, 6. 

But the most striking peculiarity of Hebrew poetry is what Lowth 
entitles parallelism ; that is, there is a certain correspondence, 
either as to thought or language, or both, between the members of 
each period. Sometimes the secondary expression is little more 
than an echo of the first: sometimes it adds to it a new 7 idea; and 
often greatly excels it in force and beauty : sometimes, to heighten 
the impression, the main idea is expressed in contrast with some 
other. It is in a great measure owing to this structure of the sen- 
tences that our translation of these books has so much of a poetical 
cast; for being, for the most part, literal, it retains much both 
of the form and of the simple beauty of the Hebrew. 

This poetical parallelism admits many varieties, more or less 

defined. The following classification will illustrate the 
Parallelism. , . , 
subject. 

1. Some parallelisms are gradational or synonymous. 

2. Others are antithetic: see chap, iv., sec. 3, par. 286. 
Occasionally we meet with a double synonyme and a double 

antithesis; as in Isa. 1. 3, 19, 20. 

A double antithetical form of the parallelism is not uncommon 
in the Prophets. A very beautiful parallelism of this kind occurs 
in Hab. 3. 17, 18. See also Isa. 9. 10. 

3 . A third form of parallelism is the synthetic, or constructive. In 
this form, word does not answer to word, nor sentence to sentence, 
either as of an equivalent or as of an opposite meaning; but there is 
a correspondence and similarity between the different propositions 
in respect of the shape and turn of the whole sentence. This 
species of parallels includes such as do not come within the two 
former classes; and its variety is very great. 



PARALLELISM. 389 

In this kind of parallelism, the writer, instead of merely echoing 
the former sentiment, or placing it in contrast, enforces his thought 
by accessory ideas and modifications, generally preserving through- 
out a correspondence of form between the different parts. As ex- 
amples, see Job 3. 3-9: Psa. 148. 7-13: Isa. 1. 5-9: 58. 5-8, 
Instances of this kind of parallelism are found in abundance in tne 
Scriptures, and especially in the Prophets. 

Respecting these different species of parallelism, Bp. Jebb re- 
marks, that, separately, '-'each kind admits many subordinate 
varieties; and that, in combinations of verses, the several kinds are 
perpetually intermingled; circumstances which at once enliven and 
beautify the composition and frequently give peculiar distinctness 
and precision to the train of thought." 

It may be added that, according to the theme and divisions, 
Hebrew poetry is lyric, as in the Psalms ; epic, as in Job ; didactic, as 
in the Proverbs; pastoral, or idyllic, as in Canticles; and pro- 
phetical, as in the earlier prophets. Occasionally, we have rhyme, 
though probably not designed by the poet, Gen. 4. 23 : Job 6.4, 7, 
9, 13, 22, 29. 

In reading the Bible, it is very desirable to understand the laws 
of poetic parallelism; for these often furnish important facilities for 
interpretation. As one member oi a sentence frequently expresses 
the same sense as its parallel, difficult words and phrases are thus 
rendered susceptible of easy explanation. 

In the Paragraph Bible (Religious Tract Society), the poetical 
parts of Scripture are printed according to the order of the original, 
in parallelisms. These parallelisms, indeed, are not always indi- 
cated in the mode of printing the Hebrew text (except in Exod. 15 : 
Deut. 32: Judges 5: and 2 Sam. 22); but the lines may always be 
marked by attention to the accents. 

Sec. 4. The Boohs of the Pentateuch arranged and epitomized 

with Occasional Helps. 

19. I11 studying the Bible as it ought to be studied for prac- 
Bibie. how tical purposes, we may advantageously regard it as a 
regarded, revelation of G od, of man, and of salvation, each chap- 
ter throwing light on one or on all of these themes. Or it may be 
regarded in other aspects. According to the form into which 
the different portions of the Bible are thrown, we may describe 
it as a book of biography, containing the lives of believers and 
unbelievers, with the history of their influence and example : 
of history, under its twofold division, of the church and the 
world : of doctrine, gradually disclosing Divine truth : of ethics, 



390 BIBLE : VARIOUSLY REGARDED, 

teaching the whole range of human duty : of positive institu- 
tions, founded on the will of God, and, therefore, mutable, as 
morality is immutable, being founded in his character : and 
of practical wisdom, suggesting and illustrating rules of both 
human and divine prudence. In accordance with this divi- 
sion we may read the whole, asking everywhere what light is 
thrown here on personal or national character, on ethics, on 
spiritual truth, on positive institutions, or on practical wisdom. 
Simpler and more practical, however, is the division first 
suggested. Study the Bible to know God, his nature, perfec- 
tions, and government ; to know man, his condition and 
destiny, his duties and privilege ; to know Christ in his office 
and work ; and it will be found that under one of these three 
heads we may arrange all that Scripture teaches and reveals. 

20. It is an instructive suggestion," 1 that, after reading 

through a book of Scripture, we should read it 

1-ead with 

reference to again with reference to some one subject. Many 
one subject. jU us trations of truth prevent mistakes, teach us to 
apply it, and deepen its impression upon the mind. If we 
apply this suggestion, under the guidance of the hints and 
clearer instruction of the gospel, to the Pentateuch, we shall 
find it peculiarly useful. No portion of Scripture, indeed, is 
richer in these three-fold revelations. 

In reading history (it may be added), our business is so to 
History: group and compare particular facts as to connect 
Doctrine. them with the motives and principle from which 
they spring, and hence to apply the lessons taught in the in- 
spired narrative, with wisdom and clearness. In reading- 
precept or doctrine, on the other hand, seek rather to illus- 
trate it, so as to make it more impressive and touching. Let 
facts lead up to principles ; and let principles be set forth 
and explained in appropriate facts. For the first, see notes 
on Genesis ; and for the second, see notes on Proverbs. 

21. In the following summary the whole Bible will be 

found chronologically arranged ; and it is highly 
following important that it should be studied in this order. 

arrangement. j t ^ alsQ be found ^ Y ^ e ^ f or t he most part, 

into sections, according to the sense. The notes at the foot 

a Bishop of London, Lent Sermons on St. John's Gospel, quoted 
by Nichols. 



GENESIS I LPiTOMIZED AXD ARRANGED. 391 

of the page are all adapted, as far as they go, to explain the 
sacred text. They are not intended, however, as a com- 
mentary upon it, but simply as helps to put readers in the ivay 
of making comments for themselves, and so of applying prin- 
ciples already discussed. 

It will be remarked that Old Testament pre-intimations of 
the Messiah — his person, office, and work — are all 
for coming printed in Italics, and in such a form as to catch 
of Messiah, ^q e ye at a glance. Though, therefore, these are 
of the deepest importance, the notes but seldom refer to 
them. Let them not, however, be overlooked by the reader. 

For the devotional study of the Bible, the reader may often, 
with advantage, lay aside ah helps, and select a few verses only, 
marking and applying the truths suggested by each word and 
sentence (see chap, vii.) Many have found this plan more im- 
pressive than the more student-like process above described. 
The two plans of study are in themselves consistent, though 
human weakness has led us to regard them as opposed. If 
we could but study devotionally — tracing God, and Christ, and 
ourselves everywhere, and applying the whole as we proceed — 
the mind and the heart would alike gain by the arrangement, 

22. (i.) From the Creation, 4004 ; to the Death of Noah, 

2006 years. 



Date and Place. 



Events illustrating the coming and work of the Messiah ; 
and ordinary Occurrences. 



B. C. 




4004. 


The Creation, Gen. 1. 2. 4-7. 


For these 


Institution of the Sabbath, Gen. 2. 1-3. 


dates see 


Creation of Adam and Eve, briefly described in 


§353. 


chap. 1, recapitulated, Gen. 2. 8-25. 


4004. 


The fall of Man, Gen. 3. 1-13. 


Eden. a 


{Connection of the first sin with man's subsequent state, 




Rom. 5. 14: 1 Cor. 15). 


Eden. 


First promise of a Saviour • expulsion from Eden, 




Gen. 3. 14-24. 


4003-2, 


Birth of Cain and Abel, Gen. 4. 1, 2. 


Near Eden. 





a Eden is supposed to have been either near the head of the 
Persian Gulf, or in Armenia, near the sources of the Tigris and 
Euphrates. 



392 



GENESIS, 4-9 : LESSONS. 



Date and Place. 

B.C. 

3B75. 

3875. 

3875-3504, 

Nod. 

. 3874, 
Near Eden. 

3769. 

2468. 



2468. 

2348. 

2 347; 
Armenia, 

or Ararat, 

Gen. 8. 4. 

Togarmah, 

Ezek. 27. 14. 

2247> 
A. M. 1 75 7, 

B. C. 2233. 

Shinaar, (Ba- 
bylonia, or 
Irak Arabu) 
1998. 



Events illustrating the coming and work of the Itfessiah ; 
and ordinary Occurrences. 



Sacrifice first mentioned, Abel's accepted, Gen. 4. 3-7. 

Cain's crime and curse, Gen. 4. 8-15. 

Cain builds Enoch; his descendants; Lamech's 
speech, etc., Gen. 4. 16-24. 

Birth of Seth, and of Enos; world and church dis- 
tinguished. Gen. 4. 25, 26. 

Genealogy from Adam to Noah ; the line of the Mes- 
siah, Gen. 5. 

Wickedness of the world ; God determines to des- 
troy it after a respite of 120 years; Noah preaches 
(2 Pet. 2. 5), Gen. 6. 

Covenant renev:ed with him; he builds an ark as God 
commanded, Gen. 6. 18. 

Noah enters the ark; the Deluge, Gen. 7. 

The waters abate; Noah leaves the ark, Gen. 8. 

God's covenant renewed with Noah, Gen. 9. 1-1 7. 

Noah and his sons; his prediction concerning them 

[Gen. 9. 18-27].* 



Babel; confusion of tongues; dispersion, Gen. 11. 1-9. 

Genealogies of Noah's sons; Nimrod founds Baby- 
lonian or Assyrian empire, [Gen. 10.] 

Genealogy from Shem to Terah; the line of the Mes- 
siah, [Gen. 11. 10-26]. 



Death of Noah, 



Gen. 9. 28, 29. 



Gen. 1. On this narrative of the creation, see § 224; and the 
brevity and moral completeness of the whole history, see § 220. The 
history of the world before the flood occupies seven chapters. The 
general history of mankind for more than 400 years after, four more. 
The history of Abraham and his descendants, for only 286 years, 
occupies thirty-nine chapters, and contains details rich in moral 
wisdom. 

Gen. 1. 26. Let us: On, the gradual revelation of the Divine 
nature in the Old Testament, see § 230. 

Gen. 1.2. Creation is here ascribed to God. All heathen philo- 
sophers maintained the eternity of matter; even those who taught 
that God moulded it into its various forms. This chapter teaches 
more truth on creation than all heathen cosmogonies combined, and 

H Passages marked thus [ ], are either repetitions, genealogical 
tables, or otherwise less suitable for general, or family reading. 



GENESIS : LESSONS. 303 

it so teaches it as to prove the folly of idolatry. What God is here 
said to have made, the Egyptians and others worshipped. See 
Faber's Orig. of Pag. Idol. 

Gen. 2. 4. Gives a particular account of what had been briefly 
recorded in 1. 27. 

Gen. 2. 2, 24. The law of marriage and the law of the sabbath 
were instituted before man fell. The sabbath was at first con- 
secrated by the fact that it closed the work of creation. That it 
continued to be observed is clear from the division of time into 
weeks, 8. 8-13: 29. 27, 28; the recognition of the day before the 
giving of the law, Ex. 16. 22-30; and the form of the precept, Re- 
member I From the exode the sabbath was further consecrated by 
the deliverance on that day of the Israelites (Ex. 20. andDeut. 5. 15.) 
Under the gospel we observe the day that commemorates a greater 
deliverance, and introduces a new creation. The day in the seven 
is changed ; but a day in seven has been observed from the first, 
A-cts 20. 7: Rev. 1. 10. The day is to be kept as one of rest, of 
moral improvement, and of joyous holy devotion, Ex. 31. 13: 
Is. 58. 13, 14. 

Gen. 3.6, 7. Mark the history of the first sin (§ 220), and the con- 
nection of that sin with our fallen condition. Compare ch. 2. 3. 
with Rom. 5 : 1 Cor. 15. Neither add to the inspired explanation, 
nor take from it. Sound views on this question lie at the founda- 
tion of all accurate systems of truth. (John 3.) 

Gen. 3. Study the character and personality of the tempter in 
the light thrown upon both by inspiration, 2 Cor. 2. n: 11. 3-14: 
Eph. 6. ir : Luke 22. 3: Acts 5. 3: Matt. 13. 25. His wiles and 
influence are described here in terms which prove this history to be 
no fiction. See § 463, 4. 

Gen. 3. 15. On the delay of the fulfilment of the first promise, 
see § 382. 

Note on this whole narrative the justice of God in punishing sin, 
and compare the history of Cain, 4; of the flood, 6; of Sodom, 19; and 
even of the patriarchs. Note also his mercy. The promise before 
the sentence; the curse of labour made a blessing: and compare 
Noah's preaching, the delay of the flood, and the promise to save 
Sodom if ten righteous had been found in it. God " warns that he 
may not strike." He is long-suffering, but also just. 

Gen. 4. 4. The first and second sacrifices mentioned in Scripture 
were specially accepted, Gen. 4. 4: 8. 20; and in later instances the 
acceptance of them is implied, 12. 7, 8: 13. 18. The institution of 
sacrifice by God himself is expressly recorded in Gen. j£. 9. What 
it meant may be gathered from the New Testament. The feelings 
it excited and expressed were such as are now excited, though is 

S3 



394 



JOB : GENESIS I LESSONS. 



an infinitely higher degree, by the sacrifice of the cross, § 231, 245. 
On "Sacrifice of Divine Origin," see Magee on the Atonement, and 
Faber's Origin of Pagan Idol., b. 2, ch. viii, 

Gen. 4. 25. — The promise of a great deliverer is suspended now, 
as afterwards, upon a single life— Isaac, Joash, 2 Kings 11. 

Gen. 5 . All the history of Scripture is useful. This chapter de- 
scribes, with sad monotonv, the character and death of the ante- 
diluvians; but it fixes the age of the antediluvian world, and it 
completes the evidence of the descent of our Lord from the first 
man, at once confirming a prediction, and illustrating a truth. 

Gen. 5. 24. Mark the three ascensions to heaven, in three suc- 
cessive stages of the plan of redemption — of Enoch, Elijah, and our 
Lord; each an evidence of immortality, and the last the foundation 
of man's title to it. 

Abel is slain. Enoch translated. Jacob chosen. Elijah taken 
to heaven without dying. John, his New Testament representative, 
foully murdered. "Even so, Father !" is the only solution man 
can give— a solution sanctioned by the Bible. Psa. 135. 6: Rom. 
9. 20: Dan. 4. 35. 

Gen. 8. 22. Even nature proves God's faithfulness. 

Gen. 11. On chronology, a* fixed by this chapter, see § 356. 

Gen. ir. 9. Place ch. 10. after 11. 9, because in 11. 1-9 men have 
one speech; in 10. we find them scattered. 

23. (ii.) From the Death of Noah to the Birth of Moses, 

417 years. 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B.C. 

Uz, in Idu- 
maea. 



1996, 
Ur, Eclessa, 
now Orfa. 

1922, 
Ilaran, Char- 
res, Harran. 



1. Job. 

The exact date of Job is not known. There is good 
reason, however, for placing his history before that 
of Abraham, see Introduction to Job, or Town- 
send's Arrangement, i., p. 28; for analysis, see 
p. 384, etc. Job 1-42. 

[Chaps. 3-31]: chaps. 19. 25-27: 33. 23-28, are direct 
references to the work of the Messiah. 

2. Abraham. 

Birth of Abram; marries Sarai; leaves Ur and his 
idolatrous kindred, (Josh. 24. 2): Gen. 11. 27-32. 

Terah* Lot, and Sarai; death of Terah, 

(see Acts 7. 2-4). 



GENESIS, 12-25 : LESSONS. 



395 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



1 92 1, 

Canaan. 

1921. 

1920. 
1918. 

Hebron. 

Siddim (El 

Ghor). 

1912, 

Hebron. 

1 9 10. 

1897. 



1896, 
Gerar. 



Leaves Haran at God's command with Sa-rai and Lot, 

Gen. 12. 1-9. 
Great blessings promised him. 

Gen. 12. 1-9: see Acts 3. 25: Rom. 4: Gal. 3. 16. 
Visits Egypt; dissimulates, Gen. 12. 10-20. 

Returns to Canaan; Lot in Sodom, Gen. 13. 1-13. 
Promises renewed ; goes to Manure, Gen. 13. 14-18. 

Chedorlaomer ; Lot taken and rescued, Gen. 14. 



Jlelchizedek blesses Abram, 
Covenant of God with Abram, 



Gen. 14. 
Gen. 15. 



Moriah(siteof 

the temple). 
Machpelah, 
near Hebron. 

1856, 
Beersheba; 
Bir-es-Seba. 
1850. 

1836, _ 
Lahai-roi. 

1821, 
Beersheba. 



Hagar; Ishmael born, Gen. 16. 

Covenant renewed; names changed; circumcision, 

Gen. 17. 

Abraham entertains angels, one of whom is the angel 

of the covenant; Sodom; Lot's wife; Lot's incest, 

Gen. 18: 19. 1-36: [19. 4-1 1, 30-36.] 

Abraham leaves Hebron ; dissembles with Abimelech, 

Gen. 20. 
Moab and Ben-ammi born, [Gen. 19. 37, 38.] 

Isaac born; Ishmael sent away; covenant with Abi- 
melech, Gen. 21. 1-34. 
Trial of Abraham's faith, Gen. 22. 1-19. 

Death and burial of Sarah, Gen. 23. 

Account of Nahor's family, Gen. 22. [20-24]. 

Abraham sends his servant to Haran; Laban receives 

him; marriage of Isaac, Gen. 24. 

Abraham marries Keturah; children by her, 

Gen. 25. 1-6. 
Birth of Esau and Jacob; then* character, 

Gen. 25. 19-28. 
Abraham dies; Isaac and Ishmael bury him, 

Gen. 25. 7-1 r. 



Gen. 12. The wanderings of Abraham carried some knowledge of 
the true religion through a large part of the east. We find the re- 
sults in the lingering convictions of many families referred to in 
Scripture; and to Abraham many ancient nations profess to trace 
their religion. See Hales, ii. 124; Witsius, iEgypt., lib. 3. 

Gen. 13. 7. Servants. Study on their duties the history of 
Eliezer (24. 1-60); of Jacob (31. 38-41); of Joseph (39. 1-6); of 
David (1 Sam. 18. 5); of Obadiah (1 . Kings 18. 3); of Naaman's 



39() GENESIS : LESSONS. 

servants (2 Kings 5. 2, 3, 13); and compare with these examples 
the precepts of the New Testament (Eph. 5. 6.) 

Gen. 14. 14. On allegorical interpretation, see ch. iv., Sec. 7. 

Gen. 14. 16. Brother, 1. e., collateral relative ; here nephew. 

277(/). 

Gen. 12. The successive covenants of Scripture are subjects of 
deep interest. The first was made with Adam, the second with 
Noah, and the third with Abraham. The one with Adam required 
obedience, and denounced death, legal, spiritual, natural, and (with- 
out penitence) eternal, as tho consequence of sin. The second was 
without conditions, and is fulfilled to this day, 9. 8-17. The third 
also was without conditions, Gen. 12. 1-3, 7: 13. 14-17: 15. 17: 
28. 10-15: Acts 3. 13-26: Gal. 3.4: Rom 4. though confirmed in 
consequence of Abraham's faith, 22. 16-18: 26. 1-5. This last 
covenant is called by the apostle the covenant of promise in dis- 
tinction from the law, which is called the covenant of works. The 
Gospel is called in distinction from both — truth and grace, that is, 
salvation realized and founded, not on works, but on unmerited favour. 
That Abraham saw in the covenant made with him the promise of 
a coming Messiah is clear from the reasonings of both Peter and 
Paul (Acts 3. 25, 26: Gal. 3. 8). This promise was frequently re- 
peated; and formed, with the significant truths to which it pointed, 
the foundation of justifying faith for many ages. The expectation 
of a coming Saviour founded upon it explains the value of the 
birthright (25. 34), the preservation of family records, and many of 
the institutes of patriarchal religion. 

Gen. 12. 7. The religious knowledge of the patriarchs was evi- 
dently very limited, but their piety was exemplary. Wherever the 
patriarchs go, they build their altar, 12. 7: 13. 4. Whatever their 
emergency, prayer is their resource. Their children they command 
after them; and the traditional promise they carefully preserve and 
transmit; faith sustaining them in all (see § 242). 

Trace the character of Abraham as the "friend of God," and, 
again, as the father of those who believe. 

Gen. 19. The godly are saved, yet so as through fire, 1 Cor. 3. 13. 

Gen. 2i. The seed of the flesh separated from the seed of the 
promise: the first persecute .and despise the second, Gal. 4. 29. 

Gen. 24. A marriage in the Lord. Note its peculiarities and 
results. Yet, for twenty years to come, there was no heir of the 
promise- 



GENESIS 25-36. 



39; 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

1804, 
Lahai-roi. 

1804. 

1804, 

Beersheba. 

• 1796. 

*773- 
1760, 

Beersheba. 

1760, 

Padan-aram. 

1760, 
Arabia. 

1753. 
1 75 2-1 745, 

Padan-aram. 

Mesopotamia, 
Al Jezireh. 



1745- 

1739, 
Galeed. 

^73 9, 
Succoth. (See 
Josh. 13. 27). 

1736, 

Shechem. 

1732. 

Bethel, Luz, 
Bethaven 
(Hos. 10. 5), J 
Beit-in. 
1729, 
Hebron. 
1729. 



Event or Narrative. 



3 . Isaac and Jacob, 

Esau sells Jacob his birthright; Isaac leaves Canaan, 

Gen. 25. 29-35. 
Covenant confirmed to Isaac at Gerar, Gen. 26. 1-5. 
Isaac dissembles; covenant with Abimelech, 

Gen. 26. 6-33. 
Esau marries two Hittite women, Gen. 26. 34-5. 

Death of Ishmael; descendants, Gen. 25. 12-18. 

Jacob obtains his father's blessing, and flees from 
Esau, Gen. 27: 28. 1-5. 

Jacob's vision at Luz ; the promises continued to him; 
stays with Laban his uncle, 

Gen. 28. 10-22: 29. 1-14. 
Esau marries- a daughter of Ishmael, Gen. 28. 6-9. 

Jacob marries Leah and Rachel, Gen. 29. 15-30 

Jacob's children — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, 

by Leah ; Dan* and lSTaphtali, by Billah, Rachel's 

maid; Gad and Asher, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; 

Issacbar, Zebulun, and Dinah, by Leah ; Joseph, 

by Rachel, Gen. 29. 31-35: 30. 1-24. 

Jacob's bargain with Laban; he becomes rich, 

Gen- 30. 25-43. 
Jacob, returning to Canaan, is pursued by Laban; 

their covenant, Gen. 31:. 

Jacob's vision at Mahanaim ; wrestles with an angel 

at Penuel; reconciled to Esau ; settles at Succoth, 

Gen. 32: 33. 1-17. 
Jacob removes to Shalem, Gen. ^^. 18-20; birth of 

sons of Judah [Gen. 38. 1-5]. 

Dinah denied by Shechem ; slaughter of Sheckemites 

by Simeon and Levi [Gen. 34]. 

Jacob removes; purges his household of idols; the 

promises renewed to him; his name changed to 

Israel, Gen. 1^. 1-15. 

Rachel dies on the birth of Benjamin, Gen. 35. 16-20. 
Sin of Reuben; Jacob abides with Isaac, Gen. 35. 21-27. 



Esau's descendants, 



[Gen. 36.] 



Gen. 26. ISTote the evils of parental favouritism — in Isaac. 

Gen. 27. 6. Mark how each virtue has its counterfeit. Seek 
wisdom, but not as Eve sought it. Husbands should love their 
wives, but not as Adam did, 3. 6. Worship God, but not with 
Cain, 4. 3, 5. Wives should obey their husbands, but not in sin, 
r2. 11. Children should obey their parents, but not with Jacob, 



398 lessoxs : genesis 37-40. 

27. 13, 14. Seek the accomplishment of God's will, but not with 
Rebekak, 27. 6. Compassion may be disobedience, as in Ahab, 
1 Kings 20. 34; delight in God's service, selfishness, Isa. 58. 2; and 
zeal not good, because without knowledge, Rom. 10. 2. There may 
be even a high sense of duty, without love to Christ, reverence for 
God, or true obedience: see Acts 26. 9-1 1. 

Gen. 27. 13, 17. Temptation is sometimes hope, sometimes fear, 
Gen. 3. 6: 12. 12. Eve was tempted by the devil; Adam, by his 
wife; Sarah, by her husband; Jacob, by his mother. 

Gen. 27. Such is life. Isaac's favourite son proves his plague. 
Isaac was himself the child of the promise (Gen. 21. 22), and yet was 
a stranger in the land of promise (37. 1). Forty years nearly of his 
life he was bedridden, had but two children ; one of whom, by his 
marriage, and the other, by his deceit, embittered the last years of 
then' father's life. So Eve hoped to find in Cain a special gift 
(Gen. 4. 1), but he proved a murderer, § 248 (6). 

Gen. 30. Compare 30. 1 and 35. 18, and check inordinate desires. 

Gen. 34. Sin ever deepens and extends. Eve sinned and tempted her 
husband. Cain envied, complained against God, and then murdered 
his brother. Esau sold his birthright, and intermarried with the 
heathen. He was angry with Jacob, and then sought his life. 
Jacob meant to tell but one lie, but in the end he told several, and 
blasphemously made God a party to his deception, Gen. 27. 20. 
In this chap, we have dissipation leading to seduction, seduction to 
wrath, revenge, treachery, and murder. Fuller. 

Gen. 31. Potiphar favoured for Joseph's sake; Laban for Jacob's, 
Gen. 30. 27; Zoar for Lot's, 19. 21; as Sodom would have been 
spared if ten righteous men had been found in it. How God puts 
honour upon his people, § 248. 



Date and Place, i Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 

1728, 

Do than. 

1726, 
Timnath. 

1719, 

Egypt. 

1718. 



171&. 



4. Joseph, etc. 

Joseph's two dreams; envy of his brethren; sold to 
the Ishmeelites and to Potiphar in Egypt, Gen. 37. 

Er and Onan slain by God; incest of Judah and 
Tamar; Pharez, a progenitor of Messiah, born 

[Gen. 38. 6-30]. 

Joseph advanced, tempted, falsely accused, and im- 
prisoned, Gen. 39. 

Pharaoh's butler and baker imprisoned; Joseph in- 
terprets their dreams, Gen. 40. 

Death of Isaac at Manire, Gen. 35. 28, 29. 



GENESIS 35 : EXODUS 1 : LESSONS. 



399 



Pate and Place- 



Event or Narrative. 





E. 


C. 




11 


*5- 


I 


T^, 


I7II. 

# 




I"/ 


c3. 



.170' 



T< 



T70D. 



I"C6. 



I704 I 7OI. 

1689, 

Egypt. 
1689. 

Machpelah. 

1689. 

1635, 
Egypt. 

15 77, 
Egypt. 

I5 73- 



Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams; his elevation, 

Gen. 41. 1-49. 
Birth of Joseph s two sons, Manasseli and Ephraim, 

Gen. 41. 50-52. 
Commencement of the seven years' famine, 

Gen. 41. 53-57. 

Joseph's ten brethren come to buy corn; Simeon a 

pledge, Gen. 42. 

They come again to buy corn; Joseph makes himself 

known to them; sends for his father, Gen. 43-45. 

Jacob and his family arrive ; settle in Goshen; Jacob 

meets Pharaoh, Gen. 46: [8-25]: 47. 1-12. 

Joseph, by giving corn to the Egyptians, increases 

the wealth of the king, Gen. 47. 13-26. 

Jacob blesses Ephraim and Manasseli, 

Gen. 47. 27-31: 48. 
Jacob's predictions concerning his sons and Judah ; his 
death, Gen. 49. 

Joseph and his brethren bury their father, 

Gen. 50. 1-13. 

J oseph shows kindness to his brethren, Gen. 50.1 4-2 1 . 

Joseph predicts the return to Canaan: charges them 

to cany up his bones there; his death, Gen. 50. 22-26. 

The Israelites multiply; a new king oppresses them, 

Exod. 1.1-21: [15-21]. 

Pharaoh orders the male children to be cast into 

the river, Exod. 1. 22. 



Gen. 42. 21. Affliction is sanctified when it reminds us of our 
gins. Contrast the tender anxiety of these brothers for their 
father's feelings now, Gen. 44. 16-34, with their indifference years 
ugo (37. 31, 32), and mark another fruit of affliction, when blessed. 
This book is wonderfully rich in such instances. 

Gen. 49. 10, Mark the gradual narrowing of the promise of the 
Messiah. The seed of the woman, through Shem, Abraham, Isaac, 
Jacob, Judah, and afterwards David. 

Gen. 50. 20. Even evil passions are overruled for the accomplish- 
ment of God's purposes. So were the treachery of Judas, the in- 
justice of Pilate, the persecution of Paul. Acts 4. 28: Phil. 1. 12. 

Gen. ^o. 25. " Joseph, it has justly been remarked, is a bright 
example in every relation. At the age of seventeen years he ap- 
pears uncorrupted by the wickedness of his brethren or the 
partiality of his father ; discountenancing the sin of the former, and 
prompt in his obedience to the latter (37. 2, 13: see 4. 8, n), 



400 



JOSEPH : EXODUS 2-5. 



Unjustly sold as a slave, he is faithful to his master (39. 4-6). He 
ilees youthful lust, though exposed to temptation (39. 9). Per- 
secuted, he, like Paul, finds in prison opportunities of usefulness 
(39. 22: 40. 7). Flattered by Pharaoh, he disclaims all ability of 
himself to interpret the dream, and avows, before a heathen court, 
the power of God (41. 16). At the age of thirty he is suddenly 
raised to the highest dignity, and yet becomes a pattern of industry 
and justice (41. 38: 46. 48). Though a courtier, he is truthful, 
and, with noble simplicity, avows the disreputable employment of 
his connections (46. 31-34}, As a brother, he exhibits unabated 
affection, not only for Benjamin, but to those who had hated him 
(43. 29, 3c: 45.14: 44.18-34: 45.4-13: 50. 21). As a son, though 
lord of Egypt, he manifests the most affectionate respect for his 
aged parent, who was now dependent upon him (46. 29: 47. 7). 
As a father, his piety appears in the names he gave his children 
(41. 51, 52); and his earnest desire for God's blessing for them in 
bringing them to Jacob's dying bed (48. 1, etc.). For eighty years 
he lived in the midst of the greatest worldly grandeur, surrounded 
with every temptation to worldliness and idolatry; but his dying 
breath testified how entirely his heart and treasure were in God's 
promises" (50. 25). See also Heb. 11. 22: 1 John 5. 4. 

This summary (from Nichols) illustrates several rules of inter- 
pretation (see § 248). 

24. (iii.) From the Birth of Moses, B. c. 157 1, to his Death, 

120 years. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

15 3 *, 

Midian. 

i53i, 

Egypt. 

1491, 
Horeb 

i Acts 7. 30). 

149^ 
Egypt 

(Acts 7. 31). 



Event or Narrative. 



I. To the Exode. 

Birth, exposure, rescue, and early life of Moses, 

Exod. 2. 1-10, 
Moses, having killed an Egyptian, flees; marries 
Zipporah, daughter of Jethro ; Gershom born, 

Exod. 2. 11-22. 
The Israelites groan for their bondage, 

Exod. 2. 23-25: Psa. 88. 

God appears to Moses in a burning bush ; appoints him 

and Aaron to bring the Israelites out of Egypt, 

Exod. 3: 4- 1-17- 

Moses leaves Midian; meets Aaron; they deliver their 

message, Exod. 4. 18-31 

Moses and Aaron demand the release of the Israelites; 

Pharaoh refuses, Exod. 5. 



EXODUS 6-12 : LESSOXS. 



401 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 

1491. 

1491. 
1491. 

1491. 

1491. 
149 1. 

1491. 

1491. 



1491, 

Rameses. 



God renews his promise by his name Jehovah, 

Exod. 6. 1-13. 

Descendants of Reuben, Simeon, and of Levi, from 

whoin came Moses and Aaron [Exod. 6. 14-27]. 

Mcses and Aaron again sent; confirm their message 

by a miracle; magicians imitate them, 

Exod. 6. 28-30: 7. 1-13. 
Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go : eight plagues, 

Exod. 7. 14-25: 8: 9: 10. 1-20. 
Th e Passo r er inst it ut e d , Exod. 12. 1-20. 

The 9th plague, three days darkness, Exod. 10. 21-27. 
Israelites bidden to ask gold of the Egyptians; 
Pharaoh threatened Yvith the death of the first- 
born, Exod. 11. 1-8: 10. 28, 29: 11. 9, 10. 
The Passover eaten, the same day of the same month 
on which Christ our Passover was sacrificed for 
us (see Hales, ii. 197); the first-born slain, 

Exod. 12. 21-30. 
The exodus, (a.m. 2513), Exod. 12. 31-36, and 40-42. 



By God's command, Isisan or Abib, on the 14th night of which 
the exode took place, wa.s made the 1st month of the ecclesiastical 
year, Exod. 12. 2. As the rest of the history of Moses is dated 
chiefly from this epoch, we shall give the dates from that time. 

Exod. 2. 25. Lightfoot and Townsend place the 88th Psalm here 
(see r Chron. 2. 6). Witsius and others refer it to the captivity 
(1 Chron 6. 33). 

Exod. 3. 11. Mark the diffidence of Moses, till his scruples and fear 
are removed by several miraculous proofs of his Divine legation. 

Israel in Egypt had evidently become contaminated by the 
idolatry of their neighbours : hence their unbelief and inconstancy. 
See Josh. 24. 14: Ez. 20. 8: Josh. 5. 9: Lev. 24. 10. 

Exod. 3. 14. " The Angel of Jehovah " speaks of himself as " I am 
that I am." He is the same who delivered Jacob from all evil 
(Gen. 48. 15); who gave the law (Acts 7. 38: Exod. 19. 20: 20. 1); 
who conducted Israel through the wilderness (Exod. 23. 20, 21); and 
claimed the homage of Joshua (Josh. 5. 15 : 6. 2). 

Exod. 7. 1. ' * My prophet," or spokesman (3. 16). To prophesy is in 
Scripture language to foretell, and also to instruct or speak pub- 
licly. See Tit. 1. 12: Acts 13. 1: 1 Cor. 11. 4, 5 : 14. 1: Eph. 2. 20. 

Exod. 7. 13. Pharaoh hardened. The Divine forbearance seems tc 
have produced this result (8. 31, 32;. 

Exod. 8. These plagues are all significant, proving the power of 



A 



02 



PLAGUES OF EGYPT: THE PASSOVER. 



God, and rebuking idolatry. i. The Nile— blood; an object of 
worship turned into an object of abhorrence. 2. The sacred frog 
itself their plague. 3. Lice, which the Egyptians deemed -so pof- 
luting, that to enter a temple with them was a profanation, cover 
\h% country like dust. 4. The gad-fly (Zebub), an object of 
Egyptian reverence, becomes their torture. 5, The cattle, which 
were objects of Egyptian worship, fall dead before their worshippers. 
6. The ashes, which the priests scattered as signs of blessing, be- 
come boils. 7. Isis and Osiris, the deities of water and fire, are 
unable to protect Egypt even at a season, when storms and rain 
were unknown, from the fire and hail of God. 8. Isis and Serapis 
were supposed to protect the country from locusts. West winds 
might bring these enemies; but an east wind the Egyptian never 
feared, for the Eed Sea defended him. But now Isis fails ; and the 
very east wind he reverenced becomes his destruction. 9. The 
heavenly hosts, the objects of worship, are themselves shown to be 
under Divine control. 10. The last plague explains the whole. 
God's first-born Egypt had oppressed; and now the first-born of 
Egypt are all destroyed. The first two plagues, it will be noticed, 
were foretold by Moses, and imitated by the Egyptians. The rest 
they failed to copy, and confessed that they were wrought by the 
finger of God. 

See Bryant and Bishop Gleig's Diss.: Stackhouse, i. p. 472. 

Exod. 12. 1-20. Contains a command given five days before the 
Passover, i, e. } on or before the 10th Nisan. Hence the position of 
this section. 

Exod. 12. 2i. The Passover victim was selected on the 10th, the 
day Christ entered Jerusalem, John 12. 12-19. Early on the 14th 
the victim was prepared for the sacrifice, and between the 9th and 
nth hour — the hour when Christ expired— the victim was slain; 
its blood sprinkled upon their dwellings; its body a family feast, 
strengthening them for their journey. At midnight, the first-born 
were slain, and amidst this distress, but with all the calmness of a 
religious procession, the Israelites leave the land of their bondage. 
How instructive is this type. 



Date and Place. 


Event or Narrative. 


B. C. 

1491. 

Succoth, 

Eccl. y. 1. 

1 m. 15 day. 

Etham. 


2, T"ke forty -two Journeys of the Israelites. 

1st journey. Passover reinforced. First-born com- 
manded to bo set apart. Joseph's bones removed, 
Exod. 12. 37-39, and 43-51: 13. 1-19: Numb. 33. 1-5. 

2nd journey. Israel guided by a pillar of cloud and 
fire, Exod. 13. 20-22: Numb. 33. G 



JOURXEl r S OF ISRAEL : EXODUS 14-40. 



403 



Eccl. y. i. 
6 m. 

Sinai. 



1490. 

Eccl. v. 2, 

J m. 1 d. 



Date and Place. 

B. C. 

149 h 
Pihahiroth; 

i. e,, mouth, of 

pass. 

Mar ah. 



Elim, 

( Wadi Gha- 

r ended)* 

Red Sea. 

2 m. 15 d. 

Sin. 

Exod. 16. 1. 

Dophkah. 

Alush. 
Rephidirn. 



3 m. 15 d. 

Sinai. 

1491. 
3 m. 15 d. 

Sinai. 



Event or Narrative. 



3rd journey. Pharaoh pursues, 

Exod. 14. 1-9: Numb, 33. 7. 

4th journey. Passage of the Red Sea (see 1 Cor. 10. 
i, 2). Destruction of Pharaoh's army. Song of 
Moses. The bitter waters sweetened, 

Exod. 14. 10: 15. 26: Numb. 33. 3. 

5th journey, Exod. 15 2~: Numb. 33. 9. 



6th journey, Numb. ^^. 10. 

7th journey. People murmur for bread. Quails and 
manna. Directions on manna (see John 6. 31, 49. 
Rev. 2. 17), Exod. 16. 1-36: Numb. 33. 11. 

8th j umey, Numb . n. 12. 

9th journey, Numb. i^. 13. 

10th journey. Water given from the rock in Horeb 
( 1 Cor. 10. 4). Joshua defeats Anialek, while Moses 
prays, Exod. 17. 1-16: Numb. 33. 14. 

nth journey. Preparation for giving of the law, 

Exod. 19. 1-25: Numb. 33. 15. 

Moral law given. Divers laws (chiefly judicial) en- 
joined. The angel promised as a guide to the 
Israelites, Exod. 20. 23 , 

The people promise obedience ; the blood of the covenant 
sprinkled on them. Moses and others have a vision 
of God's glory. Moses remains forty days and 
forty nights in the mount, Exod. 24. 

Ceremonial lav: given. The tabernacle and its furniture, 
the priests and their garments, etc. The sabbath 
again enjoined. Daily sacrifice and incense, Rom. 
8. 3 : Rev, 8. 3. 4. Tables of the law given to 



Moses 



Exod. 25. -31. 

Idolatry of the calf; the tables broken; the people 
punished; the tabernacle removed out of the camp. 
Moses intercedes for the people, and asks to see 
God's glory, Exod. 32. 33. 

The tables renewed ; the name of the Lord pro- 
claimed : God makes a covenant with Israel. 
Moses stays on the mount forty days and forty 
nights; his face shines, Exod. 34. 

Offerings of the people for the tabernacle. Bezaleel 
and others prepare the tabernacle and its furniture 

[Exod. 35.-39.] 

Moses commanded to rear the tabernacle ana to anoint 
it, and to sanctify Aaron and his sons 
[Exod. 40. 1-16.] (John 1. 14: 2. 19-21 : Col. 2. %) 



404 



JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL : LAWS. 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 

1490, 

Eccl. y. 2. 
r m. 1 day. 

1 m. 8 d. 



im, 14 d. 



2 m. 1 (1. 



1491. 

2 m. 20 d. 

Wilderness of! 

Paran 

(El TylC) 



Hazaroth . 



5 m.-7m. 

Kadesh 

Barnea, or 

En Mishpah. 



The tabernacle set up. The glory of the Lord fills it. 
The Israelites directed by the cloud, Exod. 40. 1 7-3 8 . 

Laws on various sacrifices and offerings [Lev. 1.-7.] 

Consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests [Lev. 8. J 

The offerings of Aaron. Fire consumes the sacrifice 

[Lev. 9.] 

The offerings of the princes accepted, Numb. 7. 

Destruction of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. 10. 

Of the great day of atonement, and of the scapegoat, 

' Lev. 16: see Heb. 9.: and 5. 1. 

The second passover celebrated. Some allowed to 
observe it in the second month, Numb. 9. 1-14. 

Laws on meats and purifications [Lev. 11. -15.] 

Miscellaneous laws, moral, ceremonial, and judicial. 
Sheloniith's son stoned for blasphemy 

[Lev. 1 7.-2 2. and 24.] 

Laws concerning festivals, etc., Lev. 23. and 24. 

Prophetic promises and.threatenings, Lev. 26. 

Laws of vows, devotions, and tithes [Lev. 2 7.] 

The tribes numbered; their order [Numb. 1., 2.] 

The Levites appointed to the service of the tabernacle 
instead of the first-born; their duties [Numb. 3., 4.] 

Institution of various ceremonies. The law of the 
Nazarites. The form of blessing [Numb. 5., 6.] 

Consecration of the Levites ; their age and period of 
service [Numb. 8.] Use of the silver trumpets 
[10. 1- 10]. Manner in which the cloud guided the 
people, 9. 15 

Arrival of Jethro with Moses' wife and sons. 
advises Moses to appoint judges to assist, 

Exod. 18. 1 

1 2th journey. Order of the march 

[Numb. 10. 11, 12 (Numb. 33. 16) 28]. 

Moses entreats Hobab to accompany Israel; Jethro 
returns to Midian, 

Numb. 10. 29-32, and Exod. 18. 27. 

The form of blessing on the removal and resting of 
the ark, Numb. 10. 33-36. 

The burning at Taberah. People murmur for flesh; 
Moses complains of his charge; seventy elders ap- 
pointed as a council to assist him; quails given in 
wrath, Numb. 11. 1-34. 

13th journey. Miriam smitten with leprosy for 
sedition, Numb. 11. 35 (Numb. 33. 17) 12. 15. 

14th journey. Spies sent to search the land; ten of 
them bring an evil report ; Caleb and Joshua faith- 
ful, Numb. 12. 16 (Numb. n. 18): 13. 



■23. 
He 



5 



JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL. 



403 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

1490. 

Eccl. y. 2. 

7 m, 6 d. 



1490-145 2. 
Eccl. y. 2-40. 

1452. 
Eccl. v. 40, 

i in. 

1490. 

Kadesh. 

Mount Hor. 

Zalnionah. 



Punon, 
Oboth, Iim. 
Dibon-gad. 



Event or Narrative. 



- 4°-r;> 



■AC 



Almon- 

diblathaim. 

Abarim. 

Plains of 

Moab by 

Jordan. 



Israel murmurs at the report of the spies ; God 
threatens ; Moses intercedes ; condemned to wan- 
der forty years, Numb. 14. 1-39: Psa. 90. 
The people, going up against the will of God, are 

discomfited, Numb, 1 

Laws of offerings : the sabbath-breaker stoned 

[Numb. 15]. 

The rebellion of Koran, etc.; earthquake, fire, and. 

plague inflicted; Aaron approved as high-priest by 

the budding of his rod, Numb. 16., 17. 

The charge and portion of the priests and Levites 

[Numb. 18]. 
Water of purification; how to be made and used 

[Numb. 19]. 

The next seventeen journeys (15th to 31st) of the 

Israelites, being their wandering in the wilderness 

nearly thirty -eight years, Numb. 11. 19-35. 

32nd journey; death of Miriam, Numb. 20. 1: 33. 36. 

The people murmur for water ; Moses and. Aaron 

transgressing, not to enter Canaan, Numb. 20. 2-13. 

Edom refuses a passage to the Israelites, 

Numb. 2o. 14-21. 

33rd journey; Aaron dies; Arad attacks Israel, and 

is defeated, Numb. 20. 22-21. 3: n. 37-40. 

34th journey; the people- murmur; fiery serpents are 

sent; the brazen serpent set up, 

(see John 3. 14): Numb. 21. 4 (33. 4i)-9. 
35th, 36th, and 37th journeys, 

Numb. 21. 10, 11: 33. 42-44. 
3 3 th j ourney, Numb . 33.45. 

The Israelites stop at Zared, Arnon, and Beer, 

Numb. 21. 12-18. 
Sihon, the Amorite, opposes their passage; defeated, 

Numb. 21. 21-32. 
Og, ofBashan, attacks them; defeated, 

Numb. 2r. 33-35. 
3 9th j ourney, Numb . n. 46 

40th journey, Numb. 21. 18-20: n. 47, 

41st journey; account of Balaam and Balak, 

(Luke 1. 78: Eev. 22. 16: 1 Cor. 15. 25): 
Numb. 22. 1 {^. 48)-4i: 23: 24. 
42nd journey; idolatry of Baal-Peor; zeal of Phinehas, 

Numb. 25. 1 (33. 49)-i8. 
Third numbering of the people, [Numb. 26]. 

The daughters of Zelophehad; laws of inheritance, 

Numb. 27. 1-11: 36. 
Laws of offerings, vows, etc., Numb. 28.-30, 



406 LEVITICUS : NUMBEBS : LESSONS. 



Event or Narrative. 



Date and Place. 


B. C. 

145 h 

Eccl. y. 40. 



The slaughter of Midian; Balaam slain, Numb. 31, 
Territories given to Reuben, Gad, and part of Ma- 

nasseh, on the east of Jordan, Numb. 22. 

Directions for the Israelites on their entering Canaan; 

borders of the land described; forty-eight cities for 

the Levites, of which six are to be cities of refuge ; 

the laws on murder, Numb. 33. 50-56: 34: 35. 



Exod. 12. 37. This order of thejournies is taken from Numb. 35. 
We see here how God weans his people from idolatry, how he 
inures them to trial and trains them to obedience. For an inspired, 
practical comment on the history of the Israelites in the wilderness, 
see Psa. 78: 105: 106: 136: and 1 Cor. 10. 

Lev. What an instructive month's history. Aaron consecrated, 
in proof of the holiness required in worship; his sons Nadab and 
Abihu punished for unhallowed contempt of Divine authority (see 
Exod. 30. 9), shortly after their consecration, which a miracle had 
confirmed, Exod. 24. 9: Lev. 9. 24; Aaron's resignation a touching 
exhibition of grace, 10. 3; the blasphemer stoned. 

Lev. 11. As the sacrifices of the law point to Christ and his 
atonement, so do the repeated purifications to man's need of inward 
purity and of the cleansing influence of the Holy Spirit. 

The ceremonial law contains rites closely resembling those in use 
among several heathen nations, but with striking differences 
(Spencer, de Leg. and Michaelis). Some (as Warburton and 
Maimonides) think the former borrowed from the latter; others (as 
Gale and Stillingfleet) think the latter borrowed from the former; 
others, still (as Calmet and Faber) maintain that both were taken 
from early patriarchal institutes, which the Gentiles corrupted and 
which God himself modified, to meet the peculiar condition of the 
Jews. This last theory, the most probable of the three, is con- 
firmed by the fact that many primitive traditions are preserved in 
the systems, moral, religious, and philosophical, of many ancient 
nations. 

Numb. 9. 1-14. This section is out of its place, see ver. r. 

Numb. 35. 31, 32. See § 329 (k) 9 on "satisfaction." 

When Jacob's family entered Egypt they numbered but seventy 
souls, Gen. 46. 27. Now their descendants number upwards (it 
may be gathered) of two millions (chap. 26); so richly had God 
already fulfilled his promise. 



DEUTERONOMY, 1-34. 



407 



Date and Place. I 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 

1451. 

Eccl. y. 40. 
11 m. 1 d. 



3. The Review and closing Charge of Moses. 

Moses reviews the history of the Israelites, intro- 
ducing some new particulars, Deut. 1.-4. 

The moral law repeated and enforced, 

Deut. 5.-9: 10. 1-5, 10-22: 11. 

The ceremonial law repeated, with injunctions against 
idolatry, etc. [Deut. 12. -16: 17. i.j 

The judicial law repeated and explained. Christ fore- 
told as a prophet to whom they are to hearken, 

Deut. 17. 2-20: [18.-26]. 

Moses directs Israel, after entering Canaan, to write 
;he law on stones, and to recite its blessings and 
curses upon Mt. Gerizim and Mt. Ebal, Deut. 27. 

Prophetic promises and curses, Deut. 28. 

Concluding appeal to the Israelites, Deut. 29: 30. 



Deut. On the importance of comparing the law, as given in 
Deuteronomy, with the law as given in the earlier books, see Pt. ii. § 8. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

Eccl. y. 40. 
11 m. 



Event or Narrative. 



I 



4. Joshuas appointment : death of Moses. 

Joshua appointed to succeed' Moses, Xumb. 27. 12-23. 

Moses encourages the people and Joshua; charges 
the priests to read the law publicly every seventh 
year, Deut. 31. 1-13. 

God's charge to Joshua; Moses writes a song of wit- 
ness; completes the writing of the law and delivers 
it to the Levites, with a prediction of the dis- 
obedience of Israel, Deut. 31. 14-29. 

Moses recites his song, and exhorts Israel to set their 
hearts upon it, Deut. 31. 30: 32. 1-47. 

Moses ascends Mount Nebo to view the land of 
Canaan, and to die, Deut. 32. 48-5:. 

Moses prophetically blesses the tribes, Deut. 33. 

Moses views the promised land; his death, burial, 
and character, Deut. 34. 



Sec. 5. The Design of the Law — Summary of its Religious 

Institutions. 

25. What, then, it may be asked, was the purpose of this 
ancient dispensation, and to what end must we study it ? 
There was faith aud piety before it was given. Faith and 



408 THE DESIGN OF THE LAW. 

piety .remain, now that it is done away. As an institute, it 
was confessedly burdensome ; and if its aim had been either to 
regulate the worship of God, to give a figurative representation 
of the gospel, or to separate the Jews from other nations, 
this aim might have been reached by simpler means. Might 
not some points, moreover, not forcibly impressed upon the 
ancient Jews, have been more clearly revealed — the spiritu- 
ality, for example, of the coming dispensation, and the glories 
of eternal life ? In reply to these questions, let it be remem- 
bered, that man has a strong tendency to forget God. Virtue, 
truth, godliness, submission to the Divine will, conformity to 
the Divine law, supreme desire for the Divine glory, are things 
not only not natural — they are things to which man is directly 
opposed. "Without successive revelations, or some such pro- 
vision as the Old Testament supplies, the feelings which these 
terms describe, and the truths on which they are founded, 
must long since have perished from the earth. This conclu- 
sion is gained by an induction of particulars as sound as any 
in science. Let it now be supposed that God has to deal with 
men who are ever prone to idolatry and barbarism, in a con- 
dition of intellectual childhood, with no relish for blessings 
purely spiritual, and so earthly as to be incapable of compre- 
hending them ; that he desires to impress the minds of such 
a race with his own infinite perfections, and induce them to 
worship him with becoming reverence ; to prove to them what 
is in their heart, and so humble them for their depravity ; to 
lead them to acknowledge him in all their ways, that they 
may fear his power and trust his love ; to raise their confi- 
dence towards the God of their fathers, their covenant-God ; 
to incline their hearts towards his holy place, and the privi- 
lege of communion with him ; — suppose that he wishes to 
distinguish them as his peculiar people (that is, both purchased 
and separate) ; to prevent needless intercourse with their 
idolatrous neighbours ; to unite all classes of Israelites as one 
body, under one king ; to teach them to love one another as 
brethren ; to check the tendency, in all communities, to the 
accumulation of extreme wealth in the hands of a few, and 
the oppression that springs from such accumulation ; to induce 
honest industry among the people ; to give every man the 
conviction that he has a name and a place in his country ; to 
secure competent provision for the fatherless and the widow; 



THE DESIGN OF THE LAV.'. 409 

to provide rest and moral training for all servants ; to connect 
the maintenance of the learned and priestly class, in part at 
least, with the obedience and piety of the people, thns stimu- 
lating them to diligence in teaching the law ; — suppose that he 
seeks to reveal himself with new claims ; to preserve the me- 
mory of what he had done for them as a nation : to teach them 
implicit obedience ; to excite thoughts and feelings in harmonv 
with the office, and work, and reign of that Messiah whom 
these various institutions were to introduce ; — and suppose, 
lastly, that owing to man's guilty depravity, and the power- 
lessness of ritual observance to cleanse him spiritually from 
sin, these precepts and rites could not, by themselves alone, 
secure more than legal forgiveness, or attain, in any sense, 
eternal life ; — admit that these suppositions describe the end 
of the law, a.nd its adaptation to its end will at once appear. 

Now, these suppositions really do describe its end, though 
they may be stated variously. Is the law a moral code ? It 
teaches us our dutv both to man and to God. Is it ritual ob- 
servance 1 It teaches us our faults, and God's holiness, point- 
ing, moreover, to the cross. Is it a civil institute 1 It regu- 
lates the worship of an Invisible King, preserves the Jews as 
a peculiar people, and enforces brotherly love. Regarded as a 
revelation of truth (objective religion), all its parts are instruc- 
tive. Regarded as a shadow of truth afterwards to be revealed, 
it excites and deepens holy feeling (subjective religion.) Re- 
garded chiefly as a treasury of earlier traditional knowledge, 
that knowledge it preserves, adding much of its own, in order 
to preserve it ; though, of course, a spiritual perception of its 
truths is still, as before, essential to salvation. However the 
end of the law be defined, the chief facts remain. It reveals 
man's sin, God's holiness and love, forgiveness through sa- 
crifice, and sanctification as its result, Christ's work and reign, 
while it provides for the preservation of these truths in a world 
ever prone to forget what is spiritual, and deteriorate what 
is holy. The whole institute is at once a gospel and a church. 
It preserved and guarded piety, union, and happiness ; is 
every way worthy of its author, and entitled to the com- 
mendations which pious Jews have bestowed upon it in every 
age, Psalms 19. 119. 

26. In theory, the Jewish constitution was a theocracy, a 



m 



410 THE THEOCRACY: THE TABERNACLE. 



The Jewish 



visible representation of the reign of God. Je- 
Constitution hovah himself was regarded as king ; the laws were 
a theocracy. $ e h V ered ]^j him . the tabernacle (and afterwards 
the temple) was considered as his palace ; there he gave 
visible manifestations of his glory ; there he revealed his 
will ; there was offered " the bread of the presence ;" there he 
received his ministers, and performed his functions as sove- 
reign. Hence it is that the land of Palestine is ever repre- 
sented as held by direct tenure from Jehovah (Lev. 25. 23). 
To him, peace and war, questions determined under all govern- 
ments by the supreme authority, were referred (Deut. 1. 
41, 42 : Josh. 10. 40 : Judg. 1. 1, 2 : 1 Kings 12. 24) ; and 
idolatry was treason. In relation, therefore, to the Jews, 
Jehovah was both God and king. 

27. This twofold character was preserved in all the arrange- 
ments of the ancient law. 

1. The Tabernacle, where public worship was held from the 

exode till the reign of Solomon, was both the temple 

'Ihe Taber- f q oc i an( ^ ^g p a ] ace f the invisible king. It was his 
nacle, etc. ... 

" holy habitation.' It was the place where he met the 

people and communed with them — " the Tabernacle/' therefore, 
" of the Congregation." It was an oblong, rectangular erection, 55 
feet by 18 feet, built of planks of the acacia, overlaid with gold, 
united by poles of gold, and resting on bases of silver. The whole 
shielded by four costly coverings. Exod. 26. 7-13. (See Shittim.) 
The eastern end was not boarded, but was closed by a curtain of 
cotton, suspended from silver rod?, that were sustained by five pil- 
lars covered with gold. The interior was divided into two parts by 
a curtain or veil made of rich stuff, and curiously embroidered with 
figures of cherubim and other ornaments (Exod. 26. 36, 37). The 
first apartment was the Holy Place (Heb. 9. 2). The inner and 
smaller one, the " Holy of Holies." Here was the ark of the Co- 
venant, an oblong chest of wood, covered with gold, and sur- 
mounted by two golden figures of cherubim with outstretched 
wings. Above them was "the Glory/' the symbol of the Divine 
presence. It rested between -them, and came down to the lid of the 
ark — "the mercy seat." In or near the ark were the tables of 
stone, the book of the law, a pot of manna, and Aaron's rod 
(Exod. 25. 21: Deut. 31. 26: Heb. 9. 4). In the first or ante-room 
were placed the golden altar of incense (Exod. 30. 1-10); the seven 
handed golden candlestick or lamp (Exod. 25. 31-39); and the 
table of wood, overlaid with gold, where the shew-bread and wine 
were placed (Exod. 25. 23-30). 



THE TABERNACLE. 411 

Around the tabernacle was an extensive court, about 180 feet by 
90 feet, formed by curtains of linen, suspended by silver hooks 
from rods of silver, which reached from one column to another. 
These columns were twenty in all, of acacia, probably supported on 
bases of brass, and 8 or 9 feet (5 cubits) high. The entrance was 
on the east side, and was closed by falling tapestry, adorned with 
figures in blue, purple, and scarlet (Exod. 27. 9-19: 39. 9-20). 
In this court, which was open at the top, all the public services of 
religion were performed, and all sacrifices presented. jSiear the 
centre was the great brazen altar (5 cubits square and 3 high), 
with prominences at the corners called " horns," Exod. 27. 1-8: 
Ps. 118. 27. On the south side there was an ascent to it made of 
earth (Exod. 2c. 24 : 38. 1-7). The various instruments of this 
altar were of brass, as those of the altar of incense were of gold 
(Exod. 27. 3 : 38. 3 : 25. 31-40). In the court of the tabernacle, 
between the brazen altar and the tabernacle, stood the brazen laver, 
at which the priests performed their ablutions before approaching 
the altar (Exod. 30. 15-21). On the altar a fire burnt continually, 
at first kindled miraculously, and afterwards kept in by the priests 
(Lev. 9. 24 : 6. 12 : 10. 1). 

The Temple of Solomon was built after the same plan, and con- 
tained the same furniture ; but it was much larger, and the materials 
were more costly and durable. Instead of one court there were 
ihree, the innermost corresponding to the court of the tabernacle. 
The curtains were supplied by walls and colonnades; the brazen 
laver being represented by the brazen sea, 1 Kings 7. 26; and ten 
smaller vessels, 1 Kings 7. 27-39. The greater grandeur of the 
temple service was in harmony both with the extended power of 
the nation and with the clearer revelation which was then given of 
God's kingly authority. 

To a much later date belong the synagogues of the Jews. They 
were plain and unpretending buildings, in which the 
Jews met to offer prayers, to hear Moses and the pro- 
phets read, and to receive instruction. They are often mentioned 
in the Xew Testament, and seem to have sprung up after the 
captivity. 

28. (2.) As the tabernacle was both the temple of God and 
. the palace of the Great King, so the Levites were 
both priests and officers of state. 

Under the law, the high priesthood was confined to the family of 

- Aaron, and during the purest age of that economy to 

the first-born of that house ; IS^adab, however, his eldest 

son, perished by his impiety during the high priesthood of his 

T 2 



4:1-2 THE LEVITES. 

father, so that Eleazar succeeded Aaron, and from him the office 
passed in succession to Eli. From him it was transferred to the 
family of Ithamar (Aaron's fourth son) ; but in the days of So- 
lomon it returned to the family of Eleazar, where it remained till 
the captivity. During the Asmonean dynasty a private Levite 
family held it, and towards the close of the Hebrew polity the 
right of succession was wholly disregarded. 

Aaron was consecrated by Moses, and his sons were priests under 
him. Into the inner chamber of the tabernacle the high priest 
alone entered, once a year, on the day of atonement. 

In the reign of David the descendants of Eleazar and Ithamar 
were so numerous that they could not all be employed at the same 
time in their sacred duties ; they were, therefore, divided into 24 
courses, each serving in weekly rotation twice in the lunar year 
(1 Chron. 24). Each course had its head or chief, and these are 
probably the chief priests so often referred to in the Gospels. They 
had the whole care of the sacrifices and religious services of the 
temple, most of the important functions of their office being as- 
signed to each by lot. 

All the priests were Levites, that is, descendants of Levi, through 

Gershom and Aaron. Levi, however, had other children, 
The Levites. . 

and all their descendants were devoted to public busi- 
ness. They assisted the priests, formed the guard of the taber- 
nacle, and conveyed it from place to place (Num. 4. 1-20). In 
David's time the whole body was divided into three classes, each 
of which was subdivided into 24 courses. The first class attended 
upon the priests; the second formed the choir of singers in the 
temple, and the third acted as porters and guards (1 Chron. 24. 25, 
26) in the temple and at the gates. 

It seems probable that the Levites all acted, when not engaged 
in the temple service, as the instructors of the people ; they 
formed, in fact, the learned class. 

For the support of this large body of men 48 cities, with a belt 
of land round each, were assigned : a tenth of all the 
pp ' produce and cattle of the country (Lev. 27. 30: Num. 
35. 1-8), of which tenth the priests had a tenth: all shared also in 
another tenth of the produce, which the people generally were to 
expend in feast-offerings, to which the Levites were to be invited 
(Deut. 14. 22-27). 

When not engaged in their sacerdotal duties the priests dressed 
as other men : but when so engaged their tunics, gir- 

r FV)P civpss of 

the priests. dies, turbans, &c, were all of white linen (Exod. 39. 

27, 28). The dress of the high priest was both splendid 

and significant. Over his white tunic he wore a woollen robe of 



THE SACRIFICES OF THE LAW. 413 

blue, having on its hem small golden bells (Exod. 28. 31-34). 
Over this was a short, sleeveless garment — an "ephod" of fine 
linen, inwrought with gold and purple, and having on each 
shoulder-strap a precious stone, the whole engraven with the 
name of the tribes (28. 5-12). In front was the breast-plate of 
judgment, similarly adorned, each stone similarly engraven (28. 
15, 21). On his head was a kind of mitre, to the front of which was 
fastened a plate of gold, inscribed " Holiness unto the Lord." 
Connected with the breast-plate was the urim and thummim, by 
which the priest was enabled to ascertain the will of the invisible 
king. How the response was given is not clearly known. 

To their office all the priests were consecrated with a " holy 
anointing," and the spiritual significance of the whole institute is 
plain. 

29. (3.) Among the Jews, as among all ancient nations, sac- 
rifices formed the most essential part of religious 

^fl.Cl'ifiC'6 s 

worship. The subject, therefore, is of great im- 
portance, and as the laws in relation to it are scattered over 
the various books of the Pentateuch, we give the substance of 
them in a connected form. 

i. The things offered were taken from both the vegetable and the 
animal kingdom, those from the former called the blood- 
Things of- less offerings (vpoo-Qoput, mrijE, minchoth), and those 
fered. ' : * 

from the latter the bloody (D'PQ?, zevachim, Sur'seu, 

slain sacrifices). With both, the mineral salt, an emblem of purity, 
was used. 

From the vegetable kingdom were taken the meat-offerings (flour, 
cakes, parched corn, frankincense), and the drink-offerings (*?)C0, 

nesek, c-zovlr,, Phil. 2. 17), of wine, either in its natural or fer- 
mented state. Both offerings were usually united, and were con- 
sidered as an addition to the thank-offerings made by fire, Xum. 15. 
5-11: 28. 7-15: Lev. 14. io-2T. 

Heathen libations were not unlike the drink-offerings of the law. 
II. 1. 462 : iEn. 6. 254, with characteristic differences however : 
they consisted of wine and blood, Sail. Cat. sec. 32 : Ps. 14. 4 : 
Zech. 9. 7. 

The animals offered were oxen, goats, and sheep ; all were to be 
without blemish, not under eight days old, nor over three years. 
Doves were also offered in some cases, Exod. 22. 20 : 12. 5 : Lev. 
9. 3. Fishes were never offered, and human sacrifices were ex- 
pressly forbidden, Lev. 18. 21 : 20. 25. 

ii. Offerings were presented only in the front court of the sane- 



414 KINDS OF SACRIFICES. 

tuary, the tabernacle, that is, and afterwards the 
offering temple, Lev. 17. 1-9 : Deut. 12. 5-7. Occasionally, 

however, sacrifices w T ere offered elsewhere, without re- 
prehension, Judges 2. 5. 1 Sam. 7. 17: 9. 12: 1 Kings 18. 19-32. 
iii. The object of the legal sacrifices was either the expression of 

gratitude to God or the expiation of sin. Thank- 
Object of offerings had, as their object, the first: sin-offerings 

and trespass-offerings, the second. Sin was expiated, 
it must be remembered, not by the merit or efficacy of the sacrifice 
offered, but by the great sacrifice of the Son of God, which it 
typified, and in which the spiritual worshipper believed. A legal 
or civil expiation, however, was effected by the sacrifices of the 
law : they freed the offerer from the legal penalty of trans- 
gression. 

iv. In the performance of the sacrifice, the offerer himself 

legally purified (1 Sam. 16. 5: Exod. 19, 14), brought 

How per- ^ e v ictim to the altar, and turning towards the sane- 
formed. ; ° . 

tuary (Lev. 2. 3, 4: 3. 1 : 17. 4), laid his hand upon its 

head (Lev. 1. 4: 3. 2: 4. 33), implying a transference of his sin and 
punishment to the victim. He then slew it (Lev. 1. 5), an act, 
however, which the priest might do, and sometimes did (2 Chr. 29. 
24: Ezra 6. 24). As the victim was slain the priest received the 
blood, and sprinkled or poured it near the different offerings, yet 
apart from them. The victim was cut in pieces by the offerer (Lev. 
1. 6), and the fat was burnt by the priest. In some sacrifices, be- 
fore or after the slaying, the victim was heaved or lifted up, and 
waved towards heaven, a symbol of its presentation to Jehovah. 

v. There were various kinds of sacrifices: 
Various kinds Burnt-offerings, sin and trespass -offerings, and thank- 
offerings. 
1. Burnt -offerings, holocausts (n*py, ola, 'oAoKavToo/j.a,), con- 
sisted in the immolation of a male victim, which was 

1. Burnt- entirelv consumed in the fire. The sacrifice was slain 
offerings. 

on the north of the altar, deprived of the skin (which 

belonged to the priest, Lev. 7. 8), and then cut in pieces by the 

offerer. The blood was sprinkled around the altar, and the parts of 

the victim were laid separately upon the fire, which the priests 

kept always burning. 

The design of burnt -offerings was to make atonement for sins 

in general (Lev. 1.4;. They were presented daily in the name of 

the nation (Exod. 29. 38-42: Num. 7. 15-17: 8-12), on the great 

day of atonement (Lev. 16. 3), and on the three great festivals. 

They were also presented by private persons Levitically unclean, viz., 

by women (Lev. 12. 6-8); by lepers (Lev. 14. 21-31); by Nazarites, 



SIX AND THANK-OFFERINGS. 415 

(Numb. 6. 11-14); and by those referred to iu Lev. 15. 1-15. "When 
two doves were offered, one of thern was made a bumt-offerinsr. 
Lev. 5.10. Hecatombs of such, offerings were sometimes presented, 
Ezra 6. 17: 1 Chron. 29. 21; and in later times, even the heathen 
sometimes presented them, as did Augustus (Joseph, Bell. Jud. 
ii. 17.) 

2. Trespass-offerings and sin-offerings are not easily distinguished. 
Trespass and ^ ne nrs ^ were generally presented for a sin of omission, 
sin offerings, and the second for one of commission (Jahn and others), 
though this distinction does not always obtain, Lev. 5. 17-19: 
ISTumb. 6. 11 : Lev. 15. 25, etc. The trespass has been thought the 
less guilty; the sin the more guilty; sometimes this rule seems 
reversed. In fact, the two are distinguished in Scripture, and the 
cases are prescribed in which, each is to be offered. 

Trespass-offerings are enjoined in Lev. 7. 1-10, and also in ISTumb. 
6. 12 :see ver. 14: Lev. 14. 12: seever. 19: Lev. 19. 20-22: Ezra 10. 19. 
The victims offered were an ewe or she-goat, doves or fine flour, 
a ram or lamb, according to the nature of the case. Sin-offerings 
are enjoined, Lev. 4. 6, 25-30. They were offered by the high- 
priest when he had committed an offence, and brought guilt upon 
the nation; when the whole nation had sinned inadvertently, 
and afterwards repented; and on the great day of atonement. 
In the first and last cases' the high-priest laid his hand on the 
head of the victim, confessing his sin. In the second case the 
elders laid their hand on the victim. The transactions of the great 
day of atonement are exceedingly significant: see ISTumb. 29. .7-11: 
Lev. 16. 1-34: 23. 26-32; the azazel, or scape-goat, carrying off the 
sins of the people, and forming, with the second goat, which was 
sacrificed, a single complete type of the work of our Lord. Sin- 
offerings were also presented by magistrates and private persons, 
who had sinned through ignorance, Lev. 4. 22-26; and on various 
occasions of purification, Lev. 15. 25-30: 15. 2, 14, 15: Numb. 6. 
10-14: Lev. 14. 19-31: 9. 23. 

In all these offerings the idea of substitutionary expiation is in- 
volved. The blood was <( the life;" and the life of the victim was 
accepted for the life of the offerer, Lev. 17. 1: 5. 18: 14. 19. 

3. Thank-offerings consisted of the presentation of a bull, sheep, 
Thank-offer- or goat. It was brought by the offerer, with laying on 
iags. of hands, and was slam by him on the south side of the 
altar. The blood was sprinkled round the altar; the fat was burnt. 
The (l heaved" breast and " waved" shoulder belonged to the 
priest, and the rest was used as a sacrificial feast: see 1 Cor. 10. 18. 
Thank-offerings for particular blessings were called "sacrifices of 

praise" (JVTin £&$, Svcria Gfji.c\oyias); when presented from a feel- 



416 JEWISH FESTIVALS. 

ing of pious devotedness, they were called free-will offerings. Some- 
times they were offered in fulfilment of a vow, Numb. 6. 3. Peace- 
offering is the general name for the whole of this kind; and though 
the expression of gratitude formed part of the offerer's aim, pro- 
pitiation was also involved, as is proved by the title of peace-offering 
which was given to them. 

Everything, therefore, under the law was purified with blood — 
thanksgivings and other religious acts, man's sins, and his corrupt 
nature itself. For the first, there was the sprinkling of the blood 
of the victim; for the second, there, were sin and trespass offerings; 
and for the last, there were the whole burnt-offerings of the daily 
sacrifice and of the great festivals. God thus sought to impress 
upon the people their guilt and his holiness, and to reveal to them, 
by line upon line, the only way of access to himself. 9 

The repeated purifications enjoined by the law were no less 
suggestive of the need of practical holiness, and of the sanctifying 
influence of the Spirit. 

See on this section Winer's Realworterbuch, or the article on sacri- 
fice, translated in Dr. Pye Smith's Four Discourses. 

30. (4.) The festivals of the Jews were held weekly, monthly, 
and yearly. Each seventh and fiftieth year, moreover, was 
kept with peculiar solemnities. 

The iveekly festival was the sabbath, a day consecrated to rest and 
cheerful devotion (Psa. 68. 25-27, etc.) On this day 
additional sacrifices were presented (Lev. 24. 8 : Numb. 
28. 9). Children were instructed; and those who were not far 
distant visited the temple. Later than the days of the Pentateuch, 
the people seem to have visited the prophets (2 Kings 4. 23); and 
after the captivity synagogues were erected in many of the towns 
of Palestine, where the "law and the prophets" were read and 
expounded (Acts 13. 15). The monthly festival was held 
on the day of the new moon, and was announced by the 
sound of silver trumpets (Numb. 10. 10). Labour was not inter- 
dicted, but additional sacrifices were offered. The new moon of the 
seventh month (Tisri, or Oct.) commenced the civil year. The great 
annual festivals prescribed by the law were three; and 
ear y* when they were celebrated, all the adult males in Israel 

were required to appear at the sanctuary (Exod. 23. 14-17). They 
were all intended to be seasons of joyous thanksgiving, and were 
commemorative of the kindness and favour of God. 

1. The passover was kept in remembrance of the destruction of 
the first-born of the Egyptians, of the sparing of the 
Israelites, and of their departure from Egypt. It began 



FESTIVALS. 417 

on the eve of the 14th of Abib ; i. c, all leaven was removed from 
the house on the 14th day, between the evenings, the feast being 
reckoned from the 15 th to the 21st. Between the evenings, 
also, the paschal lamb (a ram or a goat of a year old, Exod. 
12. 1-16) was slain before the altar (Deut. 16. 2-6). The blood 
was sprinkled (originally on the door-posts, and later) at the 
bottom of the altar ; the lamb itself was roasted whole, with two 
spits thrust transversely through it, and was then eaten with bitter 
herbs; unleavened bread was broken by the master of the family 
and distributed to each, not fewer than ten nor more than twenty 
being admitted to the feast. After the third cup (the " cup of 
blessing") had been drunk, praises were sung, generally, in later 
times, Psa. 115-118; and sometimes, in addition, Psa. 120-137. It 
was in connection with this feast, and towards its close, that our 
Lord instituted the last supper (Matt. 26: 1 Cor. 10: Mark 14). 
During every day of the festival additional sacrifices were offered; 
and on the 16th Abib, the first ripe ears of corn were presented at 
the sanctuary, and then the harvest commenced (Exod. 12. 1-27: 
Lev. 23. 9-14). 

2. The fiftieth day after the second day of the passover (the 16th), 

came the feast of pentecost, called also the feast of weeks 
(». e., seven clear weeks from the 16th Abib). This was 
properly the feast of the completed harvest of the ground. Loaves 
made of the new 'meal and grain were offered as first-fruits (Lev. 
23. 17). Many burnt offerings were now presented (Lev. 23. 18-20), 
and Jews residing out of Palestine generally chose this occasion for 
visiting Jerusalem. 

3. In autumn, from the 15 th to the 23rd of Tisri (October), the 
. feast of tabernacles was celebrated, the 23 rd being the 

chief day of the feast (Lev. 23. 34-42; John 7. 23). It 
commemorated the sojourning of the Israelites in the wilderness, 
and was intended also as the feast of the ingathering of all the fruits 
of autumn. Booths were constructed of branches of trees in all 
parts of the city, and here the people resided for the week. This 
feast was the most joyous of all; "the Great Hosanna" it was 
called; and more public sacrifices were offered than at any other 
(Numb. 19. 13-37: compare with Lev. 23. 38-40: Numb. 29. 39: 
Deut. 16. 14, 15). To the ordinary legal services of this festival 
later Jews added others. Water was drawn from the pool of Siloam, 
carried with great pomp to the temple, and poured before the altar 
(see Isa. 12. 3). Priests also ascended the steps which separated the 
co7irt of the women from the inner court, singing the Psalms of 
Degrees, Psa. 120-134. These customs, however, are comparatively 
modern. 

T 3 



418 FESTIVALS. 

The fifth day before the feast of tabernacles, the ioth of Tisri 
The day of (October), was the great day of atonement; the only 
atonement. f as t appointed by the law (Lev. 23. 27-29: 25. 9: Acts 
27. 9). The people then bewailed the sins of the year, and cere- 
monial expiation was made by the high-priest, who on that day 
alone entered into the holy of holies, where lie sprinkled the blood 
of the goat which had been sacrificed. This goat was one of two 
which had been appointed by lot to their separate destinations , 
The other, after the sins of the people had been confessed over it, 
and so laid upon its head, was sent alive to be lost in the wilder- 
ness (Lev. 16. 6-10). All this was done to make expiation for the 
sins of the people (Lev. 16. 11-19). 

Other fasts were instituted in later times, connected with the 
Other and siege of Jerusalem (ioth of the ioth month), the cap- 
later fasts, ture of the city (the 1 7th of the 4th month), the burn- 
ing of the temple (the 9 th of the 5 th month), the death of Gedaliah 
(the 3rd of the 7th month) : see Jer. 52. 6, etc.: Zech. 7. 3, 5 : 
8. 19. 

The first day of the moon of Tisri (October) was celebrated as 
The new the commencement of the civil year. It was introduced, 
year. ^y. ^ e "blowing of trumpets, with unwonted solemnity, 

and hence its name, the feast of trumpets, Jer. 23. 23-25. Addi- 
tional offerings and sacrifices were now presented, Numb. 29. 29; 
and, unlike the ordinary new moons, it was kept as a festival. 

There were also two other feasts, though not appointed by law, 
p . which require notice, as they are often mentioned in 

Jewish history. The first is the feast of Purim (1. e. 
lots). It falls on the 14th or 15th of Adar (March), and com- 
memorates the defeat of Hainan's plot for the destruction of the 
Jews (Esth. 3. 7: 9. 26). It is also called Mordecai's day (2 Mac. 
The dedica- 15. 36). The other is the feast of the dedication, ap- 
tion. pointed to celebrate the re-establishment of Divine 

worship in Jerusalem, after Antiochus Epiphanes had been van- 
quished and the temple purified, B.C. 164, John 10. 22. It was 
observed for eight days, from the 25 th of Kisleu (December), and 
was sometimes called the feast of lights, from the illuminations 
in which, at that season, the Jews indulged. 

Every seventh year was sabbatic; and during that year the land 
The sabbatic vras unbilled and fruits ungathered, except by the poor; 
year. ^e p e0 p} e ^ however*, were free to hunt, to feed then* 

flocks, repair their buildings, and engage in commerce. The year 
began on the 1st of Tisri, and the institution was intended to secure 
rest for the soil, to teach economy and foresight, and probably to 
impress upon the people their dependence. Special services were 



FESTIVALS : THEIR USE. 419 

held at the temple during the feast of tabernacles, Dent. 31. 10, 13 : 

see Exod. 23. ic, 11: Lev. 25. 1-7: Deut. 26. 33-35. This institute, 

as Moses predicted (Lev. 26. 34, 35), was long disregarded, 2 Chron. 

36. 21; but after the captivity it was observed more carefully. 

The year after seven sabbatic years, or the fiftieth, was the 

„, iubilee, Lev. 2;. 8-11. This year was announced on 

The jubilee. J ' - ■■ _/ . 7 ... 

the 10th of Tisri, the great day of propitiation. In 

addition to the regulations of the sabbatic year, there were others 

quite peculiar. All servants, or slaves, obtained their freedom 

(Lev. 25. 39-46: Jer. 34. 8, etc.). All the land throughout the 

country, and the houses in the cities of the Levites, sold during 

the preceding fifty years were returned to the sellers, except such 

as had been consecrated to God, and not redeemed (Lev. 25. ic, 

T3-17, 24-28: 27. 16-21). All mortgaged lands, too, were released 

without charge. 

The completeness of the release secured by these arrangements 

makes the jubilee a type of the gospel (Isa. 61. 2: Luke 4. 19). 

The moral and spiritual uses of these festivals is plain. 
They all tended to unite the people in a holy brotherhood and to 
separate them from the heathen. They preserved the memory of 
past mercies. They illustrated the Divine holiness. They lightened 
the load of poverty, checked oppression and covetousness, and were 
all either types of gospel blessings, or suggestive, to a spiritual 
mind, of gospel truths. 

31. Let the whole law be thus studied : regard it as a scheme 
intended to reveal, or suggest, or impress, or preserve, spiri- 
tual truth, and not only will objections be removed, but the 
whole will appear a gorgeous, instructive lesson, eminently 
suited to the condition of the nation to whom it was addressed. 



CHAPTER II. 
Historical akd Poetical Books to the Death of Solomon. 

Sec. 1. The Historical Books of Scripture generally. 

32. The historical books of Scripture — from Joshua to 
Historical ISTehenriah — contain the history of the Jewish 
isharrarfg^- cnurcn an( ^ nation from the first settlement in 
ment of. Canaan to their return after the captivity in Baby- 



420 AUTHORS OF THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

Ion. The books, as they are placed in the English Bible, are 
twelve in all, though the Jews reckoned them but six, classing 
Euth with Judges, Nehemiah with Ezra, and numbering the 
double books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, respectively, 
as one. In early times, moreover, they were all placed among 
the prophets ; and Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, are 
still placed in Hebrew Bibles in this list. Taking, into account, 
therefore, the fact that large portions of the Pentateuch and 
of the Prophets are historical, and that a different arrangement 
was adopted by the Jews, the modern classification of " his- 
torical books " is not very appropriate. Having mentioned 
it, however, it may be well to give here some information con- 
cerning the books of which it is composed. 

33. The historical books of Scripture claim, like the rest, 
inspired authority, and the general evidence of their 
whom writ- inspiration is not different from that of the Pen- 
ten * tateuch. Some of these books bear the names of 

distinguished prophets, and the rest are attributed to writers 
who had the same high character. The annals of the Hebrew 
nation were kept only by persons appointed to their office ; 
and the writers, who are occasionally mentioned in Scripture 
as the penmen of sacred history, are expressly called prophets 
or seers. a The narrative portion of Scripture, moreover, 
displays throughout an intimate acquaintance with the secret 
motives of men, and with the purposes of God ; b it reveals his 
mercy and judgment in the clearest predictions ; c it exhibits 
unexampled impartiality, and enforces everywhere practical 
holiness. The facts it records are appealed to or quoted 
throughout the Bible ; the writings which record them were 
received into the Hebrew canon ; in Ezra's collection they 

a The history of David, for example, was written by Samuel, 
^Nathan, and Gad, 1 Chron. 29. 29: of Solomon, by Nathan, Abijah, 
and Iddo the prophets, 2 Chron. 9. 29: of Rehoboam, by Shemaiah 
and Iddo, 2 Chron. 12. 15: of Abijah, by Iddo; of Jehoshaphat, by 
Jehu the prophet, 2 Chron. 20. 34: 1 Kings 16. 1 ; and of Uzziah 
and Hezekiah (including probably the two intermediate kings), by 
Isaiah, 2 Chron. 26. 22: 32. 32. Even in rebellious Israel, we read 
of several prophets, and it was no doubt their business to record 
what occurred in that country. 

b 1 Kings 12. 26, 28: Esther, chaps. 5: 6. 

c See chap, on Prophecy, § 453. 



HISTORICAL BOOKS : THEIR MORAL COMPLETENESS. 421 

are placed among the productions of prophets, and are cited 
by apostles and by our Lord. That in these writings other 
documents are named, as the depositories of ampler informa- 
xion, and that some of them were written- or collected long 
after the events they describe, are facts which create no diffi- 
culty, and are in accordance with what we know of the economy 
of inspiration in later times. They account, moreover, for the 
occasional blending of expressions, evidently contemporane- 
ous with the events described, with others of clearlv a later 
origin. 

34. The Bible is (as we have seen) a selection from the his- 
Principies on ^ 01 T °f ^ ne church, giving just so much as was 
which the sufficient to teach us our duty, reveal the character 
Scripture is of God, and prepare us for the coming of his Son. 
written. j^. j s a ^^gtory, moreover, of the church only, 01 

of the heathen as connected with its sufferings and destiny ; 
and nowhere is this peculiarity of the Bible more marked than 
in the portions called historical. During the times it chroni- 
cles, there were many mighty nations celebrated for learning 
and valour, for illustrious men and illustrious actions ; yet 
their records are all lost in silence or in fable, while the his- 
tory of the Jews, who " dwelt apart," and were " not reckoned 
among the nations," has been carefully preserved. Such con- 
cern has God for his church, and so dear are its interests to 
him, Deut. 32. 8, 9. 

Another peculiarity is no less marked. Political events 
of deep interest are passed over ; the history of long reigns 
is compressed into a few sentences ; national concerns give 
place to matters of private life, history to biography, a mighty 
monarch to a poor widow (2 Kings 3 : 4). These omissions 
and digressions, however, are all explained by the design of 
the Bible. It aims to reveal the grace and providence of God, 
to show the workings of human nature, and the blessedness 
of obedience, while it interweaves with the whole, lessons and 
truths preparatory to the work and reign of the Messiah. 

35 • Within these limits, however, the completeness of Scrip- 
ture history is both characteristic and instructive. 

Its moral _ . * 

complete- It explains at once the law and the prophets, the 

psalms and the gospel, the future and the past. To 

man, to nations, to the church, every chapter is a lesson ; and 

the history, studied in the light of the law and prophets, and 



422 OUTLINE OF EABLY HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

applied under the guidance of the gospel, will teach and illus- 
trate, either by examples of excellence or by contrasts, both 
our duty and the blessedness of obedience. 



Sec. 2. Brief outline of these Historical Boohs. 

36. Keeping, then, to a chronological division of the books, 
Books from the second portion of Scripture — Joshua to Solo- 
deatS^Vsolo- mon — ^ s readily divisible into two parts ; the first 
mon. extending from the entry into the land of promise 

to the establishment of the monarchy ; and the secowd reaching 
to the death of Solomon. The first period contains the history 
of the conquest and settlement of Canaan ; of the decay of 
the spirit of obedience after the death of Joshua ; the subse- 
quent punishment and restorations of the people ; and the 
second describes the revival of that spirit under Samuel and 
David. Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and 1 Sam. 1-10, include 
events extending over 365 years. 1 and 2 Sam., 1 Kings to 11, 
1 Chron. 2 Chron. to 9, include the remaining events, which 
extend over 120 years more ; on the latter period all agree ; 
on the former, there is much difference of opinion (see § 356.) 



Briefly epitomized — 
Joshua may be divided into three parts : — 

1. -1 2. Giving an account of the conquest of Canaan, with a 
Epitome of history of the re -establishment of Circumcision. Camp 
Joshua. at Gilgal. Seven years war : thirty-one kings destroyed. 

1 3. -2 2. The distribution of Canaan by lot, each tribe obtaining a 
portion in agreement with the predictions of Jacob and Moses. 
Tabernacle at Shiloh. Two half tribes return. 
23. 24. Joshua's final admonitions and death. 25 years. 
Judges contains a history of subsequent conquests imperfectly 
completed, and ending often in intermarriages with the 
Canaanites, and subsequent idolatry, 1.-3. 4: 1 7.-22. 
of seven Servitudes and thirteen Judges, of whom Ehud and Shamgar, 
Deborah and Barak, are deemed by Usher, contemporaries. 

Chaps. 1 7. -21 belong to the earlier part of the history. 309 years. 

Ruth gives the history of events which occurred about the middle 

of Judges or even earlier, as Obed, the son of Ruth, was 

grandfather of David. His descent from Judah is given, 

4, 18. See Gen. 38. 29. Matt. 1. 3. 

1 Sam. 1.-10 gives the history of the judicature of FAi 3 1.-5, 



rr 



JOSHUA : AUTHORSHIP. 423 

and of Samuel with, subsequent events to the designation 
Samuel, etc. ,, , 

of Saul, 5. -io. 21 years. 

1 Sam. 10, to 2 Sam. 1. 27, and 1 Chron. 10.-12. give the reign 
of Saul, the history of his wars and unfaithfulness. 40 years. 

2 Sam. 2. 1, to 1 Kings 2. 11 : 1 Chron. 11. 1, to 1 Chron. 29. 30 
ive the reign of David, his victories, his afflictions, and their cause : 

his repentance and restoration. 40 years. 

1 Kings 2. 12, to 11. 43 : 2 Chron. 1. 1, to 9. 31 give the reign of 
Solomon, his glory, and the extension of his kingdom. 40 years. 

Psalms, Solomon's Song, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes. 

Sec. 3. The Books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth. 

The Booh of Joshua, 

37. The book of Joshua is composed of materials supplied, 
in all probability, by Joshua himself, with two or 

Authorship. ,, -it,- -it 1 j, ■• 

three additions made by a later writer. 

The first fact may be gathered from the general tenor of the book, 
Genuineness ^hich is the narrative of a contemporary and eye-witness 
and autnen- of the events described (5.1: 6. 25) : from chap. 24. 26, 
from the character of Joshua as an instructor and in- 
spired prophet (1 Kings 16. 34: see Josh. 6. 26, and compare Eccl. 
46. 1), and from uniform Jewish tradition. That the book must 
have been written before the days of David or Solomon appears from 
15. 63, compared with 2 Sam. 5. 7-9, and from 16. 10, compared 
with 1 Kings 9. 16. Additions to the original documents may be 
seen in 19. 47 (Judges 18. 27-9: 15. 13, 19, see Judges 1. 11-16), 
and 24. 29-33. The facts recorded in this book are repeatedly 
cited, a and several predictions are found in the book itself. b 

Joshua, whose victories are described, was an Ephraimite (b. 1536), 
one of the spies, a faithful servant and companion of 
Moses during many years. He was permitted to ascend 
Sinai with him, just previous to the giving of the law. He seems also 
to have been intrusted with the special care of the tabernacle, 
Exod. 33. 11. After the death of Moses he took the command of the 
Israelites, having been early designated to that office, by God him- 
self. Originally he was called Oshea, a saviour, or one saved; but 
afterwards Moses called him Joshua, "he shall save," or "the sal- 



7. 1 



1 Chron. 2. 7: 12. 18: Psa. 44. 114. 3, 5: Isa, 28. 21: Hab. 

■ 

See Josh. 1. 9: 3. 13 (see 4. 18): 6. 26 (see 1 Kings 16.34), etc. 



424 jcshua : lessons. 

vation of Jehovah/' referring no doubt to the work which God was 
to accomplish by him. In this office he is a type of our Lord. 

His character and history are highly instructive. The Spirit was 
and cha- m hi- m > Numb. 27. 18. Having a certain promise of 

racter. success (chap. 1.) he yet prudently used whatever means 

were likely to secure it. He sent spies and disciplined his forces. 
Not resting, however, in these, but looking still to God. Thus 
before attacking the Canaanites he solemnly renewed the dedication 
of himself and the people (5.), and in seasons cf emergency sought 
by prayer special blessing and help (10. 12-14). " Efforts and 
prayer," "zeal and dependence" were cjcarly his rule. His piety 
and devotion are beautifully displayed in his closing appeals, and 
the spirit of affectionate submission with which the people received 
them gives us a favourable impression of his influence and of their 
fidelity (23. 8). The discipline of the wilderness had not been 
unblessed. 

38. Mark in Kahab the power and rewards of faith ; she was herself 
Lessons. saved with her house, and she became — though of the 

Rahab. race of Canaan — an ancestor of David, and of Christ. 

(Heb. 11. 31). 

Our victories are of God: Implicitly obey God's commands: 
Jericho, Detection and punishment follow sin: God is no 

Achan. respecter of persons — are lessons taught in the history 

of Jericho and of Achan, 7. 

The repeated renewals of the covenant recorded in this book, are 
Covenant re- solemn and instructive, 5: 23: 24. The Israelites were 
newed. the chosen people of God; they were his too by personal 

consecration. Often throughout their history, these covenants were 
renewed. 

The destruction of the Canaanites is a fearful admonition of 

Destruction ^ e ^ na ^ i ssues °f transgression. Compared with the 
of the Israelites, they were, probably, a disciplined, valiant 

people ; but they seem to have made little effort to repel 
the invaders. Perhaps they trusted to the '' swellings of Jordan/' 
which at the time when Joshua entered Canaan (the vernal equinox), 
made the stream, as they supposed, impassable ; or, perhaps, as one 
of their number expressed it, " the terror of the God of the He- 
brews " had fallen upon them. They were certainly fearfully 
wicked (Lev. 18. 24-30: Deut. 9. 4: 18. 10-12J. Their idolatry had, 
as idolatry ever does, augmented licentiousness and cruelty. The 
Divine will they had once known, for they were descendants of 
Noah, and for centuries the light of an early revelation had lingered 



JOSHUA : LESSONS. 425 

among them (Gen. 14). They had been warned — by the deluge, by 
the history of the cities of the plain, the destruction of Pharaoh, 
the recent overthrow of their eastern neighbours the Arnorites, the 
passage of the Jordan, the capture of Jericho, the preservation of 
Rahab, and the convictions of their own conscience. Their removal 
from Palestine, moreover, seems to have been essential for the pre- 
servation of the Israelites from the contaminating influence of 
idolatry, and they had the alternative of flight. In fact, many 
sailed to the distant shores of the Mediterranean, and there founded 
flourishing colonies, thus preserving, to comparatively modern 
times, records of the God who fought against them. 

Some may object that the war in which they were exterminated 
was cruel, and that they might have been removed by famine or pesti- 
lence. But to the first objection it is a sufficient reply that, the 
cruelties thus practised were common to the age, and that in exter- 
minating a very guilty people, God did not direct milder usages 
than those which generally prevailed (Josh. 8.) The second objec- 
tion is answered by the fact that no plan could have made clearer 
or more impressive the power and righteousness of God, his infinite 
superiority to the idols of those nations, and his righteous hatred of 
the crimes into which they had fallen. It maybe added that by similar 
discipline the Israelites themselves were chastised, and the general 
system involved in these events is strictly analogous to the course 
of moral government still exercised in the world; with this dif- 
ference only, that now men act as rods of God's anger by tacit per- 
mission; then, under his immediate authority. 

As the triumphs, through faith, of the Israelites may be considered 
typical of the final triumph of the church, and of every Christian, 
through Jesus, the Captain of our salvation, the Author and Finisher 
of our faith (Heb. 2.10: 12. 2), so the destruction of the Canaanites 
takes its place with the deluge, and the final overthrow of Jeru- 
salem, as a signal proof of God's displeasure against sin, and may 
be considered as an emblem of the judgment of the great day, Psa. 
109: Luke 19. 

39. And, now, God's promise has been in part fulfilled: the 
How far is Jews have entered Canaan : the tabernacle of God 

S Abra^m ^ as ^ een se ^ U P ^ n Sliiloh ; the law has been pro- 
fuifiUed. mulgated and accepted. In its morality, it is emi- 
nently holy ; in its civil institutes, adapted to preserve the 
people peculiar and separate, and to set forth the reality of 
the divine government ; and in its ceremonies, it is a prophetic 
symbol of the gospel — but only in part* The original promise 
of a blessing to all nations, ratified to Abraham, and renewed 



426 THE PENTATEUCH AND JOSHUA. 

to the other patriarchs, though it included the possession of 
Canaan, seems too comprehensive to end there. The predic- 
tion of the coming dignity of the tribe of Judah ; the prophecy 
of Balaam ; the announcement by Moses of another greater 
Prophet ; and, especially, the predictions of the 31st of Deut. 
(see also Lev. 26, and Deut. 28), foretelling the sins of the 
people, and the consequences of them in the dispersion of 
their race, all seemed to direct the attention of the Israelite 
to an enlarged dispensation. They plainly forbade him to rest 
altogether in Canaan or his law. Everything implied a coming 
universal blessing, a kingdom, a revelation not nigh, a prophet 
from among the people, a country whose inhabitants should 
no more go out, even for ever. The revelation of these bless- 
ings was not always clear ; but it was clear enough to excite 
inquiry and justify faith. The position of the 
of ths'pious 1 pious Israelite, therefore, was not altogether unlike 
Israelite like our own. From Canaan lie looked back on fulfilled 

our own. , nr 1 

predictions, and forward to a glorious future. Much 
of his future is now past ; and we also look back on predictions 
gloriously fulfilled ; others, again, and in some sense, even 
these, are unfulfilled. All nations are not, even yet, blessed 
in Him. A third point of contemplation for pious Jews and 
devout Christians remains ; and the certainty of the predic- 
tions, whose fulfilment is to intervene, is assured to us by 
the records of the past. 

40. ISTo small light will be thrown upon Joshua and Judges 
Joshua and if we study them with the Pentateuch, to which, 
Penfateuch G m ore than to Samuel, they belong. Between these 
\vhatthebook books there is the same connection as between the 

of Acts is to 

the Gospels. Gospels and the Acts. 

The Pentateuch gives the history of the doings of the great law- 
giver and of the laws on which the ancient economy was to be 
founded. Joshua gives an account of the establishment of the 
nation itself, according to the repeated promise of God. The Book 
of Judges marks the corruption which so early crept into the 
ancient church. 

The Gospels give the life of the greater prophet and the laws on 
which his church was to be established. The book of Acts gives 
the history of its actual establishment, according to the promise of 
its founder. The history of the Judges has its counterpart in facta 
referred to in the Epistles. If the various books be read together 



JQDGES : AUTHORSHIP. 427 

and compared, the connection of the two dispensations, and the 
differences between them, will more plainly appear. Study the 
ritual of the law in the incarnation and death of Christ, and com- 
pare the struggles and victories of the Jews with those of the 
church. Contrasts will be heightened by the comparison. The 
genius and spirit of the gospel will appear the more glorious; nor 
less glorious will be the character and dignity of our Lord. He 
combined in his own person the offices of legislator, priest, and 
leader; offices filled of old by Moses, and Aaron, and Joshua, each, 
of whom was, in his appropriate place, a type of Him. 

Tlte Booh of Judges. 

41. The authorship of Judges is not certainly known, though 
Jewish tradition ascribes it to Samuel. From the 
and authenti- book itself, we gather that it was written after the 
cltJ ' commencement of the monarchy, 19. 1 : 21. 25, and 

before the accession of David, 1. 21 : 2 Sam. 5. 6-8. The 
" house of God " refers, therefore, as in Joshua, to the taber- 
nacle, 20. 18 (Josh. 9. 23), and the "captivity" spoken of in 
18. 30, to some contemporary servitude, see Psa. 78. 60, 61, 
where the same phrase is employed ; many of the sacred 
writers allude to or quote this book, 1 Sam. 12. 9-1 1 : 2 Sa,m. 
11. 21 : Psa. 83. 11 : 68 : 8() : Isa. 9. 4 : 10. 26. 

The judges, whose administrations for about 300 years are here 
Character of described, were not a regular succession of governors, 
the judges. font occasional deliverers raised up by God, to rescue 
Israel from oppression and to administer justice. Without as- 
suming the state of royal authority, they acted for the time as 
vicegerents of Jehovah, the invisible king. Their power seems to 
have been not unlike that of the suffetes (CDs^) of Carthage and 
Tyre, or of the arehons of Athens. The government of the people 
may be described as a republican confederacy ; the elders and 
princes having authority in then- respective tribes. 

The moral character of the Israelites, as described in this book, 
Moral con- seems to have undergone a sad change. The generation 

dition of the who were contemporaries with Joshua were both 
Tsrae^ it°s 

courageous and faithful, and free in a great measure 

from the weakness and obstinacy which had dishonoured their 
fathers (Judg. 2. 7). Their first ardour, however, had somewhat 
cooled, and more than once they fell into a state of indifference 
which Joshua found it needful to rebuke. Perhaps the whole ter- 
ritory of Palestine was more than they needed or could usefully 



-± 



^28 ruth: lessons. 



occupy. As each, tribe received its portion, tliey became so en- 
grossed in cultivating it, or so much fonder of ease than of war, 
that they grew unwilling to help the rest. All found it, moreover, 
more convenient to make slaves of their subjugated nations than to 
expel them. This policy was unwise. It was also sinful. The 
results were soon seen. Another generation arose. Living in the 
immediate neighbourhood of idolaters, and with idolaters even in 
their country, the Israelites copied their example, intermarried 
with them, and became contaminated with their abominations, 
Judg. 2. 13. The Canaanites, moreover, left alone, gathered 
strength to make head against the chosen race; and in the same 
degree the latter, yielding to licentiousness, ease, and idolatry, lost 
the energy and faith of their fathers. So sin multiplies in the 
world. So sin in this case, as ever, brought with it its punishment. 
Sinners are but filled "with their own ways;" and in their punish- 
ment God illustrates his righteousness and truth, Judg. 2. 14-18. 

The grand moral lesson of the whole narrative is given in the 
latter half of the second chapter. 

It is just, however, to add, that the whole period must not be 
regarded as ' an uninterrupted series of idolatries. Some of the 
disorders mentioned affected only parts of the country, while the 
rest was in a better state. The sins which incurred punishment, 
and the deliverances which followed repentance, are related at 
length; while long periods, during which the judges governed, and 
the people obeyed God, are described in a single verse. In addition 
to the many who, doubtless, remained faithful amidst all these cor- 
ruptions, St. Paul reminds us of several illustrious examples of 
courageous fidelity, Heb. 11. 52. 

The Book of Ruth. 

42. The book of Ruth maybe considered as a sequel to the 
Authorship, book of Judges, and an introduction to the ensuing 
&c - history. It contains particulars of the family of 

Elimelech, and informs us how Ruth, an Moabitess, became the 
wife of Boaz, an ancestor of David, and thus of Christ. The 
authorship is not certainly known ; but it is generally ascribed 
to Samuel. There are several phrases, in the original, identi- 
cal with expressions which occur elsewhere only in Samuel and 
Kings (Ruth 1. 17 : 4. 6, etc). The book traces the genealogy 
of David to a source not flattering to that sovereign ; and this 
fact is one evidence of the truthfulness of the narrative. Its 
genealogical account is quoted in Matt. 1. 5, and Luke 3. 32. 

The events recorded took place in the time of the Judges, 



RUTH : SAMUEL. 429 

i. i ; but the history was certainly written some time later, 

4- / • 

Brief as this book is, it is remarkably rich in examples of faith, 

, , patience, industry, and kindness, nor less so in intima- 

Its lessons. * 

tions of the special care which God takes of our con- 
cerns; "still out of seeming ill educing good." Elimelech's mis- 
fortunes; his son's sin in marrying a Moabitess; the loss of her 
husband — all end in her own conversion, and in the honour of her 
adopted family. What changes ten years have produced! They 
have turned IS'aomi into Mara. a She who went out full has come home 
again empty. Her fortitude and faith, however, sustain her; and 
in her trouble she shows equal wisdom and tenderness. . . . "When 
her daughters are told what they must expect if they accompany 
her to Canaan, Orpah weeps, but returns to her idols; and Ruth 
cleaves to her, indicating therein depth of affection and religious 
decision, i. 16 : 2. 12. Her reward she received "of the Lord 
God of Israel, under whose wings she came to trust." 

It had been foretold to the Jews that the Messiah should be of 
the tribe of Judah, and it was afterwards further revealed that he 
should be of the family of David. It was important, therefore, 
that the history of that family should be written before those 
promises were delivered. 

In the adoption of Ruth, a heathen, a Moabitess, into the church 
of God and the commonwealth of Israel, we see a ray of hope rising 
upon the Gentile world : and still more in her being taken into the 
line of the Messiah, we seem to have a pre-intimation of the great 
mystery that the Gentiles should be sanctified by him, and joined 
with his people, and that there should be one flock and one Shep- 
herd. 

The contents of this book are as follows : — 

An account of Naomi, from her departure with her husband from 
Canaan into Moab, to her return into the land of Israel with her 
daughter-in-law Ruth, chap. 1. The interview of Boaz with Ruth, 
and their marriage, 2.-4. 12. The birth of Obed, and genealogy 
of David, 4. 13-22. 

Sec. 4. TJie Books of Samuel, Kings, and Clironicles. 

The Boolcs of Samuel. 

43. The relation given in Ruth is a kind of digression in 
, „ the sacred story, with a particular view. The gene- 
ral thread of the narrative is now resumed. We 

a Bishop Hall. 



430 SAMUEL : AUTHOR. 

are furnished in the books of Samuel with the history of the 
two last Judges, Eli and Samuel (who were not, as the rest, 
men of war, but priests), and of the first kings, Saul and 
David. 

These two books were anciently reckoned as one, the pres- 
ent division being derived from the LXX and Vulgate. In 
those versions they are called the first and second books of 
Kings, as they form part of the history of the kings of Israel 
and Judah. 

The question of the authorship of the books is not free from 
difficulty; but the decided preponderance of 
evidence is in favour of the ancient view, that 
Samuel wrote i Sam. 1.-24, and that the rest was written by 
ISTathan and Gad, 1 Chron. 29. 29. The narrative was proba- 
bly written towards the close of Samuel's life, 5. 5 : 6. 18. 
The place of the books in the canon ; the predictions they 
record ; a the quotations from them in later books, and in the 
New Testament, 13 supply ample evidence of their authority. 

• 

Gad was the contemporary of David, and is called his seer. Ke 
Gad. was also probably one of his companions in the wilder- 

Nathan, ness, 1 Sam. 22. 5. Nathan was a prominent counsellor 

of David's, and was repeatedly commissioned to give him Divine 
messages, 2 Sam. 7. 2 : 12. 1 : Psa. 51. In Zech. 12. 12, his name 
occurs as the representative of the great family of the prophets. 
These books contain also several odes by different writers. The 
song of Hannah is remarkable from its similarity to that of Mary 
(1 Sam. 2. 10: Luke I. 46-55). It gives a striking prophecy of 
Christ, who is here called for the first time Messiah, (the Anointed), 
and King. 

Samuel, whom we thus conclude to have been the author of a 
large portion of the first book, was the desired answer 
(so his name implies) of his mother's prayers, and was 
dedicated to God from his infancy. Intrusted with supreme power 
in the state, he ruled without ambition, executed his office with 
irreproachable integrity, and resigned it without reluctance. He 
was both feared and respected by Saul, and was allowed by that 
monarch to judge Israel all the days of his life, 1 Sam. 7. 15. The 
revelations he received, and the spirit that distinguished him, were 

a See 1 Sam. 2. 30: 2 Sam. 12. 10-12, etc. 

b 1 Kings 11. 26: 2 Kings 2. 4-11 : 1 Chron. 17. 24, 25: see Acts 
13. 22: Matt. 12. 3. 



prophecy: revival and extension. 431 

such, that all Israel, from Dan to Beersheba, knew that Samuel was 
established to be a prophet of the Lord. 

Attention to- the chronological arrangement of Samuel and later 
historical books is peculiarly important. 

44. To understand the covenant which God gave to David, 
N , f securing the perpetual dominion of his seed, read and 
covenant compare 2 Sam. 7: 23. 5 : 1 Chron. 17: Psa. 89: 132. 
\uth David. j^. g p ai ^ a i fulfilment in Solomon may be gathered 

from 1 Chron. 28. 1-7: 1 Kings 8. 15-26: 11. 9-13. 

As' the temporal grandeur of David's house declined, God sent 
prophets to announce the stability of this covenant, and to assure 
Judah of the unprecedented glory of his great descendant, Amos 
9. 11-15: Isa. 9.6, 7: 11: Jer. 23. 5,6: 33.14-26. These promises 
refer to the universal and permanent reign of Messiah, who is 
now exalted, and waiting till his enemies be made his footstool, 
Luke 1. 31-33, 69: Acts 2. 25036: 13. 32-37. 

That David himself understood this covenant to refer to our 
Lord, and to spiritual blessing to be received through Him, may be 
gathered from Isa. 55.3: Heb. r. 5 : and Acts 2. 30. 

45 . In Samuel, we have a revival of the prophetic spirit. From 
the days of Joshua to Eli there seems to have been "no open 
vision" (1 Sam. 3. 1: Jer. 15. 1: Acts 13. 20: 3. 24). Under the 
Judges, the original covenant remained as at first. The Jewish 
Suspension polity and priesthood were unchanged. The law, as 
of prophecy. gi ven "by Moses, was in full force, and supplied, in the 
fulfilment of its predictions, ample evidence of its authority. In 
the days of Samuel, however, marked changes were passing over 
the state. Calamities were becoming more confounding. Success 
more extraordinary and transient. The priesthood was to be 
transferred ; kingly government to be established. By and by, 
the kingdom itself will be broken and divided. Idolatry mil be 
publicly sanctioned, and will need public authoritative rebukes. 
Then will follow a long series of afflictions, ending in removal and 
captivity. 

Changes so serious needed special interposition. Hence the 
. , necessity of a revival and enlargement of prophetic 

enlargement revelation. As Moses required peculiar evidence of a 
cflt * Divine appointment for his mission, so does Samuel. 

He appears, therefore, as prophet, and commences an age of pro- 
phecy which continues without any material chasm to the days ox 
Malachi. 

A supernatural call and a prophetic vision were granted to him 

T _ , at the commencement of his ministrv, even in hig 
In Samuel. .. __ . . " ' ■ . 

youth. He was commissioned to repeat to n,ii a pre- 



432 PROPHECY : REVIVAL AND EXTENSION. 

diction which a man of God had already announced, and the fulfil- 
ment of this prediction, with other circumstances, gave early evi- 
dence of his authority. The people soon sought a king, and as 
their request implied a distrust of the protection and love which 
had made them a theocracy, it was opposed by the prophet in God's 
name. At length, God complied, and it became the business of the 
prophet to watch over the change, to define the laws of the king- 
dom, to show whom God had chosen, and ultimately to transfer the 
kingdom to the person and tribe of David. So far, the predictions 
and business of the prophet were chiefly civil. 

In David's person and reign, however, prophecy assumes a new 
T _ ., character. His kingdom was first confirmed to him 

111 I/tivin 

(2 Sam. 7. 12-17: Psa. 89). The character and king- 
dom of Solomon are then foretold, and, blended with these, we find 
revelations of a higher and holier kind. The promise to Abraham 
was, as we have seen, both temporal and evangelical; so also is now 
the promise to David. To Abraham, Messiah had been announced, 
more or less clearly, as the promised seed; to Moses, as the coming 
prophet ; to all of that age, as the priest ; to David, he appears, in 
addition, as king. He therefore speaks of Messiah's authority, of 
the hostility of the kings of the earth, of his sceptre of righteous- 
ness, of his -unchangeable priesthood, of his exalted nature, of his 
death, and his victory over death, and of his dominion, including 
both Israel and the Gentiles (Psa. 2: 16: 45: no, etc.) In little 
more than a hundred years, the oppressed tribes rule from sea to 
sea, and the dimness of no open vision yields to what seems the 
dawn of a cloudless day. 

It is very worthy of notice, too, that while David receives the 
promise of the duration of his kingdom from Samuel and Nathan, 
it is David himself who is instructed to connect this kingdom with 
the kingdom of his greater Son. The prophets reveal and magnify 
the type, he passes on the prediction, calls Christ Lord, and pays 
everywhere willing homage to his person and law (Psa. no). 

In proportion as the kingdom and character of Christ are thu3 
p . brought into view, provision is made for deepening the 

impression of these Christian prophecies upon the 
hearts of the people, and making them conducive to faith and piety. 
They are given in Psalms, and thus pass into the devotions of the 
church. These Psalms form the most important additions that 
had yet been made to the Mosaic revelation, and are clearly adapted 
to inspire ancient worshippers with Christian hopes. Very beau- 
tiful, too, is the growing distinctness of these predictions. To 
Abraham a seed was revealed. When his descendants had become 
tribes, to Judah the promise was confined; and now, when the 



KINGS. 433 

kingdom appears, it is given to David. Nor can these predictions 
be ascribed to flattery or selfishness. It is not David who, in the 
first instance, receives them. Nor is it to himself, in all their 
fulness, that he appropriates them. He applies them to another, 
and the messenger who gives them is Nathan; a prophet who re- 
buked his son, and severely threatened Solomon with the conse- 
quences of his apostasy. The faithfulness of these servants of God 
had other and more immediate ends, but it proves incidentally the 
truth of their announcements. 

TJie two Boohs of Kings. 

46. The two books of Kings (which in ancient copies of 
the Hebrew Bible, form but one book) contain the history of 
Israel and Judah, from the end of David's reign to the Baby- 
lonish captivity. The present division of the books is taken 
from the LNX and Vulgate. 

Nothing certain is known of the authorship ; the most pro- 
bable opinion is, that as memoirs of their own times 
were written by several of the prophets, for the use 
of the kingdom, the present books were compiled from these 
records by Jeremiah or Ezra ; Jewish tradition is in favour of 
the first, and Havernich has recently advocated the same view. 
The events described reach to the liberation of Jehoiachim from 
prison in Babylon (twenty-six or twenty-eight years only after 
the destruction of Jerusalem) . A late authorship is proved by 
the frequent use of Chaldaisms (De Wette, § 115, 6) ; and there 
is a remarkable affinity of style between Kings and Jeremiah 
(Havern.) . . . The view that the books were drawn up from 
various documents by one hand is confirmed by the books 
themselves. The frequent vividness of the narrative bespeaks 
the work of an eye-witness ; and appeals are constantly made 
to official documents, under the title of Chronicles of the 
Kings of Judah and Israel — a title given elsewhere to national 
annals, Est. 2. 23 : 6. 1. That the whole was revised by one 
hand appears from the similarity of style and idiom in various 
unimportant expressions. 

Both books contain several prophecies, and other intrinsic 
Anthenti- marks of inspiration ; and both are cited as au- 
cit y- thentic and canonical by our Lord and his apostles 

(see Luke 4. 25, 27 : Jas. 5. 17). 

The comparative dates of Chronicles and Kings explain various 
differences of phraseology. In Chronicles, we have Aramaean 



u 



434 CHRONICLES. 

forms, a later words and expressions, more recent names/ and sy- 
nonymous expressions used for others liable to misconception. 

Differences in the order of events are explained by the fact that 
none of the writers profess to give the exact order of time. d Addi- 
tions, omissions, and abbreviations, are in the same way explained, 
by a reference to the different aim of each narrative. 

Other differences, amounting to discrepancies, are occasionally 
found, and refer chiefly to numbers and names. It is well known 
that the text of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, is in a worse con- 
dition than that of any other of the inspired writings ; nor must we 
ascribe to the author what is really due to the errors of copyists. 6 
These errors, it may be added, do not affect any article of faith or 
rule of life, and till we can rectify them they ought to be candidly 
acknowledged. 

Both books record several inspired predictions, and are referred 
to or quoted in the New Testament. 1 It is remarkable that the 
inspired acclamation of David to the praise of God is substantially 
adopted by our Lord, and is ascribed by John to the blessed spirits 
who celebrate the praises of God in heaven, i Chron. 29. 10, 11: 
Matt. 6. 13: Rev. 5. 12, 13. 

The two Books of Chronicles. 

47. These books were reckoned by the Jews as one, and 
called the words of Days, i t <?., diaries or journals, probably in 
allusion to the ancient annals, out of which they appear to 
have been composed. In the LXX they are distinguished as 
the books of " things omitted " (TraonXeiTrofiivwy), and were 
regarded as a kind of supplement to the preceding books of 
Scripture, supplying such information as was rendered neces- 
sary by the alterations consequent upon the captivity'; The 
present title was first given to them by Jerome. 

48. The authorship of Chronicles is generally ascribed to 

Ezra. They certainly record the restoration by 
ore ip. Q^ rus ^ 2 chron. 36. 21, 22, and mention the 

* 2 Chron. 10. 18. b 1 Chron. 14. 2: 19. 12: 21. 2: 2 Chron. 16.4. 

c 1 Chron. 19. 4: 2 Chron. 22. 12. d See Tables; 1 Chron. 14: 

2 Chron. 1. 14-17: 9. 25, are evidently out of chronological order. 

e See 2 Chron. 3. 18 (1 Kings 9. 28); 1 Chron. 11. 11 (2 Sam. 
23. 8): 21. 5 (2 Sam. 24. 9): 1 Chron. 18. 4 (2 Sam. 8. 4): 19. 18 
(2 Sam. 10. 18). 

« 2 Chron. 2. 5, 6, in Acts 7. 48, 49 : 2 Chron. 19. 7, & * ^ ct - 

T -r r» 



SAMUEL. KINGS. AND CHRONICLER COMPARED. 435 

writings of Jeremiah, 35. 25. The style of Ezra, moreover, 
bears a marked resemblance to the style of Chronicles, and its 
history seems a continuation of Kings, Ez. 1. 1-3, and 2 Chron. 
36. 23. If this view is correct, 1 Chron. 3. 19-24, giving an 
account of the genealogy of Zerubbabel to the time of Alex- 
ander, must have been added bv a later writer. 



49. The importance of the fact that these histories were compiled 
from earlier documents, themselves the work of prophets, is well 
illustrated in these books. These documents seem to be quoted 
literally, even when the fact recorded applies rather to the time of 
the writer than of the compiler; see 2 Chron. 5. 9: 8. 8: the pur- 
pose of the compiler being not to modify these documents, but to 
connect with them his own narrative. Many passages also are 
identical, or nearly identical, with passages in lungs, both being 
taken probably from the same annals. The documents referred to 
or quoted are not less than a dozen, though three or four of these 
are probably the same document. 

The three double books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, 

have much in common, though thev have also charac- 

of Samuel, t eristic differences. They treat tor tne most part 01 tne 

Kings, and sasne period, and should be read and compared together. 
Chronicles- - , . . , -, * a * % • i 

A comprehensive view may tnus be gathered ot Jewish 

history, and much light will be thrown on brief and obscure ex- 
pressions. Their differences of aim, however, are as marked as is 
their substantial identity. Samuel gives the history of the forma- 
tion of the kingdom, and a biography, even more than a history of 
the first king?. The Books of Kings, on the other hand, give a 
history of the theocracy under regal government, and are rich in 
brief allusions to the character, sins, and consequent punishment 
of the rulers and of the people. The Books of Chronicles, again, 
have special reference to the forms and ministry of religious wor- 
ship, to the genealogies, and consequent possessions of the various 
families and tribes, and to other topics connected with the return. 
Hence genealogical tables; hence, also, the prominence given to the 
pious care, in establishing public worship, of David, Solomon, 
Hezekiah, and Josiah. 

The genealogical tables of these books, though to us compara- 
titeneaiogical tively uninteresting, were highly important among the 
Tables. Jews, who were made by prophetic promises extremely 

observant in these particulars. These tables give the sacred line 
through which the promise was transmitted for nearly 3500 years; 
a fact itself unexampled in the history of the human race. 

U 2 



436 CHRONICLES : HISTORY OF A THEOCRACY. 

50. The most remarkable feature in the historical books of 
Scripture, and especially of Kings and Chronicles, 
dmracter of * s "their religious, theocratic character. Secular 
these his- history gives the public changes which nations have 
undergone, with their causes and results. Church 
history traces the progress of sentiment, and of various influ- 
ences in relation to the church. But here, king, church, state, 
are all represented as under God. The character of each king 
is decided by his fidelity to the religious obligations of his office. 
Of each it is said, He walked in the ways of David his father, 
and so prospered ; or of Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin, and 
so failed. These books are valuable as the history of God and 
his law in the nation — and that nation a monarchy ; as the 
books of Joshua and Judges are the history of God and his 
law in an aristocracy or democracy ; or as the earlier books are 
the history of God and his law in the family. In the Prophets, 
and in the Acts of the Apostles, we have glimpses of what is 
to be the history of God and his law in the world. Mark, 
therefore, the prominence given to the erection of the temple ; 
the numerous references to the ancient law, especially- when 
the two kingdoms were drawing to their end, as if to account 
for their decay and approaching, fall ; the frequent interposi- 
tion of prophets, now rebuking the people, and now braving 
the sovereign ; the deposition and succession of kings ; and 
the connection everywhere traced between what seem to be 
mere political incidents and the fidelity or idolatry of the age. a 
.... Were nations wise, these records would prove their 
best instructors ; they are adapted to teach alike the world 
and the church. 

51. The reigns of David and Solomon constitute the golden 
. period of the Jewish state. From the first, David 
David and showed the utmost anxiety that every step he took 
his reign. towards the possession of the kingdom should be 
directed by God, 2 Sam. 2.1:1 Sam. 23. 2, 4. He acted ever 
as " his servant ;" and when established in his kingdom, it 
was his first concern to promote the Divine honour and the 
religious welfare of his people (2 Sam. 6. 1-5 : 7. 1, 2). During 
a war of seven years he never lifted his sword against a subject, 
and at the end of it he punished no rebel and remembered 

a See 2 Kings 5.-8.: 10. 31: 17. 13, 15, 37: 18. 4-6. Elijah's 
history: 1 Kings 15. 3-5 : 2 Kings 11. 17. 



DAVID AXD SOLOMON. 437 

no offence but the murder of his rival (2 Sam. 4, 10-12). As 
a king, therefore, he sought the prosperity of the state, and 
as the visible representative of Jehovah he took his proper 
place, aspiring to no other, but conforming strictly to the 
spirit of the theocracy. It was to this character of his ad- 
ministration, probably, rather than to his private virtues^ 
that God referred, in describing him u as a man after his own. 
heart" (1 Sam. 13. 14: see also Acts 13. 22), who was to* 
" execute all his will." It is, indeed, impossible to vindicate alk 
his acts, or to regard him as a perfect character. And yet whem 
we look at the piety of his youth, the depth of his contrition, the 
strength of his faith, the fervour of his devotion, the loftiness 
and variety of his genius, the largeness and warmth of his 
heart, his eminent valour in an age of warriors, his justice 
and wisdom as a ruler, and, above all, his adherence to the 
worship and will of God, we may well regard him as a model 
of kingly authority and spiritual obedience. 

Solomon continued the policy and shared the blessing 
Character of °^ ^is ^ther. H|s dominions extended from the 
Solomon and Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from the Eed 
Sea and Arabia to the utmost Lebanon (1 Kings 
4. 21, etc.) The tributary states, of which it was largely 
composed, were held in complete subjection, and being still - 
governed by their own princes, Solomon was ''king of kings." 
The Canaanites who remained in Palestine became peaceable 
subjects or useful servants. His treasures also were im- 
mense, composed chiefly of the spoils won by his father front 
many nations, and treasured up by him partly for the pur- 
pose of building a temple to the Lord, but partly also for the 
purpose of sustaining the power and magnificence of the 
kingdom. The wisdom of Solomon was even more illustrious 
than his wealth. It is celebrated both in Scripture and in 
eastern story. Three thousand proverbs (of which many 
remain) long gave proof of his virtues and sagacity. A 
thousand and five songs, of which we have Canticles and the 
127th Psalm, placed him among the first Hebrew poets ; 
while his perfect knowledge of natural history was shown by 
writings, which were long admired, though they have since 
perished. 

His very greatness, however, betrayed him. His treasures, 
wives, and chariots, were all contrary to the spirit and precepts 



438 DAVID AND SOLOMON. 

of the law (Deut. 17. 16, 17). His exactions alienated the 
affections of his people, and, above all, he was led astray by 
his wives, and built temples to Chemosh, or Peor, the ob- 
scene idol of Moab ; to Moloch, the god of Ammon ; and to 
Ashtaroth, the goddess of the Sidonians. His later days, 
therefore, were disturbed by " adversaries." Jeroboam did 
"mischief" in Edom ; Damascus declared its independence 
under Rezin ; and Ahijah was instructed to announce to 
Solomon himself that, as he had broken the covenant bv 
which he held his crown, the kingdom should be rent from 
him and part of it given to his servant. There is reason to 
hope that these just punishments opened his eyes to the 
enormity of his sins, and that his last days were penitent. 
His reign, on the whole, was most prosperous. " Judah and 
Israel were many, as the sand which is by the sea in multi- 
tude, eating and drinking and making merry." From Dan 
even to Beersheba, they dwelt safely every man " under his 
vine and under his fig-tree." 

The great event of Solomon's life was the erection of the temple. 
As this building fulfilled a prophecy (2 Sam. 7. 13), 
and was a symbol of God's resting with the people 
(2 Sam. 7. 6, 10), so it was itself both a prophecy and a type. A 
type of the Jewish people and of the church, and a prophecy of 
God's continued presence (Jer. 7). Its history, therefore, is an 
index to the history of the Jews themselves. When it fell, they 
were scattered; as it rose from its ruins, they gathered round it 
again; and history dates the captivity, with equal accuracy, from 
the destruction of the temple, or from the first capture of Jeru- 
salem (see § 450), 1 Kings 9. 7, 8:2 Chron. 7. 20: all Jer. 7: 
Isa. 44. 28. 

Sec. 5. The Poetical Books — Psalms, Song of Solomon, Proverls^ 

and Ecclesiastes. 

The Psalms. 

52. The book of Psalms is a collection of sacred hymns 
Title of the (vjjlvoi), composed at different times, and especially 
b00k - by David, 2 Sam. 23. 1. The Hebrew title means 

" praises ;" the English, which is taken from the LXX, means 
odes adapted to music (^aXXw, to strike a chord); an 
appropriate name, as most of the pieces were intended not 



THE PSALMS. 439 

only to express religious feeling, but to be sung devotionally 
in public service. 

53. The Psalms were collected and arranged by Ezra and 
Scriptural his companions (b. c. 450), and in the book itself 
arrangement, there is evidence of its being formed from several 
smaller collections. In the Hebrew and LXX the Psalms 
are divided into five books, each of the first three containing 
the compositions of some particular author. 

i. 1-41. Consist chiefly of David's Psalms, collected perhaps 

by Hezekiah: see Prov. 25. 1, and 2 Chron. 29. 30. 

ii. 42-72, Psalms by the sons of Korah, 42-47, and by David, 

51-65: 7?.. 
iii. 73-89. Psalms by Asaph, 73-83, and Korah, 84-89, mostly. 
iv. 90-106.I Liturgic, including the Hallelujah Psalms and the 
v. 107-150. J songs of degrees; chiefly collected for the service of 
the second temple. 

54. Of the authors mentioned in the titles, David was the 

largest composer, though not all to which his 
name is prefixed in the Hebrew (73), nor the addi- 
tional ones in the LXX (12), were written by him. Among 
the former are Psa, 139 and 122 (compare LXX) ; but their 
Chaldaisms and style point to a later date. On the other 
hand, Psa. 99 and 104 ascribed to him in the LXX are pro- 
bably his. Psa. 2 and 95, again, which are not mentioned as 
his in either text, are ascribed to him in the New Testament, 
Acts 4. 25, 26 : Heb. 4. 7. The name of Asa-ph, David's 
chief musician, or of his descendants, is connected with twelve, 
50. 73.-83. The sons of Korah, another family of choristers, 
are named as the authors of eleven more : to this familv, 
Eeman, the Ezrahite, and nephew of Samuel, belonged (Psa. 
88: compare 1 Chron. 6. 22, 33-38): and Ethan is named as 
the author of 89, though erroneously, if he were a contem- 
porary of David's : see ver. 38-44. Solomon's name is con- 
nected with 72 and 127 ; but probably he is rather the 
subject than the author of the former. Moses is reputed to 
be the author of Psa. 90, and the following ten are ascribed 
to him by Jewish critics, but without good ground : see 97. 
8 and 99. 6. The anonymous Psalms have been ascribed to 
various authors. The LXX mentions Jeremiah as the author 
of 137, and Haggai and Zechariah as the authors of 146, 147. 

55. The peculiar value of the Psalms is twofold 



440 THE PSALMS. 

i. They are models of acceptable devotion. Other parts of 
Peculiar revelation represent God as speaking to man. Here, 

value. man |g represented as speaking to God. Bv this book, 

Expressions « ro j , 

of devout therefore, we test the utterances and feelings of our 
.eeling. hearts. Here we have a rule by which we may know 

whether they are healthy and true; whether the fire that rises from 
within is of God's kindling or of our own. 

2. They contain predictions of the history of our Lord, and 
p , describe with wonderful literalness his sufferings and 

glory: for his sufferings see Psa. 16 : 22 : 40; for his 
glory, Psa. 2: 45: 72: no. Psa. 132. n foretels his connection 
with David. Psa. 118. 22, his rejection by the Jews. Psa. 68. 18, 
his ascension, and the gift of the Spirit: and Psa. 117, the call of 
the Gentiles: see Eom. 15. n. 

The Christian church, therefore, takes the Psalms as her own 
language, or as the language of her Lord. When the writer speaks 
of his enemies, we understand him as speaking of the enemies of 
Christ and his church. Generally, however, the feelings of the 
writer are identical with the ordinary feelings of Christians; as, 
when he describes the confidence and love which have been common 
to true believers in all ages : see Arnold's Sermons on Interpreta- 
tion, p. 143; see, also, the Paragraph Bible, Introduction to the 
Psalms, and a Note appended to them. 

In a purely literary point of view, the Psalms have been 
Hebrew called, not inaptly, the national ballads of the 
ballads Hebrew race. The contrast which, so regarded, 

they present to other "national ballads" is sufficiently 
striking. 

All classes of writers have delighted to praise these compositions. 

Athanasius, and, after him, Luther, called them an 
Lxcellencies. 7 . . 

epitome of the Bible ; Basil, and, after him, Bishop 
Hall, " a compend of theology." "Not in their Divine arguments 
alone," says Milton, "but in the very critical art of composition, 
they may be easily made to appear over all the kinds of lyric 
poesy incomparable." "In lyric flow and fire," says a more modern 
authority, "in crushing force and majesty ... the poetry of the 
ancient Scriptures is the most superb that ever burnt within the 
breast of man "—Sir D. K. Sandford. To the Christian, however, 
their highest praise is that they embody the holiest feelings, have 
supplied utterances to the emotions of the best men of all ages, and 
were sung by Him who, though " he spake as never man spake, 



5? 



PSALMS : ACCORDING TO THEIR CONTEXTS. 441 

chose to breathe out his soul, both in praise and in his last agony, 
in the words of a Psalm. 

This book is quoted in the New Testament, or clearly referred 
to, upwards of seventy times. The Psalms thus quoted or referred 
to are marked in Table (B), thus. * 

56. Various classifications of the Psalms have been pro- 
Arrangement P ose d. Tholuck divides thein, according to their 
of Psalms matter, into songs of praise, of thanksgiving, of 
their- sub- complaint, and of instruction. Others arrange 
jects. them under hymns in honour of God ; hymns of 

Zion, and the temple ; hymns of the Messiah or King ; plain- 
tive and supplicatory hymns, and religious odes, as Psa. 23, 
91, 119. No very accurate classification can be made, for the 
contents are often very various. The following (A), however, 
is practically important." 1 

1. Didactic Psalms; on the character of good and bad men, their 
happiness and misery, 1, 5, 7, 9-12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25, 32, 34, 36, 
37, 5°, 5 2 , 53, 58, 73, 75, 84, 91, 92, 94, 112, 119, 121, 125, 127, 
128, 133; on the excellency of the Divine law, 19, 119; on the 
vanity of human life, 39, 49, 90; on the duty of rulers, 82, 101, 
on humility, 131. 

2. Psalms of Praise and Adoration; acknowledgements of God's 
goodness and mercy, and particularly of his care of good men, 23, 
34, 36; 91, 100, 103, 107, 117, 121, 145, 146; acknowledgements of 
his power, glory, and attributes generally, 8, 19, 24, 29, n, 47, 50, 
65, 66, 76, 77, 93, 95-97, 99, 104, in, 113-115, 134, *39, 147, 
148, 150. 

3. Psalms of Thanksgiving ; for mercies to individuals, 9, 18, 22, 
30, 34, 40, 75, 103, 108, 116, 118, 138, 144; for mercies to the 
Israelites generally, 46, 48, 65, 66, 68, 76, 81, 85, 98, 105, 124, 
126, 129, 135, 136, 149. 

4. Devotional Psalms; expressive of penitence, 6, 25, 32, 38, 51, 
102, 130, 143; expressive of trust under afflictions, 3, 16, 27, 31, 
54, 56, 57, 61, 62, 71, 86; expressive of extreme dejection, though 
not without hope, 13, 22, 69, 77, 88, 143. Prayers in time of 
severe distress, 4, 5, 11, 28, 41, 55, 59, 64, 70, 109, 120, 140, 141, 
143. Prayers when deprived of public worship, 42, 43, 63, 84. 
Prayers asking help in consideration of the uprightness of his cause, 
7, 17, 26, 35. Prayers in time of affliction and persecution, 44, 60, 
74, 79, 80, 83, 89, 94, 102, 129, 137. Prayers of intercession, 20, 
67, 12-2, 132, 144. 

a Bickersteth's " Christian Truth." 

U 3 



442 



PSALMS : THEIR DATE AND ORIGIN. 



5. Psalms eminently prophetical, 2, 16, 22, 40, 45, 68, 69, 72, 97, 
no, 118, mostly Messianic. 

6. Historical Psalms, 78, 105, 106. 

Arrangement The following Table (B), showing the probable 
according to occas i n when each Psalm was composed, is founded 

the occasion *■ 7 

and order. on " Townsend's Harmony of the Old Testament." 



Psalms. 



After what 
Scripture. 



Prohable occasion on which each Psaim 
was composed. 



Book I., m the Jewish Division 
1 - 



3 - ' 

4 00 - 

5 - - 

6 - - 

7 - " 
8* (u) - 

9 " " 

10 - - 

11 - - 

12 (c) - 

13, i4» J 5 
16,* - - 

17 - - 

18* - - 

19 (u) - 

20, 21 - 

22* - - 

23 (?-), 2 4* 



25, 26, 27 
28, 29 - 
30 - - 

31* - - 
32,33 - 
34 - - 

35 - - 
36,37 " 
38, 39, j 
40*, 41 3 
42(c) - 



Nehem. 13. 3 - 

1 Chron. 17. 27 

2 Sam. 15. 29 - 
2 Sam. 17. 29 - 
2 Sam. 17. 29 - 

1 Chron. 28. 21- 

2 Sam. 16. 14 - 
1 Chron. 28. 21 
1 Sam. 17. 4, or 

1 Chron. 16.43. 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 
1 Sam. 19. 3. - 

1 Chron. 28. 1 - 

Dan. 7. 28 - - 

1 Chron. 17. 27, 

or 1 Sam. 27. 

1 Sam. 22. 19 - 

2 Sam. 22. 51 - 

1 Chron. 28. 21 

2 Sam. 10. 19 - 
1 Chron. 17. 27 

1 Chron. 28. 21, 
or 1 Chron. 16. 

4?- 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 

1 Chron. 28. 21 

1 Chron. 21. 30 

1 Sam. 23. 12 - 

2 Sam. 12. 15 - 
1 Sam. 21. 15 - 
1 Sam. 22. 19 - 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 

1 Chron. 28. 21 

2 Sam. 17. 29 - 



Written by David or Ezra, and placed as a pre- 
face to the Psalms 

On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to 

David— a prophecy of Christ's kingdom - 

On David's flight from Absalom- - - - 

During the flight from Absalom - - - - 

During the flight from Absalom - - - - 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - 
On the reproaches of Shimei ------ 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 
On the victory over Goliath ------ 

During the Babylonish captivity - - - - 
When David was advised to flee to the moun- 
tains -------- 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 
During the Babylonish captivity- - - - - 
On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to 

David- - ---- 

On the murder of the priests by Doeg - - - 
On the conclusion of David's wars - - - - 
Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 
On the war with the Ammonites and Syrians 
On the delivery of the promise by Nathan ; or 

in severe persecution ------- 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 



During the Babylonish captivity - - - - 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

On the dedication of the threshing-floor of 

Araunah- ----------- 

On David's persecution by Saul - - - - - 

On the pardon of David's adultery - - - - 

On David's leaving the city of Gath - - - 
On David's persecution by Doeg- - - - - 

During the Babylonish captivity - - - - 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 



On David's flight from Absalom 



B.C. 



444 
1044 

1023 

1015 

1023 
1015 

1063 

539 

1062 
1015 

539 

1044a 

1060 

1019 

1015 

1036 

1044 
1015 



5?9 
1015 

1017 
1060 
1034 

1060 
1060 

539 

1015 

1023 



Note. — The six Psalms marked (ii), are regarded by Calmet as of unknown date 
and authorship. The second passage of Scripture mentioned after five Psalms, is 
regarded by him as the proper place of the Psalm. Psalms marked (c) and (r), he 
thinks, were written respectively in the captivity, and on the return from it. In 
the other Psalms, he agrees substantially with Townsend. 

tt Applied to our Lord by Peter, Acts 2. 25-31; and by Paul, Acts 13. 3S» 36. 



PSALMS ' THEIR DATE AND ORIGIN. 



443 



Psalms. 



Book II. 

43(c) - 

44* " " 

45* - - 

46 - - 

47 - - 
4 3 - - 

49,50 - 

5i - - 

52. - - 

53 - - 

54 - - 

55 ' - 

56 - - 

57 - - 

58 - - 

59 - " 
60(c) - 

61 (r) " 

62 - - 
6j(r) - 

64(c) - 

65 - - 

66 - - 

67 - - 
63* - - 

69 .(c) - 

7°> 7i " 

*]2 - .- 

Book III. 

73 (c) - 

74 - - 
75(c), 76 

77 : 
78 



1* - 



79 - - 

80 - - 

81* (u) - 

82 - - 

83 - - 

84(c) - 

85(0 - 

86 - - 

87 - - 

88 (c) - 

89 - - 

Book IV. 
90* (c) - 

91 00 - 

94 - - 
95* - - 



After what 
Scripture. 



2 Sam. 17. 29 - 
2 Kings 19. 7 - 

1 Chron. 17. 27 

2 Chron. 20. 26 
2 Chron. 7. 10 - 
Ezra 6. 22 - - 

28 - - 

12. 

22. 

28 

23. 



15 
19 



23 
29 

15 



Dan. 7 
2 Sam. 
1 Sam. 
Dan. 7. 

1 Sam. 

2 Sam. 17 
1 Sam, 

1 Sam. 24. 22 
1 Sam. 24: 22 - 
1 Sam. 19, 17 - 
1 Kings 11. 20 - 

1 Chron. 28. 21 

2 Sam. 17. 29 - 
1 Sam. 24. 22 - 
1 Sam. 22. 19 - 

1 Chron. 28. 21 
Ezra 3. 13 - - 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 

2 Sam. 6. 11 

1 Chron. 28. 21 

2 Sam. 17. 29 - 
1 Chron. 29. 19- 



2 Kings 19. 19 - 
Jer. 39. 10 - - 
2 Kings 19. 35 - 
Dan. 7, 28 - - 

1 Chron. 28. 21, 
or 2 Chron. 19. 

56. 
Jer. j 9. 10 - - 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 
Ezra 6. 22 - - 

2 Chron. 19. 7 - 
Jer. 39. 10, or 

2 Chron. 20. 
Ezra; 3. 13 - - 
Ezra 1. 4 - - 
1 Chron. 28. 21 
Ezra 3.7- - - 
Exod. 2. 25 - - 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 



Numb. 14. 45 - 
1 Chron. 28. 10 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 
Jer. 39. 10 - - 
1 Chron. 28. 21 



Probable occasion on which each Psalm 
was composed. 



B.C. 



On David's flight from Absalom - - - - - 
On the blasphemous message of Eabshakeh - 
On the delivery of the promise by Nathan - 
On the victory of Jehoshaphat - - - - - 
On the removal of the ark into the temple - 
On the dedication of the second temple - - 
During the Babylonish captivity - - - - 
Confession of David after his adultery - - - 

On David's persecution by Doeg 

During the Babylonish captivity 

On the treachery of the Ziphims to David- - 

During the flight from Absalom 

When David was with the Philistines in Gath 
On David's refusal to kill Saul in the cave 

Continuation of Psa. 57 

On Saul surrounding the town of David - - 
On the conquest of Edom by Joab - - - - 
Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 
In David's persecution by Absalom- - - - 
Prayer of David in the wilderness of Engedi - 

On David s persecution by Saul 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 
On laying the foundation of the second temple 

During the Babylonish captivity 

On the first removal of the ark ------ 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

On Absalom's rebellion 

On Solomon being made king by his father - 



On the destruction of Sennacherib - - - - 

On the destruction of the city and temple - 

On the destruction of Sennacherib - - - - 

During the Babylonish captivity- - - - - 

Inserted towards the end of David s life - - 



On the destruction of the city and temple- ■ 
During the Babylonish captivity - - - ■ 
On the dedication of the second temple - • 
On the appointment of Judges by Jehoshaphat 
On the desolation caused by the Assyrians - 

On the foundation of the second temple - - 

On the decree of Cyrus - 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 
On the return from the Babylonish captivity- 
During the affliction in Egypt - - - - - 
During the Babylonish captivity - - - - 



On the shortening of man's life, &c. - - 
After the advice of David to Solomon - - 
During the Babylonish captivity - - - 
On the destruction of the city and temple- 
Inserted towards the end of David's life - 



1023 

710 
io44 a 

896 
1004 

5i5 

539^ 
10340 

1060 

5 i 9 
1060 

1023 
1060 

1058 
1058 
1061 

1040 
1015 

1023 
ic.58 

ic6o 
1015 
535 
593 
1045 
1015 
102? 
1015 



710 
588 
710 

539 

1015 



588 

539 
515 

897 
588 

535 

536 

1015 

536 
1531 

539 



1489 
1015 

539 

588 

1015 



a Explained and applied to our Lord, Heb. 1, 8, 9: 1 Pet. 3. 22 : Eph. z. 22. 
Phil. 2. 9-1 1. 

b To Asaph, by Eichhom, De Wette, and Rosenmuller. 



444 



PSALMS : TKEIR DATE AND ORIGIN. 



Psalms. 



96 - 

97* ( r ) 

98 (r) 

99 (0 

100 (r) 

101 - 
102* - 
103 - 

104* (r) 

105 00 

106 (r) 



After what 
Scripture. 



} 



146 to 150 



1 Chron. 16. 43 

2 Chron. 7. 10- 

1 Chron. 28. 21 
Dan. 9. 27 - - 

2 Sam. 12. 15 - 
1 Chron. 28. 21 

1 Chron. 16. 43 



Ezra 3. 7 - - 
1 Kings 11.20- 
1 Sam. 22. 19 - 

1 Chron. 17. 27 

Ezra 3. 7 - - 

2 Chron. 20. 26 
Ezra 3. 7 - - 
1 Chron. 17. 27 
Neh. 13.3 - - 

1 Chron. 28. 21 

Dan. 7. 28 - - 
1 Chron. 28. 21 
Ezra 3.7 - - 
Ezra 1. 4 - - 
Ezra 3. 7 - - 
Ezra 4. 24 - - 
Dan. 7. 28 - - 
1 Chron. 28. 21 
1 Chron. 15. 14 

1 Chron. 28. 21 
Ezra 3. 7 - - 

2 Chron. 7. 10 - 

Dan. 7. 28 - - 
Ezra 6. 13 - - 
1 Chron, 13. 4 - 

1 Sam. 22. 19 - 
1 Sam. 27. 1 

1 Sam. 22. 1 

2 Sam. 17. 29 - 
2 Sam. 17. 29 - 
1 Chron. 28. 10 
Ezra 6. 22 - - 



Probable occasion on which each Psalm 
was composed. 



On the removal of the ark from Obed-edom's 
house -------- ~ - - - . 

On the removal of the ark into the temple - 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

On the near termination of the captivity - - 

On the pardon of David's adultery - - - - 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

On the removal of the ark from Obed-edom's 
house --._.___ 



On the return from the captivity - - - - 

On the conquest of Edoni by Joab - - - - 

On David's persecution by Doeg- - - - - 

On the promise by Nathan to David - - - 

On the return from the captivity - - - - 

On the victory of Jehoshaphat ----- 
On the return from the captivity - - - - 
On the promise by Nathan to David - - - 
Manual of devotion by Ezra ------ 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

During the Babylonish captivity 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

On the return from the captivity - - - - 

On the decree of Cyrus - - 

On the return from the captivity - - - - 

On the opposition of the Samaritans - - - 

During the Babylonish captivity- - - - . 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

On the second removal of the ark - - - - 

Inserted towards the end of David's life - - 

On the return from the captivity - - - - 

On the removal of the ark into the temple - 

During the Babylonish captivity- - - - - 

On the rebuilding of the temple - - - - - 

Prayer of David when made king over all 

Israel ------------- 

On David's persecution by Doeg 

Prayer of David when driven from Judea 
Prayer of David in the cave of Adullam - - 
During the war with Absalom - - - - - 

On the victory over Absalom 

David, when old, reviewing his past life - - 
On the dedication of the second temple - - 



B.C. 



105 1 
1004 

IC15 

1034 
1015 

105 1 

536 

1040 
1060 
1044a 

536, 

896 
536 

ioj4> 

444° 
IC15 

1015 

5?6 

5?6 

515 

539 
1015 

105 1 

1015 

536 

1004 

5?9 

519 

1048 
1060 
1055 
1060 

105? 
105? 

io'5 



a Cited by our Lord to prove his Divinity, Matt. 22. 14: by Peter, Acts 2. 32-36 * 
Paul, 1 Cor. 15. 25-28 : Heb. 7. 1-28: 8. 1. 

fc Cited by our Lord, Matt. 22. 42 : explained by Peter, Acts 4. n : 1 Pet. 2 4, 5 
Paul, Rom. 9. 32 : Eph. 2. 20, 21. 

c Galmet, and most commentators, refer this Psalm to the captivity. 

Chronological Adopting this arrangement, the Psalms may be 
arrangement, classified chronologically thus: (C). 



psalms: their titles. 445 

B. c. 15 31. Psa. 88, Eeman in Egypt. 

B. c. 1489. Psa. 90, Moses in the Wilderness. 

B.C. 1063-1015. David's History and Experience, 9, it, 59, 34, 
56, 142, 17, 35, 52, 31, 64, 109, 140, 54, 57, 58, 63, 96, 105, 
106, 132, 141, 139, 68, 2, 16, 22, 45, 118, 60, 108, 20, 21, 32, 

3 3, $h 103, 3, 7, 4, 5, 42, 43, 55* 7°> T*t *43, *44. . .. » 18, 

62, 30, 91, 6, 8, 12, 19, 23, 24, 28, 29, 38, 39, 40, 41, 61, 6$ T 
69, 78, 86, 95, 101, 104, 120, 121, 122, 124, 131, 133, 7 2 , 145- 
B. c. 1004. On the removal of the ark to the temple, 47, 97, 98, 

■ 99, i°°, *35> x 3 6 - 
B. c. 897-710. From Jehoshaphat to Sezehiah, 82, 46, 115, 44, 7^, 

75, 76* 
B.C. 588. On the Invasion of the Assyrians, 74, 79, 83, 94. 

B.C. 539. In the Captivity, 10, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27, 36, 37, 49, 
5°, 53, 67, 77, 80, 88, 89, 92, 93, 123, 130, 137. 

B. c. 538-6. At the close of the captivity, and on the return, 102, 
85, 126, 87, 107, 111-114, 116, 117, 125, 127, 128, 134. 

B. c. 535. At the rebuilding and dedication of the temple, 66, 84, 
129, 138, 48, 81, 146, 147-150. 

B. c. 444. Ezra completes the canon, and adds 1, and 119. 

The date and occasions of these Psalms, it must be observed, are 
many of them conjectural. Townsend's opinion o f the occasion of 
the following, is founded on internal evidence alone, 7, 47, 48, 81, 
82, 84, 91, 97-100, 119, 139, 145. For the rest, he follows Light- 
foot, Calmet, Home, Gray, or Hales. ' Modern inquiry has added 
to our knowledge of the facts on which the dates rest, and have 
thrown doubts on the accuracy of Townsend's arrangement of Psa. 
25-27, and several others. See Notes of Annot. Par. Bible, Religious 
Tract Society, vol. i. 563-662. 

57. All the Psalms (except 34) have titles, which are as 
eld at least as the version of the LXX, but not of inspired 
authority. They may be regarded as historically accurate, 
except where there is internal evidence against them. 

These titles give either the name of the author (1), or directions 
Titles of t° * ne musician (2), or the historical occasion (3), or the 
Psalms. liturgical use (4), or the style of the poetry (5), or the 

instrument (6), or the tune (7), to which the Psalm is to be sung. 
Sometimes all these are combined, Psa. 60. 

1. Moses, Psa. 90. David, of 73, to which the LXX add othec 
twelve Psalms. Solomon, Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and the sons of 
Korah are also named. 

2 e To the chief musician, is prefixed to 53. Some suppose that 



446 PSALMS : THEIR TITLES. 

the music was by him. Gesenius and Ewald regard " to " as 
meaning "by," and refer u the musician" to David. 

3. Psa. 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 5 2 > 54, etc. 

4. Psa. 17, 86, 90, 102, 145, etc. 

5. Psa. 46, 65, 48, 16. For 6, and 7, see below. 

The following are the terms found at the beginning of Psalms. 
The meaning is not easily ascertained, and even in the ancient 
versions there is very great diversity. The authorized version leaves 
most of them untranslated, and Coverdale generally omits them. 
Luther preferred to translate them with what accuracy he could. 
"We put first the meaning which is most probable. 

The word translated " upon" or "on," is appropriate, whether it 
refer to the subject of the Psalm, or to the instrument or cleff, on 
which, or the tune to which the Psalm was sung. 

Aijeleth Shachar, i. e m) hind of the morning (sun or dawn) = to be 
sung to the tune, beginning with these words (Jewish critics), 
or on the Messiah or David, who is supposed to be so called 
(Luther, Hengstenberg, Tholuck), Psa. 22. 

Alamoth, i.e., virgins, and so = "for treble voices" (Gesenius, 
Hengstenberg, Tholuck), Psa. 46. 

Al-taschith, i. e., destroy thou not, = to be sung to the tune of the 
ode beginning with these words, Psa. 57-59, 75. 

Degrees, i. e., of the steps, or of ascension, = a pilgrim's song for those 
going up to Jerusalem, especially from captivity, see Psa. 122-4 
(Lowth, Ewald, etc.), or = a song ascending by degrees from 
clause to clause, as in Psa. 121 (De Wette, Gesenius), or = a 
song to be sung in ascending the steps of the inner court of the 
temple (Jewish critics) or = a song sung by the upper choir 
(Luther, Tholuck), Psa. 120-134. 

Gittith, — a Gath instrument or tune, or the vintage-melody, Psa. 
8, 81, 84. 

Iliggaion, — instrumental music, Psa. 9, 16, or = meditation 
(Hengstenberg, Tholuck). 

Jeduthun, Psa. 39,62, 77, see 1 Chron. 25. 1, 3. 

Jonath-elem-rechokim, i. e. t the mute dove among strangers, = the 
tuno so called, or = the subject of the Psalm, David at Gath, 
Psa. 56. 

Leannoih, — to be sung, Psa. 88. 

Mahalath, = lute, or a tune so called, or = a dancing-tune, Psa. 

53. 83. 

Maschil, = a didactic poem (Hengstenberg, Tholuck), or = a skilful 

poem (Gesenius, De Wette), Psa. 13. 
Michtam, == a golden or excellent Psalm, or = a mystery, i. e., a 



PSALMS : THEIK TITLES. 447 

Psalm with a hidden meaning (Hengstenberg), or on hidden, 
i. e., experimental religion, or = a written poem (michtav), 
Gesenius, Eosenm., Tholuck, see Isa. 38. 9: Psa. 16, 56-60. 

Mutli-labban, — on the death of his son, or of Goliath (Chald.), or 
= on an instrument, or to a song so called, or with a slight 
variation in the vowels = with virgin's voice for boys, i. e., 
male-trebles: or to Benaiah, 1 Chron. 15. 18, 20: Psa. 9. 

Neginoih, = stringed instruments, Psa. 4, 6, 54, 56, 60, 61, 76. 

Nehiloth, = wind instruments, or = the lots (i. e., of the good and 
' bad), Psa. 5. 

Selah, — pause, *. e., in vocal music, or = exalt (the voice), t. e,, 
forte, or = exalt (Jehovah), (Kimchi, Ewald, De Wette), 70 
times in Psa. 3, in Habb., or = Da Capo. 

Sheminith, i. e., an eighth = bass (1 Chron. 15. 20, 21 ), or = an 
eight-stringed instrument, Psa. 6, 12. 

Shiygaion, = a wandering, or excited song, or = an elegy (Ge- 
senius, Eosenm., De Wette, Tholuck), Psa. 7. 

Shushan, i.e., a lily = a very beautiful song, or instrument so called, 
Psa. 60, 45, 69, 80; with eduth added, i. e., lily of testimony = 
name of tune or instrument (Gesenius, Tholuck), or = a beau- 
tiful subject of admitted excellence (Hengstenberg), Psa. 60, 80* 

58. In studying the Psalms, two rules of interpretation are 
of prime importance. 

(i.) Ascertain the author, the historical origin, and the obvious 
scope of the Psalm. Tables B and C, will give the first two, and 
Table A, the last. 

"• (ii) Carefully consider the historical meaning of its terms and 
allusions, and ascertain from New Testament quotations, a or from 
the general tenor of the gospel, how it is to be applied, either to 
Christ or to the Christian Church. Though, perhaps, every Psalm 
is connected in its origin and allusions with an economy which was 
" to vanish away," all are no less closely connected in sentiment 
and applicability with the economy that {< abideth;" and wisely 
studied, the whole book may be made our own, and become to us 
the expression of the holiest feelings in the holiest form. 

The Song of Solomon, B.C. iccx. 

59. The universal voice of antiquity ascribes this poem to 

Solomon, and internal evidence confirms this tes- 

Authorsliip. ,. TT . ,, t -\ n 

timony. His songs were a thousand and. jive, 
See chapter vi. 



448 SONG OF SOLOMON. 

i Kings 4. 32 ; and this is called, in Hebrew idiom, the song 
of songs, the best, that is, of them all. 

This book has always been ranked among the canonical 
writings of the Old Testament. It is not quoted, 
indeed, in the New, but it formed part of the 
Jewish Scriptures (Jos. Antiq. viii. 2-5, and Contr. Ap. 1. 8), 
was translated by the authors of the LXX, is included in all 
ancient catalogues, and is attested expressly by Melito (2nd 
century), Origen (d. 253), Jerome (5th century), the Jewish 
Talmud, and Theodoret of Cyprus (450 A. D.) 

On what occasion it was written is not certain. The imagery 
seeins derived from the marriage of Solomon, either with Pharaoh's 
daughter (1 Kings 3. 1: 7. 8: 9. 24, compared with Song, 1. 9: 
6. 12), or with some native of Palestine, espoused some years later 
(chap. 2. 1), of noble birth (7. 1), though inferior to her husband 
(1. 6). 

Whatever the occasion of the poem, we find in reading it, two 
characters, who speak and act throughout; the one called Shelomoh 
(the peaceful), and the other by the same name with a feminine 
ending, Shulamith, like Julius and Julia, 1. 6: 3. 11: 6. 13: 8. 12. 
There is also a chorus of virgins, daughters of Jerusalem, 2. 7: 
3.5: 5. 8, 9. Towards the close, two brothers of Shulamith appear, 
8. 8, 9, see 1. 6. As in all ancient poems, there are no breaks to 
indicate change of scene or of speakers. In detecting these changes, 
we are guided partly by the sense, but chiefly by the use in the 
original of feminine and masculine pronouns, of the 
second or third person. A neglect of this distinction 
has much obscured the English version. 

i. Shulamith speaks, 1. 2-6: then in dialogue with Shelomoh; 
Shul. 1, 7: Shel. 1. 8-11: Shul. 1. 12-14; Shel. 1. 15: Shul. 1. 16. •• 
2. 1: Shel. 2. 2: Shul. 2. 3. 

ii. Shulamith now rests, sleeps and dreams (Shelomoh addressing 
the daughters of Jerusalem, and charging them not to wake her, 

2. 7: 3- S)' 2 - 4-6, 8.-3. 4. 

hi. The daughters of Jerusalem see a nuptial procession approach- 
ing, 3. 6-n. 

iv, Dialogue between Shelomeh and Shulamith. Shelomoh 
speaks 4. 1-16 (as far as "flow out,") Shul. 4. 16: Shel. 5. 1. 

v. Anight scene; Shulamith seeking for Shelomoh; meets and 
converses with the daughters of Jerusalem; Shul. 5. 2-8 : daughters 
of Jerusalem, 5. 9: Shul. 5. 10-16: daughters of Jerusalem, 6. 1: 
Shul. 6. 2, 3. 



SONG OF SOLOMON : CONTENTS. 449 

vi. Morning scene; Shelomoh visits his garden early, and meets 
Sliulamith; Shel. 6. 4-10: Shul. 6. 11, 12; the dialogue continuing 
to 8. 8. 

vh. The brothers of Shulamith are introduced; the brothers 
speak, 8. 8, 9: Shul. answers them, 8. 10-12: Shel. speaks, 8. 13: 
and Shul. answers, closing the scene, 8.14. 

Literally regarded, the whole of this poem is a description of 
Spiritual wedded love; one of the noblest of our affections, and 
significance, one which our Lord has employed as a kind of type of 
his own. In this aspect, the book gives a beautiful representation 
of the sentiments and manners which prevailed among the Israelites, 
on "conjugal and domestic life. But the poem had, no doubt, a 
higher aim. The names of the two chief characters, are as signi- 
ficant as any in "Bunyan's Allegory." The sudden change from 
the singular pronoun to the plural (1. 4, etc.), indicates that 
Shulamith must be taken collectively. Both she and Shelomoh, 
moreover, appear in positions which, literally regarded, are highly 
improbable, 5. 7: 2. 14-16: 4. 8. And from the earliest times, 
Jews and Christians have applied the whole to the history of the 
chosen people of God, and their relation to Him. These views 
are confirmed by the fact that throughout the Bible, the union of 
Christ and his Church, .or of God and his ancient people, is repre- 
sented under the same endearing relation as that which this book 
discloses; see especially Psa. 45: Isa. 54. 5, 6: 62. 5 : Jer. 2. 2: 3. 1 : 
Ezek. 16. 10, 13: Hos. 2. 14-23: Matt. 9. 15: 22. 2: 25. 1-11: John 
3. 29: 2 Cor. ii, 2: Eph. 5. 23-27: Eev. 19. 7-9: 21. 2-9: 22. 17. 

Much of the language of this poem has been misunderstood by 
Abuse of in- early expositors. Some have erred by adopting a fanci- 
terpretation. f u l method of explanation, and attempting to give a 
mystical meaning to every minute circumstance of the allegory. In 
all figurative representations there is always much that is mere 
costume. It is the general truth only that is to be examined and 
explained. Others, not understanding the spirit and luxuriancy 
of eastern poetry, have considered particular passages as defective 
in delicacy, an impression which the English version has needlessly 
confirmed, and so have objected to the whole; though the objection 
does not apply with greater force to this book than to Hesiod and 
Homer, or even to some of the purest of our own authors. If it be 
remembered, that the figure employed in this allegory is one of the 
most frequent in Scripture, that in extant oriental poems it is con- 
stantly employed to express religious feeling, 3 that many expressions 

a See examples in Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, 30, 31; 
Clarke or Bosenmuller on the Song of Solomon. Stuart on the 
Canon; Sir AY. Jones's Works, ii. 469; As. Res., iii. 353; and in 
Kitto's Bible Readings. 



450 PROVERBS. 

which are applied in our translation to the person, belong properly 
to the dress, a that every generation has its own notions of delicacy 
(the most delicate in this sense being by no means the most virtuous), 
that nothing is described but chaste affection, that Shulamith speaks 
and is spoken of collectively, and that it is the general truth only 
which is to be allegorized, the whole will appear to be no unfit 
representation of the union between Christ and true believers in 
every age. 

Properly understood, this portion of Scripture will minister to 
our holiness. It may be added, however, that it was the practice of 
the Jews to withhold the book from their children, till their judg- 
ments were matured. 

The Booh of Proverbs (about B.C. iooo). 

60. The book of the Proverbs of Solomon contains more 
than the title indicates. A proverb is a short 

Contents. . .. , , , . 

sentence, conveying some moral truth or practical 
lesson in a concise, pointed form, and sometimes the name is 
applied to enigmatical propositions of the same moral or 
practical tendency. In this book, however, we have, in 
addition, many exhortations to prudence and virtue, with 
eulogies on true wisdom. These latter form the subject of 
the first nine chapters. The last two chapters, moreover, are 
from the pen of another author. Those that are Solomon's 
are part, probably, of the 3000 proverbs he is recorded to 
have spoken, 1 Kings 4. 32, and formed, besides the Canticles 
and Ecclesiastes, the only works of his which were undoubtedly 
inspired. He sought wisdom rather than any other gift, and 
God honoured his request by granting him a larger measure 
of it than was enjoyed by any of his contemporaries. To 
communicate a portion of what he had received for the 
lasting benefit of others was the aim of this collection. The 
proverbs, from the 25th to the 29th chapters inclusive, were 
collected by the men of Hezekiah, among whom were Hosea 
and Isaiah. 

Proverbial instruction is common in the early history of most 
nations, and especially in the east. This style of communication 
excites attention, exercises ingenuity, is favourable to habits of re- 
flection, and fastens truth upon the memory in a form at once 
agreeable and impressive. The elegance and force of the proverbs 

a Chap. 5. 10, 14: 7. 2. 



PROVERBS : AIM. 451 

of Solomon are increased by the poetic parallelisms in which they 
are written. Nearly every sentence is antithetical or explanatory, 
and attention to corresponding clauses will often fix the reading 
and determine the sense. 

The leading aim of the writer is. as stated at the outset, to " give 
.. a young man knowledge and discretion." This book is. 

for practical ethics, what the book of Psalms is for 
devotion. It has lessons for every age and condition. All may 
draw from it the most excellent counsels; and the man who, pos- 
sessed of the sound principles of piety, shall form his life by the 
rules of this volume cannot fail to attain honour and happiness. 
The wisest authors have done little more than dilate on the pre- 
cepts and comment on the wisdom of Solomon. 

Though most of his rules are based chiefly on considerations of 
prudence, strictly religious motives are either presupposed or ex- 
pressly enjoined. "The fear of the Lord is." with him, ''"'the be- 
ginning of wisdom," i. 7: 9. 10. His morality is based on religion. 
Vice, moreover, is condemned, and virtue enforced, by appeals to 
the holiest motives; as the authority of God, 16. 6; his exact 
knowledge of men's hearts and ways, 5. 21: 15. 11; the rewards of 
righteousness, and the punishment of wickedness, by his just ap- 
pointment, 19. 29: 23.17-19: 26. ic. Practical wisdom, therefore, 
resting upon and rising out of religious character, is the aim of this 
portion of the inspired volume. 

Ponder its lessons, form vour opinion" of men and things according 
to them, and treasure them in your memory as the best rules of 
prudence. 

The book may be divided into five parts: — 

_, . . i. Containing a connected discourse en the value and 

Divisions. ° 

attainment ot true wisdom, 1.-9. 

ii. Extending from 10. -22, 16, comprises proverbs, strictly so 
called, expressed with much force and simplicity. 

iii. Reaching from 22. 17-24. contains renewed admonitions on the 
study of wisdom, as in part i. 

iv. Containing proverbs selected by the men of Hezekiah ; by 
those, that is, whom he employed to restore the service of 
the Jewish church. These are also time proverbs, 25.-29. 

v. Consisting of chaps. 30 and 31, contains the wise instructions of 
Agur to his pupils Ithiel and Ucal, and lessons addressed to 
Lemuel by his mother. "Who these persons were is not 
known. The proverbs of chap. 30 are chiefly enigmatical, 
and the 3 1st gives a picture of female excellence adapted to 
that age and country. 
The description of Wisdom given in chap. 1. 20-23: 8.: and 9. 



452 PROVERBS : CONTENTS. 

applies emphatically to the wisdom of God, revealed and embodied 
in his Son, and to the Son himself, as the eternal Word. Compare 
John i. i: 14. 10 with chap. 8. Pre -intimations of immortality 
are also given in chaps. 4. 18: 12. 28: 14. 32: 15. 24. 

The nature and consequences of sin are implied in the very terms 
which describe holiness, 1. 20: see also 1. 24: 16. 5: 21. 4: 24. 9; 
and that holiness is a Divine gift, is plainly implied in 1. 23. 

61. In expounding and applying the maxims of this book 
„ , „ there are two golden rules. 

Rules for ° 

proverbs t G I ' Like all general laws, some of them have occa- 
sional exceptions. Not all are unlimited or universal. 
For example, Prov. 10. 27, "The fear of the Lord prolongeth days, 
but the vears of the wicked shall be shortened." Such is often the 
rule : but Abel was murdered and the life of Cain prolonged. 
Jonathan and Saul — the one a very brother of David, the other an 
apostate — perish in the same battle: "the corn cut down with the 
weeds, though to better purpose." Men are less likely to harm us 
if we be followers of that which is good, and yet persecution, be- 
cause of our goodness, is supposed, 1 Pet. 3. 13. In truth, God 
has to teach us a double lesson — that he certainly will punish, and 
that he will punish hereafter. The shortening of the years of the 
wicked — present punishment — teaches the first: the lengthening of 
their years — the postponement of punishment — the second. Hence 
both the exception and the rule. Prov. 16. 7, "When a man's 
ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies to be at peace 
with him." So it was with Abraham and the Israelites, with 
Solomon and Jehoshaphat; so it was not with David, or with Paul. 
2. The force and significancy of these maxims will be most 
clearly seen and felt, if they be studied in the light of Scripture 
examples. They are comprehensive laws, understood best when 
examined in particular cases. 

The following instances are taken from Nichol's Treatise 
on this book ; an admirable specimen of biblical exposition. 

Prov. 1. 7, " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge: 
but fools despise wisdom and instruction." (Rehoboam, 1 Kings 
12. 13; Eli's sons, 1 Sam. 2. 25; Athenian philosophers, Acts 17. 
18.) 

Prov. 1. 10, "My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not." 
(Adam, Gen. 3. 6; Balaam, Numb. 22; Jehoshaphat, 1 Kings 22. 4; 
prophet of Judah, 1 Kings 13. 15-19, 24 ; Micaiah's firmness, 
1 Kings 22. 13, 14.) 



. PROVERBS : CONTENTS. 453 

Prov. i. 32, " The prosperity of fools shall destroy thern." (The 
Israelites, Deut. 32. 15-25: Hos. 13. 6; Tyre, Ezek. 28. 2, 16, 17; 
Sodom, Ezek. 16. 49.) 

Prov. 3. 5, 6, " Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean 
not unto thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge 
him, and he shall direct thy paths." (Asa, 2 Chron. 14. 9-15; 
Hezekiah, 2 Kings 19. 14, etc.; Abraham's servant, Gen. 24. 12-27: 
Nehemiah 2. 4: Ezra 8. 21-23; David, 1 Sam. 30. 6-8.) 

Prov. 4. 14, " Enter not into the paths of the wicked." (Lot, 
Gen. 13. 10-13; David, 1 Sam. 27. 1.) 

Prov. 4. 18, 19, "The path of the just is as the shining light." 
(The wise men, Matt. 2. 1-13 ; Nathanael, John 1. 46-51; the 
eunuch, Acts 8. 27-40; Cornelius, Acts 10.; Paul, 2 Cor. 3. 18.) 
"The way of the wicked is as darkness; they know not at what 
they stumble." (Ahab, 1 Kings 18. 17; the Jews, Ezek. 18. 29: 
Jer. 5. 19, 25. Also, their ignorance, that the cause of their 
present miseries is their rejection of the Messiah, Deut. 28. 29.) 

Prov. 5. 22, "His own iniquities shall take the wicked himself." 
(Agag, 1 Sam. 15. 33; Adoni-bezek, Judges 1. 7: Hainan, Esther 7. 
10; Judas, Matt. 27. 3-5.) 

Prov. 9. 8, " Rebuke a wise man, and he will love thee." (David 
loved Nathan; Peter loved our Lord, John 21. 17; the two disciples 
constrained their reprover to abide with them, Luke 24. 25, 29.) 

Prov. 10. 2, "Treasures of wickedness profit nothing." (Tyre, 
Ezek. 26. 15: 27.: 28.; the rich man, Luke 16. 23.) "But righte- 
ousness delivereth from death." (Noah, Gen. 7. 1, with Heb. ir. 
7: Dan. 5. 6., Belshazzar contrasted with Daniel.) 

Prov. 10. 7, "The memory of the just is blessed." (Elisha,, 
2 Kings 13. 21; Jehoiada, 2 Chron. 24. 15, etc.; Dorcas, Acts 9. 36, 
etc.; Mary, Mark 14. 9.) "But the name of the wicked shallrot." 
(Absalom, 2 Sam. 18. 17 ; Jehoiakim, Jer. 22. 18, 19 ; Jezebel, 
2 Bangs 9. 37; Jeroboam, son of Nebat, 2 Kings 13. 14. 15.) 

Prov. 10. 8, "The wise in heart will receive commandments." 
(David, 2 Sam. 7; the mother of our Lord, John 2. 4, 5; the no- 
bleman, John 4. 50.) "But a prating fool shall fall." (Amaziah, 
2 Kings 14.) 

Prov. 10. 24, "The fear of the wicked, it shall come upon him." 
(The Canaanites, Josh. 5; Belshazzar, Dan. 5; Ahab, 1 Kings 22; 
Haman, Esther 7. 7-10.) "But the desire of the righteous shall 
be granted." (Hannah, 1 Sam. 1: Esther 4. 16: 8. 15-17; Simeon, 
Luke 2. 29, 30: see also Psa. 37. 4: John 16. 23, 24.) 

Prov. 10. 25, " As the whirlwind passeth, so is the wicked no 
more." (Elah, 1 Kings 16. 9; Zimri, 1 Kings 16. 18, 19.) "But 
the righteous is an everlasting foundation." (Abraham, Gen. 17 
1-8; David, 2 Sam. 7. 16: see also Matt. 7. 24, 25.) 



454 PROVERBS : CONTENTS. 

Prov. ti. 2, " When pride cometk, then cometh shamed 
(Miriam, Numb. 12. 10; Uzziah, 2 Chron. 26. 16-21; Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Dan. 4. $o, etc.) "But with the lowly is wisdom.'' 
(Daniel, Dan. 2. 30; Joseph, Gen. 41. 16.) 

Prov. 11. 5, 6, "The righteousness of the perfect shall direct his 
way: but the wicked shall fall by his own wickedness. The righte- 
ousness of the upright shall deliver them : but transgressors shall 
be taken in their own naughtiness." (Hainan, Esther 7. 10: 8. 7; 
Daniel's accusers, Dan. 6. 24, etc.; Ahithophel's death, 2 Sam. 17. 
23, contrasted with David's restoration to his throne.) 

Prov. 11. 10, "When it goeth well with the righteous, the city 
rejoiceth." (Mordecai, Esther 8. 16.) "When the wicked perish- 
eth, there is shouting." (Sisera, Judges 5; Athaliah, 2 Kings 11, 
13, 20: see Rev. 19. 1- 3.) 

Prov. 11. 21, "Though hand join in hand, the wicked shall not 
be unpunished." (Tower of Babel, Gen. 11. 4, etc.; the kings who 
combined together, Josh. 9. 1, 2; Adonizedec, Josh. 10.) "But 
the seed of the righteous shall be delivered." (Mephibosheth, 
2 Sam. 21. 7; Solomon, 1 Kings 11. 12, 34; Abijam, 1 Kings 15. 4; 
the Israelites often, Exod. 3. 15, 17: 2 Kings 8. 19.) 

Prov. 11. 25, "The liberal soul shall be made fat, and he that 
watereth shall be watered also himself." (Abraham, Gen. 13. 9, 
14; widow of Zarephath, 1 Kings 17. 10, etc.; the Shunainite, 
2 Kings 4.) 

Prov. 12. 5, "The counsels of the wicked are deceit." (Geshera, 
Neh. 6. 2; Ishmael, Jer. 41. 1-7; Daniel's accusers to Darius, Dan, 
6. 8; Herod's to the wise men, Matt. 2; the Pharisees respecting 
the tribute money, Matt. 22. 15; the Jews laying wait for Paul, 
Acts 23. 15.) 

Prov. 12. 11, "He that folio we th vain persons is void of under- 
standing." (Followers of Abimeieoh, Judges 9; and of Absalom, 
2 Sam. 15; of Theudas and Judas, Acts 5. 36, 37.) 

Prov. 12. 13, "The wicked is snared by the transgression of his 
lips: but the just shall come out of trouble." (Adonijah, 1 Kings 
2. 23; Daniel's accusers, Dan. 6. 24; the Jews, Matt. 27. 25.) 

Prov. 12. 15, "The way of a fool is right in his own eyes." 
(Lot's sons-in-law, Gen. 19. 14; Pharisees, John 9. 34.) "But he 
that hearkeneth unto counsel'is wise." (Moses, Exod. 18. 19-24; 
Apollos, Acts 18. 24-26; Pharaoh, Gen. 41. 37-45; Jacob, Gen. 43. 
11; Nathanael, John 1. 46, 47.) 

Prov. 12. 19, "The lip of truth shall be established for ever." 
(Caleb and Joshua, Numb. 13. 14; Nathan to David, 2 Sam. 7, 
12-17, with Luke 1. 32.) "But a lying tongue is but for a mo- 
ment." (Gehazi, 2 Kings 5; Ananias, Acts 5.) 

Prov. 12. 25, "Heaviness in the heart of man maketh it stoop, 



PROVERBS : ECCLESIASTES. 455 

but a good word maketh it glad." (Xehemiah, Neh. 2. 1, 2; the 
woman that was a sinner, Luke 7. 38, 50; Mary Magdalene, John 
20. ii-i3: see also Luke 24. 17-32.) 

Prov. 13. 7, "There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath 
nothing." (Haman, Esther 5. 13; church of Laodicea contrasted 
with the church of Smyrna, Rev. 3. 17; 2. 9; Ahab, 1 Kings 21. 4, 
16, 22) " There is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great 
riches." (Matthew, Luke 5. 27, 28; Paul, 2 Cor. 6. 10: Phil. 3. 8.) 

Prov. 13. 24, "He that spareth his rod hateth his son; but he 
that, loveth mm chasteneth him betimes." (Eli, 1 Sam. 3. 13; 
David, 1 Kings 1. 5, 6.) 

Prov. 14. 6, "A scorner seeketh wisdom, and findeth it not." 
(Athenian philosophers, Acts 17. 18; Herod, Luke 23. 3; the Jews 
looking for the Messiah, and yet rejecting Christ, Acts 13. 41 ; John 
9. 29.) "But knowledge is easy to him that understandeth." 
(David, Psa. 119. i3, 98-100: see also Jas. 1. 5: Matt. 11. 25.) 

Prov. 14. 8, ' • The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his 
way." (Job 28. 28: Dent. 4. 6: Eccles. 12. 13.) "But the folly 
of fools is deceit." (Gehazi, 2 Kings 5. 20, 27; Daniel's accusers, 
Dan, 6. 24; Ananias and Sapphira., Acts 5. 1-11.) 

Prov. 14. 32, "'The wicked is driven away in his wickedness." 
(Hophni and Phinehas, 1 Sam. 4. 11.) "But the righteous hath 
hope in his death." (Jacob, Gen. 49. 18; Stephen, Acts 7. 53-60; 
Paul, 2 Tim. 4. 6-8; Peter, 2 Pet. 1. 14, 16: 3, 13.) 

Prov. 15. 1, "A soft answer turneth away wrath." (The Reu- 
benites, Josh. 22. 15, 21-30 ; Gideon, Judges 8. 1-3 ; Abigail, 

1 Sam. 25. 23, etc.) "But grievous words stir up anger.'' (Reho- 
boam, 2 Chron. 10. 13, etc.; Paul and Barnabas, Acts 15. 39; Saul 
and Jonathan, 1 Sam. 20. 30-34.) 

Prov. 15. 10, " Correction is grievous to him that forsaketk the 
way." (Asa, 2 Chron. 16. 10; the Jews, Isa. 1. 5 : Jer. 5.3: John 
8. 40.) "And he that hateth reproof shall die." (Amaziah, 

2 Kings 14. 11: 2 Chron. 25. 27; the Jews, 2 Chron. 36. 15-17: 
Luke 19. 42, 43.) 

Ecdesiastes (b. c. 997). 

62. The English name of this book, which is taken from 
the Greek version, signifies (as does the Hebrew) one who 
convenes or addresses an assembly, and is, on the whole, 
accurately expressed by the term " the preacher. 5 ' The illus- 
trious prince, the author of the book, though so 

Authorship. •-,, r ,-,.,-,. -, . -, * 

richly endowed with wisdom, turned away irom 
God, and sought happiness in earthly and idolatrous prac- 
tices, 1 Kings 11. 1-13 ; but in his latter years, being made 



456 ECCLESIASTE8. 

sensible of his folly, he here records his experience. Perhaps 
the truths here given were " proclaimed " by him in public ; 
nor was it unbecoming his station or character thus to in- 
form those who crowded from all parts to his court to be 
instructed by his wisdom. The book is further interesting, 
as it supplies satisfactory evidence of the fact that, towards 
the close of his life, Solomon repented of his unholy practices 
and licentious principles, if in such a course, as is probable, 
he had imbibed them. 



The great design of this book is evidently to show the utter in- 
Design of the sufficiency of all earthly pursuits and objects, as the 
book. chief end of life, to confer solid happiness, and then to 

draw men ou from apparent good to the only real and permanent 
good — the fear of God and communion with him. "Vanity of 
vanities, all is vanity," is its first lesson. "Fear God, and keep 
his commandments," is its last. In accomplishing this design, the 
writer gives us a dramatic biography of his own life, not only 
recording, but reacting the successive scenes of his own search for 
happiness; reciting past experience, and in his fervour becoming 
the various phases of his former self. He shows us, moreover (and 
this is a subordinate design of the book), how men ought to de- 
mean themselves amidst the various disappointments with which 
they will have to contend. Hence the warnings and counsels with 
which his descriptions of vanity, and exhortations to make the fear 
of God and the performance of moral and religious duties our chief 
good, abound. 

The difficulty and vividness of the narrative are greatly increased 

by the form in which it is written. The author appears 
1 he author J Ir 

is- for the to be for the moment what he himself describes. He 
time what he seems to have (what our older writers call) fyttes of 

fit'SCriDGS. 

study (i. 12-18), of luxury (2. 1-11), of grossness and 
refinement, of conviviality and misanthropy ; fyttes of building, 
and of book-making, all ending in collapses of bitterest disappoint- 
ment. We have in succession the man of science and the man of 
pleasure becoming fatalist, materialist, epicurean, and stoic; speaking 
in each character much truth, and interposing some earnest en- 
lightened interludes, the fruits of his maturer wisdom; and at last 
we have the noblest style of man — the humble and penitent be- 
liever. Nor is it, be it observed, that he has given us descriptions 
merely of these ; he has given us, in his own joerson, the men 
themselves. 

If this fact be kept in view, the meaning of several passages will 



ECCLESIASTES : ITS PECULIARITIES. 457 

This fact be plain. Many of his conclusions are the expressions 
applied. £ strong shrewd sense; others of them are eminently 

holy and spiritual (5. 1-3: 7. 29: 11. 5: 12. 1, 7); others, again, 
are but partially true, and some are absolutely false (3. 19: 2. 16: 
9. 2). Many efforts have been made, in vain, to harmonize these 
last with other parts of Scripture, or with other sayings of Solomon. 
But it is not thus they are to be explained. Each picture is the 
likeness of a sagacious disappointed worldling, with added lights 
thrown in from a Divine source. The book is a narrative of fan- 
tastic hopes and blank failures, with descriptions somewhat stronger 
than truth, and appropriate to each. The conclusion of the whole 
matter is, that we are to fear God and keep his commandments. 
That conclusion is true, as are many of the incidental warnings and 
appeals; but much of the matter it includes is not. And on this 
principle the whole must be explained. A comparison may illus- 
trate both the argument and the end. As the 45 th Psalm is a 
lesser Canticles, so we have a lesser Ecclesiastes in the 73rd. 

While all agree that the main design of the book is to exalt 
religion as man's " chief end," different views (it may be added) 
have been taken of the illustrations and arguments. Some have 
held that the grand lesson is, the vanity of everything earthly 
apart from godliness, and with such, every illustration and every 
part is true. Luther, on the other hand, thought the lesson of the 
book to be — be godly, and concerning everything else, be tranquil; 
for life is not worth your care. Within certain limits both views 
are just. Apart from religion, all thing3 are vain, though not 
equally vain; and with religion nothing can harm us, though even 
then wisdom and folly are not indifferent; nor does one thing hap- 
pen alike to all. Some, again, put the remarks that are untrue 
into the mouth of objectors, while others put them as questions. 
The sounder view of. the whole is certainly the one we have given. a 

JSTote, that in Ecclesiastes, wisdom is used in the sense of science, 
Wisdom, or sagacity; in Proverbs, it is identical with piety. 
what. It is a strange proof of the depravity of our nature 

that modern infidels (Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and others) 
have warmly praised those parts of Ecclesiastes in which Solomon 
records the false principles which his folly had for the moment led 
him to maintain. The true wisdom of the book they entirely 
disregard, chap. 12. 

The canonicity of Ecclesiastes is recognised by the early 
Christian writers, and though the book is not 
formally quoted by our Lord or his apostles, there 
are several references to it in the New Testament. 

a Stowe, Stuart, Dr. Hamilton, and others. 

X 



458 



JOSHUA 1 — 11 : EPITOMIZED. 



By the Jews it was not reckoned one of the poetical books, and 
indeed the whole, except 3. 2-8: 7. 1-14: 11. 17: 12. 7, is written 
in prose. 



Sec. 6. The whole Arranged and Epitomized, with occasional 

Helps. 

63. From the entrance into Canaan to the death of Solomon 
(475 years). 



Part 1. (25 years). 



Date and Place. 
B. C. 

I45I. 

Eccl. y. 41. 
1 in. 1 d. 



Event or Narrative. 



10 d. 



145 1, 
Gilgal. 



Gilgal. 



145 0-1445^ 



1. Conquest of Canaan (7 years).* 

God's charge to Joshua, Josh. 1. 1-9. 

Spies sent to Jericho; Rahab receives them, Josh. 2. 
Joshua reminds Reuben, etc., of their engagement 

(c/. Numb. 22); they promise obedience. The 

Israelites directed concerning the passage of the 

Jordan. God encourageth Joshua, 

b Josh. 1. 10-18: 3. 1-13. 
Passage of the Jordan (a.m. 2553); a memorial 

erected; the Canaanites alarmed, 

Josh. 3. 14-17:° 4: d 5. 1. 
Circumcision renewed; the Passover; manna ceases, 

Josh. 5. 2-12. 
The Captain of the Lord's host appears to Joshua } see 

230; miraculous capture of Jericho; a curse on 

the rebuilder of it, Josh. 6. i: e 5. 13-15: 6. 2-27. 
The Israelites discomfited through Achan's sin ; he is 

destroyed, Josh. 7. 

Capture of Ai by stratagem, Josh. 8. 1-29. 

The Gibeonites obtain a league with Joshua, Josh. 9. f 
Conquest of several kings in succession, Josh. io. g 
The rest of the conquests, Josh. 11. 



a Josh. 14. 7, 10. 

b For this order, see Bedford's Scrip. Chron. quoted in Gray, p. 
147, or Townsend, i. 495. c 3. 15 ; Jordan overflows: see § 404. 

d 4. 19; 40 years, less five days: § 358 b. 

e For order, see Faber's Hora> Mos. ii. 107. 

tf The Gibeonites remained for ages a monument of the truth of 
Jewish history; as are now the Jews. 

s God thu3 proved his power over the objects of Canaanitkh 
worship. 



JOSHUA S — JUDGES : EPITOMIZED. 



459 



Date and Place. 

B.C. 

1444. 

Ebal and 
Gerizim. 



Event or Narrative. 



1444. 



Hebron, Kir- 

jath Arba, 

Josh. 21. 11. 

1444. 
Shiloh. 



1427. 

Sheehem, 

Sychar N". T. 

1426. 
Sbechem. 



The law written on a stone altar (cf. Dent. 27) and 
proclaimed to all the people, Josh. 8. 3035.* 

Reuben, etc., return to their land on the eastern 
side of Jordan; they erect an altar of memorial; 
Israel offended, ask an explanation, Josh. 22. 

2. General Division of the Land. 

Enumeration of conquests, [Josh. 12]. 

Land not yet conquered, [Josh. 13. 1-6]. 

\ Joshua divides the land; the nine tribes and a half 

receive their portions by lot; b the Levites not to 

receive land. [Josh. 13. 7-14: 14. 1-5]. 

Inheritance of Eeuben, etc., on the eastern side of 
Jordan, [Josh. 13. 15-33]. 

Inheritance of Caleb, [Josh. 14. 6-15: 15. 13-19]. 

Lot of Judah, [Josh. 15. 1-12, 20-63]. 

Lots of Ephraim and half of Manasseh, [Josh. 16 : 17.] 

The tabernacle set up, Josh. 18. 1. 

Lots of the other tribes; Joshua's inheritance, 

[Josh. 18. 2-28: 19}. 

Cities of refuge appointed, Josh. 20. 

Levitical cities, - [Josh. 21]. 

3. Last Acts of Joshua, etc. 

Joshua's charge to the elders of Israel, Josh. 23.° 
Joshua addresses the tribes and renews the cove- 
nant, Josh. 24. 1-28, 
Death and burial of Joshua, Josh. 24. 29-31. 
Burial of Joseph's bones, etc. Josh. 24. 32, 33. 

64. (Part 11). 
Interregnum and Government of Judges (330 years'). 



Judg. 1. 1-26. 



1425, 
Bochim. 



Conquests after Joshua's death, 

Nations not subdued by Israel, Judg.'i. 27-36. 

The angel of the Lord rebukes the Israelites for not 

driving out the Canaanites, Judg. 2. 1-5. 

Commencement of idolatry in Israel, Judg. 2. 6-13. 

a For order, see Horsley's Bib. Crit. i. 260, and compare chap. 
1. 14 ; it immediately follows the close of the war. 

b Though these divisions were made by lot, each tribe received 
such an inheritance as fulfilled the predictions of Jacob and Moses j 
thus illustrating the faithfulness of God. 

c Ver. 3, mark how God is honoured: see 198. 

X2 



460 



JUDGES 2 — 1 SAMUEL : EPITOMIZED. 



Date and Place. 



B.C. 

1413. 



I406, 

Gibeali. Jeba. 



1402-1394. 
1354-1336. 



1316-1296. 



Event or Narrative. 



Account of Micah and his image, Judg. 17. 

A party of Danites, having robbed Micah of his 
image, establish themselves in Laish (afterwards 
Dan) and set up idolatry, 11 Judg. i8. b 

History of the Levite and his concubine; slaughter 
of the Benjamites, etc. [Judg. 19: 20: 21]. 

The captivities of Israel for idolatry, and their 
deliverances by Judges, Judg. 2. 14-23: 3. 1-4. 

Captivity of the eastern Israelites for 8 years to Meso- 
potamia; Othniel, judge Judg. 3. 5-1 1. 

Captivity of the eastern Israelites for 18 years to 
Moab; Ehud, judge, Judg. 3. 12-30. 

Captivity of the western Israelites to the Philistines; 
Shamgar, judge, Judg. 3. 31, 

Captivity of the northern Israelites for 20 years to 
the Canaanites; Deborah, judge; song of Deborah 
and Barak, Judg. 4: 5. 

Captivity of the eastern and northern Israelites for 
7 years to Midian, Judg. 6. 1-6. 

The history of Ruth, an ancestress of the Messiah, 

Ruth i.-4. c 

Gideon, judge; is visited by the angel of the covenant, 
and delivers Israel from Midian ; refuses to be 
made king, Judg. 6. 7-40: 7: 8. 

Usurpation of Abimelech; Jotham's fable, Judg. 9. 

Tola and J air, judges, Judg. 10. 1-5. 

The Philistines and Ammonites oppress Israel for 
18 years; Jephthah; his vow, Judg. 10. 6-18: 11. 

Slaughter of Ephraim by the Gileadites, Judg. 12. 1-6. 

Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon, judges, Judg. 12. 7-15. 

The Philistines oppress Israel 40 years, Judg. 13. 1. 

Birth of Samson, Judg. 13. 2-25. 

Birth of Samuel; Hannah's soncf, 1 Sam. 1: 2. 1-11. 

The wickedness of Eli's sons, d 1 Sam. 2. 12-21. 

Call of Samuel, 1 Sam. 3 . 



1256. 

Bethlehem, 

Beit-el-lahm. 

1249, 

Shechem. 

1235-1232. 
1232-1188. 
1206-1188. 

1187. 

1182-1157. 

1156-1116. 

1156. 

Shiloh. 
1143. 

a This idolatry continued till the days of Eli, and was resumed 
by Jeroboam, 1 Sam. 4. 10, 11. Hence, probably, the omission of 
Dan from the sealed ones, Rev. 7. 

b That these five chaps, belong to this early age is clear; Dan was 
not yet settled, 18. 1; Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, was living, 
20. 28, and the iniquity of Gibeah is mentioned, Hos. 10. 9, as the 
first open sin of Israel in Canaan. 

c Compare Ruth. 1. 1 with Judg. 6. 4, the only famine mentioned. 
in Judges: see, for other reasons, Gray, p. 166. 

d On the chronology of this part of the book of Judges, see 
Townsend, i. 592, or Calmet. 



1 SAMUEL : EPITOMIZED. 



461 



Date and Hace. 



B. C. 

1I36-III7, 

Shiloh. 

1116, 
Gaza. 
1116, 
Ebenezer. 
Ashdod, Azo 
tus, Acts 8. 
40; Shdood, 
30W. Jerus. 
1112, 
Mizpeh. 

Kamah, in 
Ephraim. 



1096, 

Baniah. 

Mizpeh. 

Gilgal, 

X.e. Jericho. 

1094. 



to8o. 

1064, 
Bethlehem. 



Event or Narrative. 



Marriage of Samson; his exploits, 

Jndg. 14: 15. 1-19: [16. 1-3] 

Judgment on Eli's house, 1 Sam. 2. 22-36, [22-25], 

Capture and death of Samson, 

Judg. [1$. 20]: 16. 4-31. 

Israel twice defeated by the Philistines; ark taken and 
Eli's sons slain; death of Eli, 1 Sam. 4: [19-22]. 

The ark placed in the house of Dagon; removed to 
Ekron (Akir) } then to Bethshemesh (Am Shems), 
thence to J&rjath-jearini, where it remains till re- 
moved by David, Town. i. 612, 1 Sam. 5: 6: 7.1,2. 

Samuel, judge; he moves the Israelites to repent- 
ance; the Philistines discomfited, 1 Sam. 7. 3-17. 

Samuel appoints his sons judges ; their corrupt 
government ; the Israelites ask for a king ; God 
bids Samuel hearken to them, 1 Sam. 8. 

65. (Part in). 

The Reign of Saul (40 years).* 

Samuel privately anoints Saul as king, and gives him 

three signs, 1 Sam. 9: 10. 1-16. 

Saul chosen and proclaimed king, 1 Sam. 10. 17-27. 

Saul rescues Jabesh-Gilead ; is inaugurated as 



king; 



Samuel's address to Israel, 1 



■■©' 
Sam. 11 



12. 



Saul gathers an army against the Philistines ; he dis- 
obeys Samuel, and is warned of his rejection from 
the kingdom, 1 Sam. 13. 1-15. 

The Philistines discomfited; Saul's rash oath endan- 
gers Jonathan : the people rescue him ; Saul's vic- 
tories; his family, 1 Sam. 13. 16-23: 14. 

Saul smites the Amalekites ; spares Agag and the 
best of the spoil; denounced by Samuel, 1 bam. 15. 

Samuel secretly anoints David, at Bethlehem, as 



future king, 



1 Sam. 16. 



1-13, 



David's victory over Goliath ; Jonathan loves David, 

1 Sam. 17. 1-40, 55, 56, 41-54, 51, 53: 18. 1-4: 

Psa. 9. b 

1063. David's victories ; Saul's melancholy ; he attempts to 

kill David, 1 Sam. 18. 5-9: 16. 14-23:° 18. 10-16. 

1062, David marries Saul's daughter; Saul makes various 

Gibeah attempts to kill him; David flees to Samuel; Saul 

^Naioth. sends after him, 1 Sam. 18. 17-30: 19. 1-3: Psa. n : 

1 Sam. 19. 4-24: Psa. 59, 

R Acts 13. 21. b See Lightfoot and Town. i. 638. 

c The order here is fixed by Bishop Horsley. Compare 17. 33, 
3%, 39, 4 2 ; 56, with 16. 18, and it will be seen that 16. 14-23 belongs 
to a later period than 17. 1-40. 



462 



1 SAMUEL: EPITOMIZED AND ARRANGED. 



Date and Place. 

H i i 

B. C. 

1062. 
1 06 1, 

1ST ob and Gath, 
Adullam. 



Fob. 



Keilah. 

1060, 

Ziph. 

1059, 
Engedi, Ha- 
zezon Tamar, 

1058. 

Ziph. 

1057. 



Event or Narrative. 



lo$6. 



Gilboa, 

(Djebel Gilbo), 

Ziklag (16 

s.w. Gath?). 



Hebron, 
1056. 
Acts 13. 21. 
1054. 



David's covenant with. Jonathan, 1 Sam. 20. 

David flees to Ahimelech (where his lie costs the 
lives of the priests of the house of Eli), then to 
Achish; feigns madness, 1 Sam. 21: Psa. 56: 34. 

David flees again, joined by several followers, 1 Sam. 
22. 1: Psa. 142: 1 Sam. 22. 1 I. p. and 2: [1 Chron. 
12. 8-18]: 2 Sam. 23. 13-17: 1 Chron. 11. 15-19. 

David goes to Mizpeh, then to Hareth; slaughter of 
the priests by Saul, 
1 Sam. 22. 3-19: Psa. 5^: 109: 17: 140: 35: 64. 

Abiathar joins David; David defeats the Philistines, 
1 Sam. 23. 1: 22. 20-23: 23. 6, a 2-5, 7-12, Psa. 31. 

Saul pursues David; an invasion obliges him to re- 
turn, 1 Sam. 23. 13-23; Psa. 54: 1 Sam. 23.24-28. 

Saul pursues David; David spares Saul's life; Saul 
confesses his fault, 

1 Sam. 23. 29: 24: Psa. 57: 58: 63. 

Death of Samuel ; David and Nabal, 1 Sam. 25 , 

David again spares Saul's life, 1 Sam. 26. 

David flees to Achish, 1 Sam. 27. 1-7: Psa. 141 ; 
several resort to him, [1 Chron. 12. 1-7.] 

David makes an excursion on the Amalekites and 
repairs to Gath with the booty, 1 Sam. 27. 8-12. 

The Philistines prepare for war, and advance to 
Shunem ; David accompanies them ; Saul consults 
the witch of Endor, 1 Sam. 28. 

David dismissed from the army of the Philistines; on 
his way back to Ziklag he is joined by several, 

1 Sam. 29: [1 Chron. 12. 19-22]. 

On his return to Ziklag, David finds that it had 
been sacked by Amalek, and his family taken; 
he pursues Amalek, and smites them, 1 Sam. 30. 

Saul, defeated in battle and his sons slain, kills him- 
self, 1 Sam. 31: [1 Chron. 10. 1-14]. 

An Amalekite pretends to have slain Saul, and is 
put to death by David, 2 Sam. I. 1-16. 

David's lament over Saul and Jonathan, 

2 Sam. 1. 17-27. 

66. (Part iv). 

The Reign of David (40 years). 

David acknowledged as king of Judah, 

2 Sam. 2. 1-7. 
Ishbosheth proclaimed king of Israel, 2 Sam. 2. 8-11. 
Civil war ensues; David waxes stronger; Abner and 
Ishbosheth treacherously slain, 

2. Sam. 2 5 12-32: 3: 4, 

a See Townsend on the order. 



2 SAMUEL I EPITOMIZED. 



463 



Date and Place. 



B.C. 

I049, 

Hebron, 
Jerusalem. 



1048. 



1046, 

from Kirjath 

Jearim to 

house of 

Obededom, 

thence to 

Zion, Psa. 132, 

1041. 



1038-103 1} 

Medeba. 

1036 and 103 4, 

Jerusalem. 



103 1. 

1028. 

1025. 
1024. 



Event or Narrative. 



David made king over all Israel; his troops; he 
dispossesses the Jebusites of the hill of Zion, and 
dwells there, 2 Sam. 5. 1-3: 23. 8-12, [18-39]: 5. 
4, 5, 6-10: 1 Chron. 11. 1-3 : [12. 23-40] : n, 

10-14, 20 [26-47]. 4-9- 
Hiram of Tyre congratulates David ; David's family; 
he twice defeats the Philistines, 

2 £am. 5. 11-2$, a [13-17]: 1 Chron. 14. 1-17. 

David removes the ark ; Uzzah, not being a Levite, 

smitten for touching the ark (see Numb. 4. 15), 

2 ^am- 6. i-ii: 6. 12-23: Psa. 68: 132: 105: 96: 

106: 1 Chron. 13. i-4, b 5-14: 15.1-16.43, [5-24].° 

David forbidden to build the temple; great blessings 

promised him; his prayer and thanksgiving, 2 Sam. 

7: 1 Chron. 17: Psa. 2: 45 : 22: 16: 118: no. 

Victories over Philistia, Moab, Syria, and Edom, 

2 Sam. 8: 1 Chron. 18: Psa. 60: 108. 
David's kindness to Mephibosheth, 2 Sam 9.^ 

David defeats Ammon and Syria, 

[2 Sam. 10]: 1 Chron. 19: Psa. 20: 21.. 
Siege of Rabbah; David's adultery and murder, 

2 Sam. 11. 1 [it. 2-12. 23]: 26-31: 1 Chron. 
20. 1, 3: Psa. 51: 32: 33: 103. e 
Birth of Solomon ; Amnon, David's eldest son, 
forceth his sister Tamar, David's only daughter;. 
David fails to punish this injury, 

2 Sam. 12, [24, 25: 13. 1-22].. 
Absalom kills Amnon, and flees, 2 Sam. 13. 23-39. 
Absalom brought back, and restored to his father's 



presence, 



2 Sam. 14. 1-7, 15-17, 8-14/ 18-33. 



Absalom raises a revolt against David, 

2 Sam. 15. I-I2.S 

David and his followers flee ; Zadok and Abiathar 
sent back with the ark; Hushai desired by David 
to join himself to Absalom toMurcumvent Ahitho- 
phel's counsels, 2 Sam. 15. 13-37: Psa. 3. 

a Ver. 24: see 2 Kings 7. 6. 

b Town^end, following Chronicles, places the removal of the ark 
after David's conquest of Zion, and reads 13. 1-4 after 2 Sam. 5.1-3. 

c Ver. 4: see 6. 31. d See 1 Sam. 20. 15. 

e Psa. 5 1 is David's penitential Psalm, and Psa. 103 his Psalm of 
thanksgiving on being forgiven. The punishment was remitted ; but 
as a chastisement, nearly the whole of the remainder of David's life 
was embittered. 

f The sense requires this change (Horsley). 

-15. 7: 40 years, t. e., after David's anointing (Lightfoot), or 
read 4, as Josephus, Syriac, Hales, 



464 



2 SAMUEL : 1 CHRONICLES : ARRANGED. 



Date and Place. 



B.C. 

1024, 

Bahurim. 

Jerusalem. 

Mahanaim, 

65 N. E. 

Jerusalem. 
Ephraim. 



1023. 
1021. 
1019. 



1018. 



1016, 

Jerusalem. 



a David crosses 
Jordan, Psa. 
42. 6. 

l> Samuel omits 
^he standing 
army (300,000), 
which Chronicles 
includes, and 
Samuel includes 
Jerusalem 
(30,000), which 
Chronicles omits: 
see Lightibot. 

c Ver. 13, i.e., 
three lull addi- 
tional years : 
compare 1 Chron, 
21. 12. See 

& On the order, 
gee Townsend, 
who differs here 
from Lightibot. 



Event or Narrative. 



ici6, 
Gibeon, Jib, 

17 N. W. 

Gilgal, 



Ziba's treachery to Mephibosheth ; Shimei curses 
David, 2 Sam. 16. 1-14: Psa. 7. 

Hushai defeats Ahithophel's counsel ; Ahithophel 
hangs himself, 2 Sam. 16. 15-23: 17. 1-26. 

David furnished with provisions, chiefly by Barzillai, 
2 Sam. 17. 27-29: Psa. 42 : a 43: 55: 4: 5: 62: 
143: 144: 70: 71. 

Absalom defeated and slain by Joab, 2 Sam. 18. 

David returns; Shimei pardoned; Mephibosheth ex- 
poses Ziba's treachery ; David's gratitude to 
Barzillai, 2 Sam. 19: 20. 3. 

Revolt of Sheba (at Abel), 2 Sam. 20. 1, 2, 4-26. 

The three years' famine, 2 Sam. 21. 1-14. 

Last wars with the Philistines ; David's praise for 
victories, his enemies subdued, 2 Sam. 21. 15-22. 1: 
[22. 2-51]: 1 Chron. 20. 4-8: Psa. 18. 

David, in pride, numbers Israel ; the plague, 

2 Sam. 24. 1-9 : b 10-25:° 1 Chron. 21. 1-5: 27. 
23, 24: 21. 6, 7, 8-30. 

David prepares materials and instructs Solomon as 
to the building of the temple, 1 Chron. 22. 

Adonijah's rebellion; Solomon anointed and pro- 
claimed David's successor; Adonijah submits, 

1 Kings 1. [i-4]. d 

David arranges the courses of the priests, etc. 

[1 Chron. 23.-26]. 

Arrangement of the state officers, 

[1 Chron. 27. 1-22, 25-34]. 

David calls a solemn assembly, and exhorts both 

them and Solomon to the work of the temple ; the 

offerings of the princes and people ; David's 

thanksgiving; Solomon acknowledged as king, 

1 Chron. 28 [11-21]: 29. 1-25: Psa. 72: 91: 145. 

David's final charge to Solomon ; directs Joab and 
Shimei to be put to death; David's last words; 
his death, 1 Kings 2. 1-9: 2 Sam. 23. 1-7: 1 Chron. 
29. 26-30: 1 Kings 2. 10, 11. 

Psalms of David, of which the date and occasion are 
not known, Psa, 6: 8: 12: 19: 23: 24: 28: 29: 
38: 39: 40: 41: 61: 65: 69: 78: 86: 95: 101: 
104: 120: 121: 122: 124: 131: 133: 139. 

67. Part V. 

The Reign of Solomon (40 years), 

Solomon's bumt-ofFcring; God giving him a choice, 
he asks for wisdom ; wealth and honour added to 
him, 1 Kings [2. 12]: 3. 4-^5:* 2 Chron 1. 1-5,* 
[6-12]. 



* Passages marked thus 1+) give the fuller narrative. 



1 KINGS : 1 CHRONICLES : ARRANGED. 



465 



Date and Place. 



B.C. 



IOI 



}> 



Jerusalem. 



Tyre, Tsur, 
J 02 n. Jer. 

IOI2, 

Jerusalem. 
1012-1005, 
1 Kings 6. 

1005, 
Jerusalem. 

1002. 



Event or Narrative. 



ioor. 



Jerusalem. 



993, 

Jerusalem. 

980-977. 



Solomon's wise judgment, 

1 Kings 3. 15-28:* [2 Chron. 1. 13]. 
Aclonijah and Joab put to death; Abiathar deposed; 

Shiniei not to leave Jerusalem, 1 Kings 2. 13-38. 
Solomon obtains materials and men for the building 

of the temple, 1 Kings 5. 1-18: [2 Chron. 2. 1-18]. 
Shimei put to death forgoing to Gath, 1 Kings 2. 3 9-46. 
Solomon marries Pharaoh's daughter, 1 Kings 3. 1-3. 
The building of the temple, 1 Kings 6, 1-8, [15-36]: 

[7. 13-50]: 6. 9-14, 37, 38: 7. 51: [2 Chron. 3. 

i-9,] a [3, 4, 22], [10-14]: [J- i5;4- 22]: [5. 1]. 
The dedication of the temple, 1 Kings 8. 1-11, 62-64, 



12-61, 65, 66: 2 Chron. [5. 2-i4: b 7. 4-7: 6.-7. 3, 

8, 10]: Psa. 47:° 97: 98: 99: ioc : 135: 136. 
Other buildings of Solomon ; God makes a covenant 
with him, 1 Kings 7. 1-12: [9. 1-9]: 2 Chron. 7. 11-22. 
Acquisitions of Solomon ; he carries out David's 

arrangements for the temple services, 
1 Kings 9. 10-14, 15-25 : [2 Chron. 8. 1-10, 12-16]. 
Pharaoh's daughter brought by Solomon to his new 

palace, 1 Kings 9. 24: [2 Chron. 8. 11]. 

Solomon's song upon the occasion, [Cant. i.-8.] d 

The .greatness of Solomon, 1 Kings 4. 1-28, [2-19]: 

10. 26: q. 26-28: 10. 14-25, 27-29: [2 Chron. 9. 



26, 25: 1. 14: 8. 17, 18: 9. 13-21, 24: 1. 15-17: 
9. 27, 28]. 

The wisdom of Solomon, 1 Kings 4. 29-33 : [2 Chron. 
9.22]: Prov. 1. -31: [5: 6. 24-35: 7]. 

Solomon's fame: visit of the queen of Sheba, 

1 Kings 4. 34: 10. 1-13 : [2 Chron. 9. 23, 1-12]. 

Solomon's wives seduce him into idolatry; Hadad 
and Kezon stirred up against him, 1 Kings n. 1-25. 

Aliijah. predicts to Jeroboam the division of the 
kingdom; Solomon seeks to kill Jeroboam, who 
flees into Egypt, 1 Kings n. 26-40. 

Solomon writes Ecclesiastes, probably as an expres- 
sion of repentance, 

Eccl. or the Preacher, 1.-12: [3. -n. 8]. 

a Ver. 3, of the first measure, 1. <?., the larger cubit used before 
the captivity, nearly a yard. 

b Ver. 11, "white raiment" additional to 1 Kings. The Jews 
offered the sacrifice, then prayed, and then the fire descended ; 
hence this order (Townsend). 

c Psa. 47. 5 : see 2 Chron. 5. 13. The other Psalms are all appro- 
priate to this service, and were probably used. The date of their 
composition is not known. 

* Compare 4. 8 : 7. 4, with 2 Chron, 8.6. 

x 3 



468 



PROPHETICAL BOCKS. 



Date and Place. 



B.C. 

976, 
Jerusalem. 



976, 
Shechem. 



Event or Narrative. 



Death of Solomon; Kehoboam his son succeeds, 

1 Kings 11. 41-43 : [2 Chron. 9. 29-31]. 

68. The Division of the Kingdom. 

On the accession of Kehoboam, the people, headed 
by Jeroboam, demand a relaxation of burdens, 

1 Kings 12. 1-5 : [2 Chron. 10. 1-5]. 

Acting upon the -advice of the young men instead of 
the old men, Eehoboam refuses the request of the 
people, 1 Kings 12. 6-15: [2 Chron. 10. 6-15]. 

Ten tribes revolt; Judah and Benjamin adhere to 
Rehoboam, and form the kingdom of Judah, 

1 Kings 12. 16-19: [2 Chron. 10. 16-19]. 

The ten tribes make Jeroboam their king, and 
form the kingdom of Israel, 1 Kings 12-20. 



The division. 



CHAPTER III. 

Historical and Prophetical Books from the Death of 
Solomon to the close of the Old Testament Canon. 

Sec. I. Brief Historical View of this Period. The Prophets in 

Connection with History. 

69. With the reign of Solomon ended the glory of Israel. 
The kingdom was thenceforth dismembered. Ten 
tribes, of which Ephraim was chief, separated from 

the rest, and formed the kingdom of Israel ; Judah, with 
which Benjamin was now united, alone remaining faithful to 
the house of David. To the latter, however, most of the 
Levites, and many who feared God out of all the tribes, ulti- 
mately adhered, 2 Chron. 11. 13-16. 

70. The history of these kingdoms presents striking con- 
Israel from trasts and instructive lessons. 

to the de- Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, and himself an 

struction of Ephraimite, was raised to the throne by God, and a 

" conditional promise was given that his kingdom should 

be as David's (1 Kings 11. 38). But Jeroboam had neither the 



PROPHECY AND HISTORY. 467 

faith nor the obedience of David. To preserve the independence of 
his kingdom, he established a separate priesthood, and set up idol- 
altars and images at Dan and Bethel. He thus framed a system of 
idolatry, denied practically the unity and spirituality of God, and 
perpetuated, in an exaggerated form, the evil for which the kingdom 
had been rent from Solomon (Deut. 28. 15: 1 Kings it. ii). Un- 
happily, the people shared his feelings, and through his influence 
idolatry became ever after part of the national religion. He him- 
self, therefore, is branded in history as " Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, 
who made Israel to sin." 

From the time of Jeroboam, the first king, to Hoshea, the nine- 
teenth and last , we find no one king free from the charge of general 
depravity. Of king after king, it is said that he ' ' did that which 
was evil in the sight of the Lord." Jehu, indeed, destroyed the 
prophets of Baal, and for his partial obedience was rewarded with 
enlarged temporal blessing; but he "took no heed to walk in the 
law of the Lord, for he departed not from the sin of Jeroboam, who 
made Israel to sin." The nation copied their kings. There were a 
few exceptions, but it needed, in Elijah's days, a direct revelation 
to discover them; and out of the hundreds of thousands of whom 
Israel was composed, but 7,000 are mentioned as not having bowed 
the knee unto Baal. 

This fearful condition was the more guilty because of the 
warnings which had been given. Jeroboam knew why God had 
rejected Solomon, and was himself repeatedly rebuked by Ahijah 
and others. Within fifty years appeared the prophets Jehu and 
Micaiah, Elijah and Elisha; the two latter working more miracles than 
any prophet had wrought since the days of Moses and Joshua. A 
few years after their protracted ministry came Jonah, Hosea, and 
Amos. All the messages of these prophets were confirmed by 
Divine chastisements. Jeroboam and his family were cut off, as 
were Baasha and Zimri. In the 254 years of the monarchy, nine 
different families occupied the throne, and nearly their entire 
history is made up of bloodshed and confusion. Zechariah, the 
son of Jeroboam the second, was slain, after a reign of six months, 
by Shallum; and he, after a reign of one month, by Menahem, his 
son and successor. Pekahiah was assassinated by Pekah, and Pekah 
is put to death by Hoshea; while most of this wickedness is ascribed 
to. an unhallowed adherence to the policy and idolatries of their 
first king, 1 Kings 14. 9, 10: 2 Kings 17. 21-23. He thought that 
policy essential to the stability of his throne; it proved the ruin 
both of himself and of his kingdom. There is, indeed, "a way 
that seemeth right unto a man, but the end thereof are the ways of 
death." 



468 PEOFHECY AND HISTORY. 

The distrust of Divine power and contempt of Divine law in 
which these evils originated proved the means as well as the 
primary cause of the overthrow of the kingdom. Pekah sought an 
alliance with Rezin of Syria against Ahaz of Judah. Pekah was at 
first victorious, and Ahaz, copying the sin of his neighbour, applied 
for help to Tiglath-Pileser, son of Pul, king of Assyria* He came 
and chastised the Israelites, carrying into Media the two and a half 
tribes beyond Jordan, and making the rest tributary. This was the 
beginning of the captivity, and might have proved a salutary 
warning (738 B. C.) Ten years later, So, king of Egypt, alarmed at 
the power of Assyria, induced Hezekiah and Hoshea to withhold 
the tribute which their predecessors had engaged to pay. This 
revolt brought up Shalmaneser, the son of Tiglath-Pileser, with a 
large host; and in the end Samaria fell; Hoshea was carried to 
Nineveh, and Israel was annexed to the Assyrian crown. 

The conquered country was afterwards peopled by settlers from 
the region of the Tigris and Euphrates. They intermarried with 
those of the Israelites who had remained, and ultimately took the 
name of Samaritans. At first, they served the " God of the country" 
and "worshipped idols;" but Josiah, having destroyed the altar at 
Bethel, and carried his reformation even into Zebulon, they rested 
in a system of belief nearly as pure as that of the Jews, though less 
regular in some of its observances. What became of the ten tribes 
is not known. Customs, rites, and features like theirs have been 
discovered in all parts of the world. Many of them seem to have 
returned at different periods to their own land. Cyrus addressed 
his proclamation to all the people of Jehovah (Ez. 1. 1-3), and 
some of the rites connected with the consecration of the temple 
imply that there were present remnants of all the tribes ; while 
many Israelites seem to have been settled in Galilee and Persea 
long before the days of our Lord (1 Mac. 5. 9-24). 

71. Yery different were the destinies of Judah. Of twenty 
History of kings, all descendants of David, who, for 388 years, 
Judah. occupied the throne, six are mentioned with great 

praise (Asa, Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, Jotham, Hezekiah, and 
Josiah), and others are commended. Several, however, were 
fearfully wicked ; Jehoram, Ahaz, Manasseh, and Anion, in- 
troducing idolatrous worship into the temple itself, and 
filling Jerusalem with blood. 

The fatal error of the Jews, politically and religiously, was their 
alliance with idolaters, originating, as it did, in worldliness and 
distrust, and tending to conform them to their idolatrous* neigh- 
bours. Ahaz sought, as we have seen, tho aid of Tiglath-Pileser 



PROPHECY AND HISTORY. 469 

against the kings of Israel and Syria; and though, at first, he was 
delivered from impending evil, he really received from the 
Assyrians "no help at all." The payment of a heavy tribute was 
the first immediate result of this alliance, and other results soon 
followed. It cost Hezekiah most of his treasure, and but for 
special interposition would have cost him his throne. Alanasseh it 
cost his liberty, and Josiah (who felt himself bound to oppose the 
progress of Xecho eastward to Carchemish \ his life. Jehoahaz, his 
son, was carried captive to Egypt. Jehoiakim (the brother and 
successor of Jehoahaz , who owed his crown to Necho, was set 

-de by Nebuchadnezzar. Shortly afterwards, his son Jeconiah 
was deposed by the same monarch and taken to Babylon; Zede- 
kiah, the uncle of Jeconiah, and the third son of Josiah, being 
made king, after a solemn oath of allegiance, in his room. Tempted 
by Pharaoh Hcphra, and against the remonstrance of Jeremiah, he- 
revolted, and a third time Nebuchadnezzar came against Jerusalem. 
After a siege of eighteen months, the city was taken at midnight; 
most of the inhabitants were put to death, the children of Zede- 
kiah were slain, and he himself (his eyes put out) was earned in 
chains to Babvlon. At the same time, or a few months later, 
Nebuzaradan, the general of Nebuchadnezzar, burned the city, 
destroyed the temple, and earned off the remainder of the sacred 
vessels and the greater part- of the nation, a few poor only being 
left to till the soil. 

It is remarkable that no attempt was made to colonize the 
country, as had been done in the case of Israel; the providence of 
God thus keeping it vacant, to be reoccupied by the people on the 
completion of their captivity. On the first visit of Nebuchadnezzar 
to Jerusalem '(6c 6), he carried off to Babylon Daniel and his com- 
panions: on the second, when he took away Jeconiah (597); Ezekiel 
also was taken; Jeremiah and the other prophets of the captivity 
being left in the land. 

72. Comparing these facts with prophecy, we have some 
Harmony of instructive conclusions. All the events thus 
fo7eknow. aild k^ily sketched were foretold, and yet in every 
ledge with case the fulfilment of prophecv involves a moral 

human free- n -, . -, ., " - ,, - 

domandre- lesson, and in no case does it supersede the rree- 
osibiiity ^oni of the human agencv which accomplished it. 

illustrated m c L 

this history. Ahijah, for example, foretells the division of the king- 
dom, the captivity of Israel, and even the place where they were to 
be scattered (1 Kings 14. 15). Isaiah foretells the overthrow of 
Samaria, as Hosea had done, and the date; the preservation of 
Judah, and, finally, its destruction by Babylon, then a feeble and 



470 PROPHECY AND HISTOBY. 

friendly state: the catastrophe is hopeless to Samaria, "for Ephraim 
is to be broken from being a people;" but not to Judah, for a 
restoration is promised. The person and name of the restorer, his 
country then scarcely known, the restoration effected by the de- 
struction of Babylon, with the circumstances of the siege, the 
rebuilding of the city and of the temple — all these events, and 
many others, are foretold, and we read in Scripture of the accom- 
plishment of these prophecies; but in every case the moral lesson 
and the freedom of human agency remain undisturbed. Jeroboam's 
appointment, for example, was not kindness to him, but chastise- 
ment to the degenerate family of David; and its immediate cause 
was the folly of Rehoboam, who acted under the excitement of 
human passions, irrespective of the Divine prediction. What change 
a race of pious kings in Israel might have made in the destiny of 
that people need not be conjectured; but the final overthrow of its 
actual kings, though foretold, was not less a fit consequence of 
their sins; which sins, however, were repeatedly rebuked. The 
prophecy was still moral, and human agency still free. The failure 
of Sennacherib in his attack upon Jerusalem was foretold; and it 
w T as the fitting result of his defiance " of the Holy One of Israel" 
(Isa. 37. 23). Hezekiah's deliverance, too, though foretold, was no 
less a blessing vouchsafed to a humble praying frame. Both 
Judah and Israel, again, might have been punished immediately by 
God ; but in fact, both nations were suffered to work out their own 
punishment. Their disobedience was the very agency employed 
for the fulfilment of the Divine word. Everywhere in prophecy we 
have, as Davison has remarked, " God's overruling power and man's 
agency concurring to complete predictions, and that completion a 
moral end, in conformity to a sentence of the Divine law." In some 
of the narratives of the Bible we have the first and second only; as 
when Amon, a wicked prince, called his son Josiah (1 Kings 13. 2), 
not knowing the prediction till he had fulfilled it ; or as when Caesar 
Augustus issued a decree that brought Mary to Bethlehem (Luke 2. 
4) ; or as when the cry of " Galilee " by the Jewish crowd sent Jesus to 
Herod (Luke 23. 5). But in the prophets we have generally the 
three combined; Divine power, human agency, and such dispositions 
of heart in all concerned as make the fulfilment of predictions in 
harmony with the principles of the moral government of God. 
The fact may involve mystery, but it is not therefore the less in- 
structive or true. See, for examples, 1 Kings 22. 34: 2 Kings 9. 
34-37, and the fulfilment of Jer. 29. 10-15. 

The books 73- Tii e books of this period may be arranged 

epitomized aDC j briefly epitomized as follows. 



PROPHETS : ARRANGED. 471 

(i). i Kings 12.-2 Kings 17^ Giving the history of Judah and Israel 

2 Chron. 1 2.-3 1. a / from the division of the kingdom to 

the captivity of Israel by Shalmaneser : 254 years. 

Jonah: history of his mission to ZSTineveh. 

Joel; the desolation of Judah; the outpouring of the Spirit; 
judgments against different nations. 

Amos: prophecies concerning different nations and Israel. 

Hosea: warns Israel; foretells overthrow, and points to latter 
davs . 

Isaiah : various predictions and warnings to Israel and Judah ; 
also to various nations, 1.-36.; history, 36.-39.; the return 
and the latter days, 40-end. 

Micah: prophecies to Israel and Judah, and on the latter days. 

Is AKU3I : just after the destruction of Samaria, he foretells the 
destruction of Xineveh. 
(2). 2 Kings 18.-25. \ Giving the history of the decline and fall of 

2 Chbon. 32.-36. / the kingdom of Judah, and of the cap- 
tivity by Xebuchadnezzar : 184 years. 

Isaiah, Nahum : see above. 

Zephaviah: warns Judah; prophesies against various nations; 
speaks of the return and the latter days. 

Jeremiah : in Jemsalem and Egypt, gives predictions concerning 
Judah. Israel, and various nations, 1.-39 , 46.-50., 40.-45., 
chiefly historical; 51. not his. 

Habakkuk; prophecies on the return and on the Chaldees. 

Daniel: in Babylon, history, 1.-6.; prophecies on various king- 
doms and Christ, 7.-9. (10. -12.: see under 3). 

Obadiah : prophecies of Edom and the latter days. 

Ezekiel: on the Chebar, gives various predictions on Israel, 

Judah, heathen nations, and the latter days. 
(3.) Haggai, Zechariah: at Jerusalem, 536-520,6.0. 
Daniel: 10. -12., at Babylon. 

Esther: in Babylon: Nehemiah, in Babylon and at Jeru- 
salem, 457-445, b. c. 
Giving an account of successive restorations under Zerub- 
babel (536, B.C.); Ezra (457, B.C.); and Xehemiah (445, 
B.C.); the rebuilding ana final completion of the temple, 
with prophecies of vaiious kingdoms (Dan.) and the latter 
davs. 

ml 

Malachi: rebukes the corruptions of Divine service; foretells 
the coming of " Elijah" and of our Lord, 436-397, B.C. 

a 2 Chron. gives the history of Judah only, not twenty verses 
being devoted to Israel j both books contain many additional facts. 



472 



PROPHETS IN ISRAEL. 



A Table of the Prophets 


, showing when they prophesie 


d. . 


Kings of 
Judah. 
B.C. 


ISAIAH. 

Jeremiah. 
Ezekiel. 


E w j 5 

| i 

1 ! 

1 


X 

< 

A 

« 
O 


N > 

& i 


• 

i 
1 

i 

1 

1 1 


X 
< 

X 2 
S3 »— 1 


*-4 

hi 

< 

w 


1— 

1— 1 
< 

I 

1 

1 
1 

i 


Kings of 
Israel. 


040 ■ , 

Amaziah, 839 

°1C\ 


i_L- 


Jeroboam II . 
825 


Pti-i 






J: 





Uzziah, 810 


ouu 




790 

nfln 




i 









Interregnum, 
784 








Menahem, 
772 


7/° 


1 

1 


| 




Pekahiah, 761 


7UU 

Jothaim 758 






1 
-J- 

14 

FT 

t 


Pekah, 759 


Ahaz, 742 







i4° 


Anarchy, 739 


1>° 

Hezekiah, 727 






Hosea, 730 





p 
►d 

<— t* 
h-» 

< 

1— »- 

O 

Wj 

M 

09 

.-« 

P 
O 

1— ' 

1 

h 

p 

03 

w a 

• Cr 
■j .... 
to 3 

MflQ 

O 
•-J 

»— * 

^ a 

& 0* 

>* 1 
1 s, r 

& p- 

P 

CO 

w 

* Malacbi, 

between 

436 and 420. 




| 


IManasseh, 698 


" 










. 






" J ~ Anion, 645 
Josiah,6 4 i 




f\in 


Jehoahaz, 610 

610 

Jehoiakim,6io 


1 J 




1 E * 


: : : 

:: 














Jeconiah, 599 


B 


1 | 

1 


b ^Lest. of Je- 
-Q ^msalem588 


fTn 






-fin 


— -- 





-,-n ... 


pjn 1 1 


1 








| 




Zerubbabel, 536 


J a 






1 




| 


— — 

' 1 






T 


T 


* 


Mn 


■ — — 






> 1U 




! 



The date after each king's name indicates the commencement of his reign. — Joel is placed 

twice, as it is doubtful at which period he lived. 



NATURE OF LATER PROPHECIES. 473 

Sec. 2. The Nature of Prophecy during this Period. Predictions 

arranged. 

74. The prophetic spirit which we have seen revived in the 
iTophets of days of Samuel and David (Pt. ii., § 45), becomes yet 
this period. more active during the later period of the Jewish 
history. We have in succession sixteen prophets, whose 
writings remain, in addition to the authors of some of the 
Psalms and the large class who appeared in Israel and Judah, 
such as Elijah and Elisha, without leaving any permanent 
records of their teaching. Of the prophets whose writings 
are included in Scripture, Jonah, Amos, and Hosea, addressed 
the Israelites before the destruction of Samaria, as did both 
Isaiah and Micah, though these latter prophesied to Judah 
chiefiy. After the captivity of the ten tribes, Jeremiah pro- 
phesied briefly concerning them, as did Ezekiel. Most of 
the prophecies, however, are devoted to the destinies of 
Judah, of heathen nations, and of the church. 

75. A synoptical view of the prophecies of Scripture will 

be seen in § 76, and though not minutely accu- 
view of the rate it will give a just idea of the topics and con- 
prop.iieuc nection of the whole. Its partial inaccuracy, or, 

writings : _ * m J * * 

lessons rather, incompleteness,- is owing to the fact, that 

events foretold are so closelv connected with one 
another, and predictions so blended with moral instruction, 
that they can be grouped only according to the aim or 
general purpose of each. This has been done, and the lessons 
taught by this view are both obvious and important. 

1. Comparing this table of prophecy with the miracles of the Old 
Testament, it will be seen that as prophecy gains greater compass 
and clearness, the evidence of miracles is withdrawn. Before the 
later era of prophecy begins, in the days, for example, of Elijah, 
miracles are comparatively frequent; but even then we have nothing 
equal to those of Closes and Joshua. Now they cease. Prophetic 
revelation is enlarged, and having its fulfilment as it enlarges, it 
supplies the place of all other evidence. How strikingly it illus- 
trates the infinite importance of the gospel to notice that, to sustain 
and prove Christ's mission, all forms of ancient evidence combine. 
He fulfils old predictions and gives new ones; while his very person 
and life form a miraculous embodiment of power, wisdom, and love. 

2. Prophecy on the subject of heathen nations becomes most 
copious in the age when these nations seem to triumph the most. 



474 NATURE OF LATER PROPHECIES. 

Their victories, and the boasting idolatrous spirit these victories 
cherished, severely tried the faith of true believers, and seemed to 
shake the credit of their religion, Psa. 79, 80: Lament. The pride 
of the conquerors is therefore rebuked, and the faith of the church 
confirmed by a series of predictions denouncing the overthrow of 
the very nations whose successes are foretold. See the prophecies 
of Isaiah to various nations; of jSTahum to Assyria; of Habakkuk to 
the Chaldeans; of Obadiah to Edom; of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and 
Daniel. 

3 . The gradual extension of Divine revelation, so as not only to 
include a larger range of topics, but to reach various nations, is 
highly instructive. Jonah and rTahum address, in their written 
prophecies, Gentiles only. Gentiles only are also the theme of the 
prophecies of Habakkuk and Obadiah, and in most of the other 
prophets whole chapters are devoted to them. Plainly, God is not 
the God of one place or people. His providence rules over the 
earth, and all people are subject to Him. Heathen nations, it is 
true, are introduced into Scripture predictions, as into Scripture 
history, because of their connection with the church or chosen 
nation, but the lesson remains. All are within his government, and 
it is distinctly intimated that all are by and by to become obedient 
to his law. 

4. It will be remarked, also, that the era of the decline and fall 
of the temporal kingdom (both of Israel and Judah) is the very era 
selected for the fullest and most expressive disclosure of a new and 
spiritual kingdom. As the first dispensation seems hastening to 
decay, the objects and promises of the second are set forth to our 
view. All the prophets who speak of the ruin speak also of the 
restoration, and blend with the restoration predicted blessings, 
such as had never yet been possessed. This arrangement clearly 
indicates the unchangeableness of the Divine counsel. And it does 
more. It displays Divine mercy. In the heart of the devout Jew, 
under a dispensation which promised temporal blessing as the token 
of Divine favour, prophecy and recent events must have created the 
utmost perplexity. The threatened and actual visitations were all 
deserved; but in that fact he found no relief. To quiet the agita- 
tions of his afflicted faith, the eyangelical prophecies were inter- 
posed. By means of them, the hopes of the church were sent on 
into the more distant future and present anxieties were alleviated. 
As, therefore, at first, prophecy lightened the darkness of fallen 
nature, so now it lightens the darkness of misused or neglected 
grace. How much even inspired prophets needed this consolation 
may be gathered from the Lamentations of Jeremiah and from 
several of the Psalms, Psa. 79. 4, 9: 74. 2. 20. 



KATUBB OF LATER PROPHECY. 475 

In the mean time, also, the spirituality of true religion, anc^the 
nature of that work on which it is founded, are more clearly dis- 
closed. The prophets bring out the true meaning of the ancient 
law, insisting on the inferiority of ritual worship, and indicating 
with quite evangelical plainness the great Sacrifice of the cross, the 
Divine nature, and the ultimate rule of the sufferer, Isa. 53 : Dan. 9. 
How touching, that this clearer revelation of the spirituality of 
religion should be made at a time when all public religious institu- 
tions were corrupt, and after the temple itself had been destroyed. 

5. The most remarkable- lesson remains. While nearly all the 
prophets point to the gospel and the reign of our Lord, each speaks 
in language at once appropriate and peculiar. All foretell a glorious 
future, and the same glorious future; but the terms in which they 
foretell it are taken either from impending evil or contemplated 
good. That future is the opposite of present calamity, or it is the 
completion of present blessing. Joel, for example, foresees deso- 
lating invasions of Judah, but in the end the scene of desolation is 
Egypt and Edom; while Judah shall dwell for ever, and Jerusalem 
from generation to generation, 3. 19, 20. Amos foresees the over- 
throw of both Samaria and Zion; but bevond these calamities he 
beholds a different scene. "In that day, I will raise up the taber- 
nacle of David thai is fallen . . . and I will build it as in the days 
of old," 9. 11. And such is the character of all predictions till the 
end of the captivity. Restoration literally is the first theme ; but 
the predictions that foretell it, borrow from it phraseology intended 
to express the glory of the latter days. 

After the captivity, the building of the temple is the first theme 
of inspired predictions. Haggai foretells its coming glory, 2. 6-9; 
and, under the type of Zerubbabel, the victories of our Lord, 2. 
21-23. Zechariah foretells its completion, 1. 16, 17; and by the 
symbolical act of crowning Joshua the priest, connects with this 
work the coming of him whose name is the Branch (Isa. 4. 1 : 11. 1: 
Jer. 23. 5), who shall build the temple of the Lord and bear the 
glory, 6. 10-15. Malachi, again, appears after the temple is built. 
What was then wanting was, sincere worship and a holy priesthood, 
1. 10, 11: 3. 10. He therefore foretells a new covenant, and the 
coming of a messenger who shall purify the sons of Levi; so that 
the offering of Judah and Jerusalem shall " be pleasant unto the 
Lord, as in the days of old," 3. 4. Here, therefore, as elsewhere, 
prophecy takes its phraseology from the condition of the people to 
whom it was addressed. It foretells an early blessing, and in terms 
which make this blessing a pledge and type of infinitely richer 
blessings to be bestowed in the more distant future. Important 
rules of interpretation are suggested by this fact. 



476 



THE PROPHETS' ORDER, 



J 



76. Tabular View of the Prophets, showing the 



Passages chiefly 



Moral, Devotional . 
To Israel . 
To Judah . 



Historical . 



Prophetic ( a ) — 
Israel . 



Judah . 



Asssyria, "Nineveh 
Babylon, Chalduea 

Egypt . 

Ethiopia 
Edom . 

Moab . 

Syrians 

Tyre . 

Other Nations . 



Prophetic (b) — 

Our Lord's 

coming. 



first 



Events subsequent, 
where — 
Israel is named . 



Judah 



»> 



Gentiles 



Egypt converted 
Assyria „ 
Moab restored . 
Elani ,, 



00 

■as 

C 00 

o 



Arnos, 
810-785. 



I. -4. 



? 4 



2.-8. 



2.-9 10 

1.2,4.5 



Hosea, 

800-725. 



4.-13. 

4. 15, etc. : 

12.2 



1. 17 



5.8-6.; 



Isaiah, 
765-698. 



1. 11 

2. T 

i. i> J, 5 

1,9 
Amnion, 

Philislia, 
1. 



9. 11-15 



9. 12 

See Acts 
15.17 



25.-27. 11 . 
9. 8-21: 28. 
1.-5.: 22.8, etc. 
29 : jo. 

36.-39. 



7. 1-25 : ( 14. 24- 
8: 9.8:1 28: 17 

15- 11 ) 

22.1: 24:^8. 5-9 
52. 



q: 14: 30: 31. . 
13: 14. 24-28: 

21. 

19 : 20. . . 

18. . . . 
21. II 

15 : 16. 

7. 1-9: 8: 17. . 

23* • • • 

Arabia, 21. 13, 
etc. 



0) f 
O « 
1-5 O 

CO 



HS Ml 



^2:3. 
1. 8- I 6. 



2. 12 



11. 1: 13. 14 




{ 



7. 14: 9: 40.-63. 



28.5: 10. 
20, etc. 

22. 20 : 
24. 14, 
etc. : 9 
1.-5. : 
27.-35- 



19. 18-23. 
19. 23-25. 



'io.- 
12 



8. 



i 



40. 

to 

U6. 



f: 2. 

27 



2. 28 



f 



I 2. 28- 



5- 



r2. 12 



< 



4-5 

and 

7. 



AND SUBJECTS OF THEIR PROPHECIES. 



477 



order and cliief subjects of their prophecies. 



c CO 

5?- 



c a 

o o 
JSJ 



, £ oo 

Jeremiah, IS T 
628-585. 

— i 



Daniel, 
I S J 606-534. 



I. -3. 



1. 



2. 13 



2. 12 



2. 9 



Ammon, 

2.; 
Philistia, 

2. 



31. 22: 30 



i 3. 8-20 



. I 



48. 47. 
49- 39- 



.a 


•^ 


a 


OO 


J2 


»<-\ 




1 


C3 


co 




CO 


O 


u-* 



Lam. 1.-5. . 

• 


3. 

• 


28: 29: 32. 
1-25 : 36.- 
43. 7 = 52. 


• 


30: 31. 




1.-25.: 27: 

29 : 3^-31. 
26:33:34: 
44:46. 26: 
50. 


I. 


• 

25.12: 37: 
50: 51. 

43: 44-29: 
46 : so. 


2. 

• 


m 

49. 7 : Lam. 
4.21 
48. • . 
49,23 


• 
• 

• 


• 

Ammon, 
49 : Phi- 
listia, 47 : 
Arabia, 
Persia, 49. 


• 
• 



1.6. 



2. 36 : 4. 
19:5.25 



Persia, 

Grecia, 
Rome, 
11 : the 
four 
kingd.7 

9. 24-26 : 
7. 13. 



7: 12. 



7.-I2. 



I. 



Ezekiel, b.c. 
595-5i6. 



17.- 
21. 



9-24-: 33 

36: 37 
39.-48.? 



31. 3-18. 

29.-3 1. 

30. 4-6. 

*"1 ■* _ T ^ 

2j • -O- 

25- 
26.-28. 

Amnion, 21. 
28 : 25 : 
Philistia, 
do.: Gog, 
38: 39- 

34. 23, etc. 



• »-^ 


CO 


a 


— 


bl) 


»n 


fcfl 


1 

O 


>— ■ 


r^ 


t— 1 


»r\ 



rt O 



1 : 2. 
10-19 



^* 


ir\ 


e3 






O 


Cj 


M 





in 


N 





'S o>^. 
ST 



1.1-7:7. 1: 

18 



i.7 
11. 






2.7,9 



r6. 

j 10. 

V9- 
28: 29. 23, 
21 : 36. vetc. 

25: 34- 
20, 21 : 
40-48: 



2. IO, II; 
9.9:11. 
12: 12. 
10 . 6 : 
13: 1. 7 



3: 4- 
1-3 : 



2. 6, 

7 



?.4 



1.7-7. 
8.-14. 



478 JONAH. 

Sec. 3. The Boohs of Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, 

Nahum. 

The Booh of Jonah (B.C. 840-784). 
77. Jonah succeeded Elisha as the messenger of God to 
Date and the ten tribes, and flourished between 120 and 180 
history. years after the death of Solomon. He probably 

lived in the reign of Jehoahaz, when Hazael was fulfilling the 
predictions of Elisha, 2 Kings 8. 12: 10. 32. He foretold 
the enlarged territory and brief prosperity of Israel under 
Jeroboam the second, in whose reign the prophet himself 
probably lived, 2 Kings 14. 25. He was a native of Gath- 
hepher, in Zebulun or Galilee, and is thus a proof of the 
falsehood of the statement of the Pharisees, that out of 
Galilee cometh no prophet, John 7. 52. He is certainly the 
most ancient of the prophets whose writings have come 
down to us. 

This book, with the exception of chap. 2, is a simple narrative, 
c . and relates that Jonah, being sent on a mission to 

Nineveh (which was at that time the chief city of the 
Gentile world, and was distinguished equally for its magnificence 
and its wickedness), attempts to flee to Tarshish; but, being over- 
taken by a storm, he is cast into the sea, swallowed by a great fish, 
and continues in its belly three days (chap. 1); when, earnestly 
praying to God, he is delivered, chap. 2. At the renewed command 
of God, he goes to Nineveh, and announces its destruction; upon 
which the Ninevites, believing his words, fast, pray, repent, and 
are graciously spared, chap. 3. Jonah, fearing to be thought a 
false prophet, peevishly repines at the mercy of God, and wishes 
for death. Leaving the city, he is sheltered by a gourd, which, 
however, shortly withers; and Jonah, manifesting great impatience 
and rebellion, is shown, by his concern about the gourd, the pro- 
priety of God's mercy to Nineveh, chap. 4. 

That this book is a strictly historical narrative is evident, not 
only from the plain meaning of the language employed, but also 
from the manner in which the existence and ministry of Jonah, 
together with the main facts of his history, are referred to by our 
Lord (Matt. 12. 39-41: 16. 4: Luke 11. 29, 30), who, explicitly re- 
cognising his prophetical office, as he does that of Elijah, Isaiah, 
and Daniel, represents his being in the belly of the fish as a real 
miracle ; grounds upon it as a fact the certainty of a future analo- 
gous event in his own history; and, after mentioning the prophet's 
preaching at Nineveh, and the repentance of the inhabitants, 






JONAH : LESSONS : JOEL 479 



concludes by declaring respecting himself, "Behold! a greater than 
Jonah is here." 

As Jonah himself has generally been considered the author (a 
conclusion which the Chaldaisms of the original confirm), the 
record of the sin of the prophet affords another illustration of that 
strict regard to truth which characterizes the inspired volume. 

The spiritual lessons in this narrative are highly instructive. The 
Spiritual prophet is in his own person a prophetic sign of Christ, 
lessons. ^g m i ra cle of his deliverance from his three days of 

death is "the fullest and nearest shadow of Christ's lying in the 
grave which the Scripture affords" (Cradock). The first image, 
therefore, which meets us in the opening of the prophetic canon is 
one that shadovs forth, though dimly, the great fact of the resur- 
rection of our Lord (Davison). 

The whole narrative presents, too, the most striking contrast 
between the tender mercy of God, and the rebellion, impatience, 
and selfishness of his servant; and further, between the readiness 
with which the iSinevites repented, at the preaching of a prophet 
who visited them as a stranger, and the manner in which the 
Israelites treated the servants of Jehovah, who lived and laboured 
amongst them. 

At the same time, it might serve to teach the people of Israel 
that the Divine regard and compassion were not confined to them 
alone, but were extended to other subjects of God's government; 
also to intimate to them their high destiny, in carrying the tidings 
of salvation to the pagan world, and to keep up the expectation of 
that happy period, when repentance and the forgiveness of sins 
should be preached in the name of Christ to all nations. If not a 
formal type, the history is a real example of the genius of the 
gospel. 

To all, the book furnishes encouragement to humiliation and 
prayer; to faithfulness in publishing God's word to the guilty, and 
to implicit resignation to his will. 

Tiie Booh of Joel, B. c. 810-795. 

78. We have no account in the Bible of the personal his- 
tory of Joel, nor does tradition give much light in relation to 
him. He was the son of Pethuel (Joel 1. 1), and it is said, 
of the tribe of Eeuben. It is inferred from his writings, that 
he lived in Judah, probably not later than the reign of Uzziah, 
which extended from 810 b. c, to 758 B. c. : for when he 
mentions the enemies of his country, he names the Phoe- 
nicians, Philistines, Idumeans, and Egyptians, chap. 3. 4-19 ; 



480 JOEL. 

but makes no reference to the Assyrians and Babylonians ; 
which he probably would have done, had those two empires 
been alrea,dy formidable to the Jews. The whole book indi- 
cates, moreover, that the prophet lived at a time, when the 
people of Judah had not fallen into that extreme depravity, 
which, in later times, drew down upon them such heavy 
chastisements. Uzziah had indeed begun to lift up his heart, 
2 Chron. 26. 16 : but the evil seems as yet rather a subject 
of prophecy than of history, though given in historical form. 
He was contemporary with Hosea and Amos ; and as they 
addressed Israel, so he addressed Judah. 

In the first chapter, (1-2. 11), the prophet delineates, with 
most graphic force, an impending devastation, succes- 
sive armies of locusts (1. 4), and burning drought (ver. 
1 3, 19), representing in this form, probably, the calamities conse- 
quent on coming invasions. 

He then exhorts to penitence, fasting, and prayer (2. 12-17), pro- 
mising the removal of these evils, and rich evangelical blessing. 
He foretells in the clearest terms, the effusion of the Holy Spirit 
(2. 18-31: Acts 2. 1-21: 10. 41), and the destruction of Jerusalem, 
a prediction given with such force, as to be in some measure, des- 
criptive of the final judgment (2. 30: Matt. 24. 29). 

In chap. 3, he foretells the assembling of the nations in the 
valley of the Judgment of the Lord (Jehoshaphat), and their des- 
truction, the establishment of Jerusalem as the holy city, and the 
glorious state of peace and prosperity to be enjoyed by the church 
in the days of the Messiah. 

His style is remarkably clear and elegant; obscure only towards 
the close, where its beauties are shaded by allusions to 
events not yet accomplished. The double destruction 
foretold in chaps. 1-2. 11, the first by the locusts, the second, by 
the enemies of whom they were harbingers, is painted in terms that 
are reciprocally metaphorical, and admirably adapted to the two- 
fold character of the description. (Gray.) 

Joel was held in great reverence by the ancient Jews, and is 
quoted by both Peter and Paul, Acts 2: Rom. 10. 13. 

79. There are different views, it may be added, on the 
meaning of the description given in chaps. 1-2. 12. 

Some regard the whole as literal, and apply it either to the famine 
Meaning of an( ^ drought, of which Amos speaks, 4. 7, 8 ; or to the 
chaps. 1, 2. seven years of famine, that desolated Juda3a in the days 
of Joram, 2 Kings 8. 1-3. Others regard the description as figura- 



JOEL : AMOS. 481 

tivo, and apply it to the invasion by Tiglath-Pileser, Shalmaneser, 
Sennacherib, and Nebuchadnezzar, or to the subjugation of the 
country by Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Others, as 
Olshausen, combine these views, and deem it a description of im- 
pending calamity generally, both literal and figurative. ' ' Locust " 
is certainly used with this double reference in Scripture (see 
symbols' 1 , and in the second chapter, expressions are used with 
apparently a double aspect, as like expressions were afterwards 
used by our Lord, Matt. 24, referring to an earlier and a final visita- 
tion. Indeed, as all great and Divine deliverances prefigure or 
represent the deliverance of the Cross, so all great punitive visita- 
tions supply figures for describing the Judgment. 

The Booh of Amos, B.C. 8 10- 7 85. 

80. Amos appears to have been contemporary with Hosea, 
and like him, was sent to the ten tribes. Both 
prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah and Jero- 
boam 11., and Amos saw his first vision " two years before 
the earthquake/' which happened, as we learn from Zechariah, 
in the days of Uzziah (Zech. 14. 5, see also Isa. 5. 25). 

He appears to have prophesied in Bethel (7. 10-13), ^ :)U ^ ne 
did not belong to the kingdom of Israel, being an inhabitant, 
and probably a native, of Tekoa, a city south of Jerusalem, and 
on the borders of the vast open pastures ("wilderness"), of 
the hill country of Judah. By profession he was a herdsman, 
and a dresser of sycamore trees (7. 14) : " Not a prophet, or 
a prophet's son," i. e., not trained to that office, but called by 
an irresistible Divine commission (3. 8 : 7. 15), to prophesy 
unto Israel. To this fact he alludes, when Amaziah, the idola- 
trous priest in Bethel, charged him with conspiring against 
Jeroboam. His previous occupation ought to have removed 
all suspicion of political connection with the house of David, 
and to us it illustrates the grace which selects its ministers 
" from the tents of the shepherd, as well as from the palace 
of the sovereign," qualifying each for the duties to which he 
is called, see 1 Cor. 1. 27, 29. 

Amos speaks of himself as the author of these prophecies (7. 8: 
8. 1, 2), and his prophetic character is established by the testimony 
of Stephen the first martyr, and James (Acts 7. 42, 43: 1^. 15-17). 
and by the exact fulfilment of his predictions. This book is enu- 
merated in all the early lists of canonical authors (see Part i. § 160), 

The style of Amos is simple, but by no means deficient in pic- 

Y 



482 AMOS : HOSEA. 

turesque beauty. His manner of life may be traced in the illustra- 
tions he selects; which are taken mostly from rural emplo3 T ments : 
many of them are original and striking, while all have the life and 
freshness of nature. His knowledge of the events of remote 
antiquity (9. 7), and of others more recent, not elsewhere recorded 
(6. 2), the regular course of his thoughts, and the correctness 
of his language, all tend to show that the responsible and often 
dangerous (3. 12), occupation of a shepherd was still as favourable 
to mental culture, as in the days of Moses and David. 

The people of Israel were now rapidly filling up the measure of 
their sins. The mission of Amos was, therefore, rather to threaten 
chan to console. He rebukes, among other things, the corruption 
of their manners, which kept pace with their prosperity : he charges 
the great men with partiality as judges, and violence towards the 
poor: and he foretells, as a punishment from God, the captivity of 
the ten tribes in a foreign country; a prediction accomplished about 
sixty "years afterwards, when Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria, des- 
troved the kingdom. 

This book begins with announcing Divine judgments against the 
states around Judrca, and against the two Hebrew 
nations themselves a (r, 2). The prophet then sets 
before the Ephraimites their sins in detail : what God had done to 
bring them back to himself; how they may return to God; and 
the chastisements which were in reserve for their obduracy (3-6). 
This is followed by symbolical visions, representing successive 
punishments to be inflicted on the Israelites, each more severe than 
the preceding. The certainty and the near approach of their ruin 
is declared (3. 9- J 4). But, beyond this calamity, the prophet is 
commissioned to foretell new things in the distant future. And he 
concludes, with assurances that God will not utterly destroy the 
house of Israel; but, after sifting and cleansing it among the nations, 
will raise it again to more than its former glory, in the kingdom of 
the Messiah, (9. 11- 15). In the blessings of this kingdom, the 
Gentiles are also to share (see Acts 15. 16, 17). 

The Booh of Rosea, B. C. 800-725. 

81. Ilosea was probably a native and inhabitant of Israel. 
He lived during the reigns of the last six or seven of its 
kings, from Jeroboam 11. to Hoshea, a period of about sixty 
years. He was contemporary with Isaiah, though he began 
to prophesy some time before him (Isa. 1. I : Hos. I. 1). 

The prophecies of Hosoa are directed almost exclusively to the 
a Fulfilled in the victories of Assyria and Babylon. 



HOSEA. 483 

ten tribes. He addresses them under the title of Israel, of Samaria, 
which had been, since the days of Omri, their capital, of Ephraim, 
the most distinguished of the tribes, to which Jeroboam, their first 
king belonged. The idolatry which commenced in his days at Dan 
and Bethel, had now been continued for more than 150 years, and 
had diffused every form of vice among all classes. The last short, 
interval of outward prosperity under Jeroboam 11., was soon fol- 
lowed by general anarchy and decay. The kings and princes were 
murderers and profligates (7. 3-7): the idolatrous priests had spread 
their shameful festivals and their deceitful oracles all over the 
land (4. 12-14: 10: 12: 13. 2): the great parties in the state resorted 
for help sometimes to Assyria, at other times to Egypt (2 Kings 
15. 19: 17. 4): while the whole nation relied entirely on human 
help (5. 13: 7. 8-12: 8. 9, 10: 10. 13, etc.): worldly and sinful 
objects were pursued with the same eagerness by Ephraim as by 
Canaan (12. 7, 8): a listless security blinded all minds (5.4: 12.8): 
giving place in the moment of danger to a repentance merely of the 
lips (7. 16}: and, what was the root of all the other evils, God and 
his word were forgotten (4. 1-6: 8. 12.) 

This condition the prophet most earnestly condemns, using the 
expressive figures of adultery to reprove their idolatry; figures 
which imply the violation of a solemn covenant, and the alienation 
of the affections of the people from God. These lessons were illus- 
trated in the assassination of four kings successively, and in the 
general disorders of the state. 

For sixty years, these warnings and appeals were continued, with- 
out success: — a bright example of persevering fidelity under the- 
greatest discouragements. 

As Hosea speaks in these prophecies in the first person (3. 1, 2, 3),. 
no doubt he compiled them himself. They contain many specine 
predictions, literally fulfilled, and the book is cited by Matthew, 
by Paul, and by our Lord, Matt. 2. 15: Rom. 9, 25, 26: 1 Cor. 
15. 33: Matt. 9. 12, 13: 12. 7. 

Considering the long period to which the ministry of Hosea ex- 
tended, it may appear surprising that his writings are comprised 
within so small a compass: but it must be remembered, that, as 
in the case of others of the prophets, there is no reason to suppose 
that this book contains all that he ever uttered. Such portions 
only of his inspired communications are recorded, as the Koly Spirit 
saw fit to preserve for the benefit of the Jews, and of the world. 

The language of Hosea is to us peculiarly difficult. Kis style is 

,, L . very concise, and abrupt, abounding with figures and 

metaphors, which are often much intermixed; and the 

transitions from one subject and figure to another, are frequent and 



■\7 «/ 

JL — 



484 HOSE A. 

sudden. The particular occasions on which his prophecies were 
delivered, are in themselves rarely obvious, and are never specified 
by the author. Some parts of them, however, are peculiarly pa- 
thetic, animated, and sublime. 

Among the more remarkable of his predictions, are those in 
which he foretells the captivities and sufferings of Israel ; a the 
deliverance of Judah from Sennacherib, a figure of salvation by 
Christ;' 3 the punishment of Judah and her cities; the present state 
cf the Jews ; d their future conversion and union with the Gentiles 
under the Messiah ; e and the call of our Saviour out of Egypt; 1 ' 
while the final ransom of his people from death and the grave, is 
celebrated in the loftiest strains. g 

All these predictions are not equally clear: but the evangelical 
tenor of most, nothing can exceed. These predictions are blended 
in the original with a form of phraseology closely allied to the 
phraseology of the ancient law (Hengstenberg). 

Chaps. 6, 13, 14, are peculiarly rich in statements achvpted to 
awaken those feelings of penitence and faith which become the 
Christian and the church in every age. 

This book may be divided into two parts, comprising, 1st. A 
symbolical narrative, chaps. 1-3; and, 2ndly. Prophetic discourses . 
chaps. 4-14. 

1. The .first part gives a symbolical representation of the past, 
present, and future history of the people of God. It describes 
their adoption, their rebellion and infidelities, their chastisement 
and rejection, the conversion of the Gentiles, and the future re- 
pentance and restoration of Israel. These three chapters are an 
abridgement of the whole book; and the gracious promises which 
they contain, and which are not noticed in the seven following 
chapters, re-appear in the eleventh, and close the book. 

2. In the second part, containing several prophetic discourses 
delivered at different times, the things which have been before 
revealed under a symbolical form, are further illustrated by the 
most vivid images. It begins with rebukes and threatenings, which 
present to view in the fore-ground, various frightful calamities; but 
by degrees the horizon becomes clear, and the glory of the latter 
time shines forth with unclouded lustre. 

Various attempts have been made to classify the latter chapters 

• * 5- 5-7: 9- 3> 6 _II: I0 - S> 6, 15: 13. *6. 

b 1. 7, compare 2 Kings 19. 35. c 5. 10: 8. 14. 

d 3. 4. ' e 1. 10: 2. 23: 1. 11: 3. 5: 14. 4, 8. 

f 11. 1 (see Matt. 2. 15): 6. 2 (see 1 Cor. 15. 4). 

8 1?. 14 (see 1 Cor. 15. 55). 



HOSEA : ISAIAH. 485 

of the book chronologically, but without success. The general 
drift is clear, but the writer has given us no other indication of the 
order of the several prophecies than their place in the book itself. 

The narrative of Hosea's marriage we have described as sym- 
bolical. Some (Augustine, Grotius, Horsley), regard it as literal 
history; others suppose that a marriage with an Israelitish woman 
is all that is intended; but most (Jerome, Rosenm., Louth, Hengs.), 
regard it as allegory only, or as a vision. It may be added, that 
the narrative-exactness of the whole, and the use of names, are as 
consistent with the supposition that it is a parable or vision, as with 
the supposition that it is a real occurrence which is described, 
Ezek. 23: Luke 16. 20-31. 

The Book of Isaiah, B. c. 765-698. 

82. Though Isaiah has given incidentally, decisive evidences 
of his humility, his pity for his countrymen, and for the 
nations whose desolations he announced, 3 he has told us very 
little of his own history. He was called to the prophetic 
office in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, and he continued 
to prophesy during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, 
perhaps also during a portion of the reign of Manasseh. Of 
ins parentage nothing is knoivn, though, as his father's name 
is mentioned, the Jews conclude that he was a prophet. 
They add, that Isaiah belonged to the royal house, and that 
he was father-in-law of Manasseh, by whom they say he was 
put tc death, being sawn asunder for contradicting or adding 
to the Mosaic law b (Isa. 6. i, compare with Exod. 33. 20). 
His wife is styled a prophetess (8. 3), and he had two sons, 
whose names and history were intended to illustrate and 
enforce his predictions (7. 3 : 8. 3, 4). His name means 
" salvation of Jehovah," and is, in a large degree, descriptive 
of his character and writings. In the New Testament it is 
spelt (from the lxx and Vulgate), Esaias. His father was 
often confounded with Amos, the prophet, whose name 
(pSfiV, Amos), the Septuagint writes in the same way as the 
name of Amos (flftH, Amotz), the father of Isaiah, "An<x>?. 

The duration of his ministry is not known. The whole of 
the reigns of Uzziah, etc., to Hezekiah, amount to 112 years. 
From the last year of Uzziah to the 14th of Hezekiah, when 
we last find traces of Isaiah in history (2 Kings 20. 1 : Isa. 

& 6. 5: 66. 2: 21. 3: 16. 9. b SeeHeb. 11. 37. 



488 ISAIAH. 

38. 1), is forty-seven years, and if, according to Jewish tra- 
dition, he survived till the days of Manasseh, he must have 
been more than 100 years old. 

When Isaiah entered on his office, the throne was occupied by 
Uzziah, or Azariah. His general character was that of integrity and 
piety; and under his reign the nation enjoyed great temporal 
prosperity. He was a worshipper of the true God; though he failed 
to remove the groves and high places established for idolatrous 
worship. Uzziah was succeeded by his son Jotham, whose general 
character was like that of his father; but the idolatrous altars were 
still allowed to remain, and owing to the increase of luxury and 
sensual indulgence, true piety declined more acd more. The next 
king, Ahaz, was a very wicked and idolatrous prince ; and his reign 
was very disastrous. The law of God was broken in the most reck- 
less manner, and the temple not only defaced and plundered, but 
at last, shut up. During this period, Isaiah came forward publicly. 
as a reprover of sin; but his counsels and warnings were disregarded. 
HezekiaKs character was the reverse of that of his father. He abo- 
lished idolatry, restored the temple and worship of Jehovah, and 
relieved the people from foreign oppression. He treated Isaiah with 
great respect, and during the agitating occurrences of his reign, the 
prophet had an important part in directing the public counsels. 

83. The life of Isaiah includes the last years of the kingdom 
of Israel. Under Jeroboam 11. the contemporary of Uzziah, 
Samaria had flourished, but for several years it had been 
ruled by usurpers, and at length, in the sixth year of Hezekiah, 
the kingdom was overthrown, and its inhabitants removed. 

His prophecies, however, have little reference to the condition of 
Israel, and are directed chiefly to Judah. 

The relation of Judah to neighbouring nations it is important to 
remember. With Moab, Edom, and the Philistines, Judah had 
repeated -conflicts. Though within the boundaries of Judah, and 
subdued by David, they were constantly endeavouring to maintain 
an independent position, and during the reign of godless, feeble 
kings, their efforts were generally successful. Assyria had increased 
in strength, and was extending her conquests on all sides. Egypt 
had been subdued by Ethiopia, and both countries were united 
under one dynasty. Assyria and Egypt were both j^reparing for a 
coming struggle, and each in succession sought the alliance of both 
Judah and Israel. The safest policy, whether we regard the tem- 
poral interests, or the religious character of the Jewish kingdoms, 
was clearly to stand aloof from both. Babylon, as Havernick has 






ISAIAH : GENUINENESS. 487 



shown, was at this time an inferior kingdom, struggling against 
Assyria for independence, and rising slowly into importance. Hence 
the wisdom of Merodacli-Baladan in sending an embassy to l-Ieze- 
kiah: hence, also, the need of Divine teaching, to foretell the future 
power of Babylon, and the subjugation by it of the kingdom of 
Judah. 

The two most remarkable events of this period, are the invasion 
of Judah by the combined forces of Syria and Israel, followed by 
the destruction of the kingdom of the ten tribes; and the Assyrian 
invasion of Judah in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, ending in the 
defeat of Sennacherib. Within the same period, and twenty or 
thirty years earlier than the last-mentioned- facts, fall the two most- 
remarkable epochs of chronology; A. u. c, 753 B. c, and the era of 
Xabonassar, 747 E. c. Just before the days of Isaiah, is the date 
of the first Olvm., 7 "6 B. c. 

84. The genuineness of Isaiah lias been much discussed in 
modern times, and especially the latter portion of his pro- 
phecies, chaps. 40-66. 

The objections to the genuineness of this portion of his book, are 
founded chiefly on alleged peculiarities of style, such as Chaldaisms, 
and differences in expression between the earlier and later divisions 
of his writings. All these objections, however, have been met by 
facts, taken from the book itself, a and the genuineness of the w T hole 
is attested by universal antiquity, and by the Xew Testa.ment. Of 
the sixty-six chapters, forty-seven are directly or indirectly quoted 
by our Lord or his apostles; and out of the twenty-one cases in 
which Isaiah is expressly named, we find quotations from chaps, 1, 
6, 9, 10, 11, 29, 40, 42, 53, 61, 65. The view, therefore, that the 
whole of Isaiah (the later and earlier portions), had one author, 
is sanctioned by inspired teachers. 

85. This book may be divided, into two principal parts. 

(i.) The first part 1-39, contains prophetic addresses and writings 

of different dates, most of them bearing immediately on the morals, 

piety, and welfare of the nation. Of these there are four sections : — 

1. Eeproofs, warnings, and promises addressed to Judah and 

a There are, for example, Chaldaisms in Isaiah, and this fact was 
made one reason for ascribing the book to different authors. Hirzel, 
however (De Chal. Bib. Origine, 1830), has shown that, in all the 
poetical parts of Scripture especially, there are Chaldaisms, that in 
Isaiah there are but four true Chaldaisms, and that these are all 
found in the part which is admitted to be genuine, 7. 14 (?}, 29. 1; 
18. 7: 21. 12. 



488 ISAIAH : CONTENTS. 

Israel, chiefly during the early part of the prophet's ministry, 
with prophecies of the success of the gospel, and the coming 
of the Messiah to judgment, 1-12. 

2. Predictions respecting neighbouring hostile nations, in which 
are described the sins and destruction of Assyria, Babylon, 
Moab, Egypt, Philistia, Syria, Edom, and Tyre, 13-23. 

3. Writings probably of the time of Ahaz and Hezekiah, des- 
cribing the sins and misery of the people, picturing the 
Assyrian invasion; the destruction of Samaria; the alarm, 
distress, and final deliverance of Jerusalem, with many re- 
ferences also, to the conversion of the Jew T s under the gespel, 
and the destruction of all the enemies of the church, 24-35. 

4. History of the invasion of Sennacherib, of the destruction of 
his army, in answer to Hezekiah's prayer. Hezekiah/s sick- 
ness, his miraculous recovery, and the prolongation of his 
life for fifteen years, 36-39. 

(ii.) The predictions which form the second part of the book 
(40-66), relate chiefly to more distant events, and embrace the whole 
period, from the captivity to the end of the Christian dispensation. 
The delivery from Babylon is employed as an image of an infinitely 
greater redemption; the prophet so connecting these two events, as 
seldom to treat of the first without pointing to the second. The 
design of the whole of this portion of the book is expressed in chap. 
40. 1, 2. 

The subjects particularly foretold, are, the deliverance of the 
Jews by Cyrus (above 200 years before his birth), and the overthrow 
of their oppressors, a the return to Judaea, and the establishment of 
their ancient polity ; b the coming, character, appointment, suffer- 
ings, death, and glory of the Messiah; the downfall of idolatry, 
the call of the Gentile world ; d the wickedness of the Jews con- 
summated in their rejection of the Messiah, and the consequent 
rejection of them by God, their future conversion and recovery, 
and the final triumphant perfection of the church. 1 " These subjects 
are often blended together, and sometimes there is a rapid tran- 
sition from one to another. 

The office of the Holy Spirit is also distinctly noticed, though it 
is implied that the full manifestation of his influence is reserved for 
the times of the gospel, 63. 10-14: 44. 3. 

The numbers and distinctness of predictions that refer to the 

a 44. 28: 45. 1-5: 47- b 44- 28. 

c 4 o. 3, 4: 42. 1, 6, 7: 49- 1: 55. 4, 5: 53- 12: 61. 1, 2: 50. 6: 
53. 4-12. d 49- 5- I2: 6 5- x - 

e 52. 3: 65: 62. f 59- r 9: 6 5, etc. 



ISAIAH : MIC AH. 489 

gospel, are indeed so striking, that Isaiah has acquired the title of 
u the Evangelical Prophet," and his writings may be almost classed 
among the historical boohs of the inspired volume. 

In the writings of Isaiah, we find several prophecies which had 
an early or immediate fulfilment, and these, as they were fulfilled, 
confirmed the faith of the people in the more remote. Syria and 
Israel, for example, were to be conquered by Assyria, before the 
infant son of the prophet could say " my father." a The glory of 
Kedar was to fail in one year, b that of Moab in three years, that of 
Ephraim in 65 years, d that of Tyre in 70 years; 6 while the pre- 
dicted prolongation of Hezekiah's life f must have established the 
authority of the prophet, and illustrated the providence of God. 

Prophecies which were thus instructive as evidence, were no less 
so as moral lessons. The Jews were proud of Egypt, " their glory," 
and trusted in Ethiopia ' * their expectation." God denounced both, 
and thus taught the folly of fleeing to them for protection or help. 
The predictions against Edom and Babylon were also rich in in- 
struction. They comforted pious Jews in the prospect of the 
calamities their nation was about to suffer, and they teach what the 
sins are which have brought down God's indignation in every age. 
The cruelties and oppression of the heathen are sufficiently 
notorious, and these are everywhere condemned. We notice, also, 
the condemnation of pride in Babylon and Moab, in Tyre and 
Ephraim, 8 of covetousness, and the confounding of moral distinc- 
tions in Judah, h of a heart set on worldly pleasure, in Jerusalem 
and Babylon, 1 of self-conceit and unbelief everywhere. . Predictions 
apart, therefore, these prophetic writings are among the most in- 
s tractive of the revelations -with which God has favoured our race. 



The Booh of Micali, B. c. 758-699. 

86. Micali calls himself a Morasthite, and was a native cf 
Morasthi, near Gath, or (if the two places be the same), 
Mareshah, a place of some importance, in the south of Judaii 
(1. 1, 15). He seems to have been commissioned not long 
after Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah had begun their ministry, and 
reiterates the reproofs and warnings which they had addressed 
to both Israel and Judah. Greek writers (Epiphanius and 
others), say he was slain by Jehoram, son of Ahab ; but they 
confound him with Micaiah, the son of Inilah, 1 Kings 22. 

s Isa. 8. 4. b 21. 16. c 16. 14. d 7. 8. 

e 23, 15. f 38. 5 9. s 14. 13: 16. 6: 23. 9: 23. 3. 

11 5. 8, 20. * 22. 13: 47. 3. 

y3 



490 MCAH : CONTENTS. 

8-28 ; Mi call, moreover, does not appear to have suffered 
martyrdom, but died in peace in the days of Hezekiah, 
Jer. 26. 1 8, 19. One of his predictions saved the life of Jere- 
miah, who would have been put to death for foretelling the 
destruction of the temple, had it not appeared that Micah had 
foretold the same thing above a hundred years before. He, 
himself, wrote his predictions (3. 1, 8), and is referred to as a 
prophet by Jeremiah, and in the New Testament, Matt. 2. 5 : 
John 7. 42. His language seems also quoted by Zephaniah 
(3. 19) : Ezekiel (22. 27), perhaps by Isaiah, (2. 2-4 : 41. 15), 
and by our Lord, Matt. 10. 35, 36. 

His predictions may be divided into three sections. 

He first describes the approaching ruin of both kingdoms; par- 
ticularizing several of the towns and villages of Judah in his own 
neighbourhood, chap. 1. He then rebukes and threatens the 
princes, prophets, and people, for their prevailing sins; introducing, 
however, an intimation of mercy, (2. 3). In the second section, he 
proceeds to unfold the future and better destinies of the people; 
dwelling at length upon the happiness and glory of the church, under 
the reign of Christ, in a prophecy which presents a beautiful epitome 
of the latter parts of Isaiah; and then reverting to the nearer deli- 
verance of the Jews, and the destruction of the Assyrian power, 
(4, 5). The third division exhibits the reasonableness, purity, and 
justice of the Divine requirements, in contrast with the ingratitude, 
injustice, and superstition of the people, which caused their ruin. 
From the contemplation of this catastrophe, the prophet turns for 
encouragement, to the unchanging truth and mercy of Jehovah, 
which he sets before the people, as the most powerful inducement 
to hearty repentance, (6, 7). 

Micah has much of the poetic beauty of Isaiah, and of the vigour 
of Hosea. His style is, however, occasionally obscure, through con- 
ciseness and sudden transitions from one subject to another. 

He foretells, in clear terms, the invasions of Shalmaneser a and 
Sennacherib ; b the dispersion of Israel ; c the cessation of prophecy ; d 
the utter destruction of Jerusalem ; e nor less clearly, the deliverance 
of Israel ; f the destruction of Assyria, and of the enemies Assyria 
represents ; g the birth-place of Christ, and his Divine nature, for 
his goings forth are " from everlasting;" 11 the promulgation of his 

* 1. 6-8 (2 Kings 17. 4, 6). b 1. 9-16 (2 Kings 18. 13). 

° 5« 7> 8 - d 3- 6> 7. e 3. 12. f 2. 12: 4. 10: 5. 3. 

s 5. 5, 6: 7. 8, 10. h 5. 2 (Matt. 2. 6). 



micah: nahum. 491 

gospel from Mount Zion, and its results, a and the exaltation of his 
kingdom over all nations. b 

The Booh of Nahum, B. c. 720-698. 

87. The Book of Nahuni is a striking illustration of the 
moral use of prophecy, of its fitness to console (so the name 
of the prophet implies) the believer, and strengthen him for 
present duties. 

Of Nahum himself, nothing is known, except that he be- 
longed to Eikosh, a place now unrecognised, but which Jerome 
(who lived a thousand years afterwards) asserts to have 
belonged to Galilee (Pref. to Com.) 

He probably prophesied in Judah, after the ten tribes had 
been carried captive, and between the two invasions of Sen- 
nacherib. At this period of perplexity, when the overthrow 
of Samaria must have suggested to Judah many fears for her 
own safety, when Jerusalem had been drained of its treasure 
by Hezekiah, in the vain hope of turning away the fury of 
Sennacherib, and when distant rumours of the conquest of 
part of Egypt, added still more to the general dismay, the 
prophet is raised up to reveal the power and tenderness of 
Jehovah (1. 1-8), to foretell the subversion of the Assyrian 
empire (1. 9-12), the death of Sennacherib, and the deliverance 
of Hezekiah (1. 13-15). The destruction of Nineveh is then 
predicted in the most glowing colours, and with singular 
minuteness ; and profane history tells us, that these predic- 
tions have been literally fulfilled (see § 190). 

Rightly to understand Nahum, compare it with Jonah, of which 
it is a continuation and supplement. The two prophecies form 
connected parts of the same moral history; the remission of God's 
judgments being illustrated in Jonah, and the execution of them 
in Nahum. The devoted city had one denunciation more given 
a few years later, by Zephaniah (2. 13), and shortly afterwards 
(606 b. c), the whole were fulfilled. 

Nineveh, the destruction of which is foretold by the prophet, 
was at that time the capital of a great and flourishing empire. It 
was a city of vast extent and population; and was the centre of the 
principal commerce of the world. Its wealth, however, was not 
altogether derived from trade. It was a " bloody city," " full of 

a 4. 1-8 (Isa. 2. 2-4). b 4. 1-7, compare Luke 1. n\ 5. 5, com- 
pare Eph. 2. 14; 7. 17. 18, compare Luke 1. 72, 73. 



492 NAHUM : ZEPHANIAH. 

lies and robbery," (3. 1). It plundered the neighbouring nations; 
and is compared by the prophet to a family of lions, which " fill 
their holes with prey and their dens with ravin," (2. 11, 12). At the 
same time it was strongly fortified; its colossal walls, a hundred 
feet high, with their fifteen hundred towers, bidding defiance to all 
enemies. Yet, so totally was it destroyed, that, in the second cen- 
tury after Christ, not a vestige remained of it; and its very site was 
long a matter of uncertainty. 

This book is surpassed by none in sublimity of description. It 
consists of a single poem; which opens with a solemn description of 
the attributes and operations of Jehovah, (1. 2-8). Then follows 
(1. 9-141, an address to the Assyrians, describing their perplexity 
and overthrow; verses 12 and 13 beirjg thrown in parenthetically, 
to console the Israelites with promises of future rest and relief from 
oppression. Chapter 2 depicts the siege and capture of Nineveh, 
and the consternation of the inhabitants. Chapter 3 describes the 
utter ruin of the city, and the various causes contributing to it. 
The example of No- Ammo n (or Thebes), a great and strong city of 
Egypt, which fell under the judgments of God, is introduced 
(3. 8-10), to illustrate the similar punishment coming on the 
Assyrians. 



Sec. 4. The Books of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Hahahhuh, Daniel, 

Ezekiel, and Obadiah. 

The Booh of Zephaniah, B.C. 640-609. 

88. Between the cessation of the prophecies of Isaiah, 
•Micah, and Nahum, and the days of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, 
and the other later prophets, an interval of fifty years elapses, 
during which there was no prophet whose writings have 
reached us, unless Joel belong to this period. The lessons 
taught by the destruction of Samaria, and by earlier prophets, 
especially Isaiah, seem to have been left to produce their 
proper effects on the minds of the people. The wicked reign 
v/i Manasseh, moreover, occupied nearly all this interval, and 
seemed to render reformation by prophetic teaching hopeless. 
With Josiah, however, the prophetic spirit revived, and 
Zephaniah ("Jehovah hath guarded") is the earliest of the 
prophets of his age. He seems to have prophesied near the 
commencement of Josiah's reign, and at all events before the 
eighteenth year, when the altars of Baal were destroyed. 
He probably assisted Josiah in his efforts to restore the 



ZEPHANIAH. 493 

worship of tlie true God. Of the prophet personally nothing 
is known, but from the title of this book. As he traces back 
his pedigree for four generations, he was probably of noble 
birth. Some of the Jews, and Eichhorn, suppose him to 
have been a descendant of king Hezekiah ; but this con- 
clusion is hardly justified by the text, and a hundred years 
(the time between Hezekiah and the prophet) is scarcely 
sufficient to admit three intermediate ancestors. 

The first chapter contains a general denunciation of vengeance 
against Judah and those who practised idolatrous rites; Baal, his 
olaek-robed priests (Ckemarin), and Malcham (Moloch), being all 
condemned; and declares " the great day of trouble and distress " to 
be at hand, (i.-2. 5). The second chapter predicts the judgments 
about to fall on the Philistines, those especially of the sea-coasts 
(Cherethites), the Moabites, Ammonites, and Ethiopians; and 
describes in terms wonderfully accurate the desolation of Nineveh : 
prophecies which began to be accomplished in the conquests of 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

In the third chapter, the prophet arraigns Jerusalem, rebukes 
her sins, and concludes with the most animating promises of her 
future restoration, and of the happy state of the people of God in 
the latter days (3. 1-7: 3. 8-20). 

Coincidences of expression between Isaiah and Zephaniah are 
frequent, and still more between Zephaniah and Jeremiah. It 
may be added that the predictions of Jeremiah complete the view 
here given of the devastations to be effected by Chaldoea in PhirLvtia 
and Judah. 

89. Dr. Keith has noticed the minute discrimination with 
which Zephaniah, Amos, and Zechariah, foretell the destinies 
of the four chief cities of Philistia — Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, 
and Ekron. 

Comparing Amos 1. 6, 7, 8: Zech. 9. 5: and Zeph. 2. 4-6, it will 
be seen, that of Gaza it is declared that baldness shall come upon 
it, and that it should be bereaved of its king. At present, amid 
ruins of white marble indicating its former magnificence, a few 
villages of dry mud are the only abode of its inhabitants. Of 
Ashkelon and Ashdod it is said that both shall be "without in- 
habitants ;" and so they are. Gaza is inhabited ; Ashkelon and 
Ashdod are not, though their ruins remain. Different from the 
destiny of each was to be the end of Ekron: "it shall be rooted 
up." Xow its very name is lost, nor is the spot known on which it 



494 JEREMIAH. 

stood. . . . Clearly, prophecy and providence — predictions and 
the events that fulfil them — are guided by the same hand. 

The Booh of Jeremiah, B.C. 628-585. 

90. Jeremiah was the son of Hilkiah, a priest of Anathoth, 
in Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic office about 
sev T enty years after the death of Isaiah, in the thirteenth year 
of king Josiah, whilst he was very young (1. 6) and still 
living at Anathoth. It would seem that he remained in his 
native place for several years ; but at length, probably in 
consequence of the persecution of his fellow-townsmen, and 
even of his own family (11. 21 : 12. 6), as well as, under the 
Divine direction, to have a wider field for his labours, he left 
Anathoth, and came to Jerusalem. He also visited the cities 
of Judah, and prophesied altogether upwards of forty years, 
(11. 6). 

During the reign of Josiah, he was, doubtless, a valuable 
coadjutor to that pious monarch in the reformation of re- 
ligion. From his notice of Jehoahaz (22. 10-12), he pro- 
bably prophesied without hindrance during his reign. But 
when Jehoiakim came to the throne he was interrupted in 
his ministry ; " the priests and prophets " becoming his 
accusers, and demanding, in conjunction with the populace, 
that he should be put to death (26). The princes did not 
dare to defy God thus openly ; but Jeremiah was either 
placed under restraint, or deterred by his adversaries from 
appearing in public. Under these circumstances, he received 
a command from God to commit his predictions to writing ; 
and having done so, sent Baruch to read them in the temple 
on a fast day. The princes were alarmed, and endeavoured 
to rouse the king by reading out to him the prophetic roll. 
But it was in vain : the reckless monarch, after hearing three 
or four pages, cut the roll in pieces, and cast it into the fire, 
giving immediate orders for the apprehension of Jeremiah 
and Baruch. God, however, preserved them ; and Jeremiah 
soon afterwards, by Divine direction, wrote the same mes- 
sages again, with some addditions (36). 

In the short reign of the next king, Jehoiachin, we find 
him still uttering the voice of warning (see 13. 18 ; compare 
2 Kings 24. 12 and chap. 22. 24-30), though without effect. 

In the reign of Zedekiah, when Nebuchadnezzar's army 



JEREMIAH. 495 

laid siege to Jerusalem, and then withdrew upon the report 
of help coming from Egypt, Jeremiah was commissioned by 
God to declare that the Chaldceans should come again, and 
take the city, and burn it with fire. Departing from Jeru- 
salem, he was accused of deserting to the Chaldaeans, and way 
cast into prison, where he remained until the city was taken. 
Nebuchadnezzar, who had formed a more just estimate of his 
character, gave a special charge to his captain, Nebuzar-adan, 
not only to provide for him, but to follow his advice. The 
choice being given to the prophet, either to go to Babylon, 
where doubtless he would have been held in honour at the 
royal court, or to remain with his own people ; he preferred 
the latter. He subsequently endeavoured to persuade the 
leaders of the people not to go to Egypt, but to remain in 
the land ; assuring them, by a Divine message, that if they 
did so God would build them up. The people refused t.p 
obey, and went to Egypt, taking Jeremiah and Baruch with 
them (43. 6). In Egypt, he still sought to turn the people to 
the Lord (44.) ; but his writings give no information respecting 
his subsequent history. Ancient historians, however, assert 
that the Jews, offended by his faithful remonstrances, put 
him to death in Egypt : Jerome says at Tahpanhes. 

Jeremiah was contemporary with Zephaniah, Habakkuk, 
Ezekiel, and Daniel. Between his writings and those of 
Ezekiel there are many interesting points both of resem- 
blance and of contrast. Both prophets were labouring for the 
same object, at nearly the same time. One prophesied in 
Palestine, the other in Chaldeea ; yet the substance of both 
messages is the same. In the modes of expression adopted 
by the prophets, however, and in their personal character, 
they widely differed. The history of Jeremiah brings be- 
fore us a man forced, as it were, in spite of himself, from 
obscurity and retirement into the publicity and peril which 
attended the prophetical office. Naturally mild, susceptible, 
and inclined rather to mourn in secret for the iniquity which 
surrounded him than to brave and denounce the wrong-doers, 
he stood forth at the call of God, and proved himself a 
faithful, fearless champion of the truth, amidst reproaches, 
insults, and threats. This combination of qualities is so 
marked, that Havernick regards it as a proof of the Divine 
origin of his mission. In Ezekiel, on the other hand, we see 



480 JEREMIAH I CONTEXTS. 

the power of Divine inspiration acting on a mind naturally of 
the firmest texture, and absorbing all the powers of the soul. 
The style of Jeremiah corresponds with this view of the 
character of his mind. It is peculiarly marked by pathos* 
He delights in expressions of tenderness, paid gives touching 
descriptions of the miseries of his people. 

The prophecies of this hook do not appear to stand in respect to 
time as they were delivered. Why they are not so arranged, and 
how they are to be reduced to chronological order, it is not easy to 
say. Blayney proposes the following arrangement : the prophecies 
delivered (i), in the reign of Josiah, comprising 1.-12.; (2), in the 
reign of Jehoiakim, 13.-20.: 22.: 23.: 25.: 26.: 35.: 36.: 45.-48.: 
49- i-33; (3i i n the time of Zedekiah, 21.: 24.: 27.-34.: 37.-39.: 
49- 34-39: S°--S 2 -'f (4), during the administration of Gedaliah, and 
in Egypt, 40.-44. Chap. 52 seems made up from the later chaps, 
of Kings, (see 24. 18-25. 25), and repeats part of chaps. 39 and 40. 
From chap. 51. 34, and the later date of some of the facts, the 
whole chapter may be regarded as the work of a later writer, and 
probably of Ezra. 

Eioald proposes divisions founded upon the present order of the 
chapters, and endeavours to discover the plan upon which they 
have been arranged. Ke remarks that various portions are prefaced 
by the expression, " The word which came to Jeremiah from the 
Lord," 7. 1 : i-i. 1: 18. 1: 21. 1: 25. 1: 30. 1: 32. 1: 34. 1, 8: 35. 
1: 40. 1: 44. 1; or, " The word of the Lord which came to Jere- 
miah," 14. 1: 46. t: 47. 1: 49. 34; that some other divisions, 
chiefly historical, are plainly marked by notices of time prefixed, 
26. i: 27. 1: 36. 1: 37. 1; and that two other portions are in 
themselves sufficient^ distinct, 29. 1 : 45. 1; thus forming five 
books, namely: 

i. The introduction, 1. ii. Reproofs of the sins of the Jews, 2.-24., 
consistingof seven sections, namely, 2.: 3.-6.: 7. -10.: 11. -13.: 14.-17. 
18: 17. 19-20.: and 21. -24. hi. A general view of all nations, Che 
heathen as well as the people of Israel, consisting of two sections, 
25. and 26.-49., with a historical appendix of three sections, 26., 
27., and 28., 29. iv. Two sections picturing the hopes of brighter 
times, 30., 31., and 32., 33.; to which, as in the last book, is added 
a historical appendix in three sections, 34. 1-7: 34. 8-22: and 35. 
v. The conclusion, in two sections, 36. and 45. All this Ewald sup- 
poses to have been arranged in Palestine during the short interva. 
of rest between the taking of the city and the departure of Jeremiah 
into Egypt; in which country, after some interval, he considers 
-he prophet to hove written three sections, namely, 37.-39.: 4°.-43« : 



JEREMIAH : CONTENTS. 497 

and 44., together with 46. 13-26, completing his earlier prophecy 
respecting Egypt; and to have made, perhaps, some additions to 
other parts previously written. 

Jeremiah, professes to be the author of all these predictions, but 
some of them were written by his disciple, 1. 1, 4, 6, 9: 25. 13: 29. 
1: 30. 2: 51. 60: 45. i. 

He has sometimes been regarded as a prophet to the Gentiles 
(1. 5-10). He certainly delivered many predictions that refer to 
foreign nations, and his predictions were published to those nations 
themselves (27. 3); but it is to Jerusalem chiefly he was sent. 

He foretold the fate of Zedekiah, a the precise time of the Baby- 
lonish captivity, b and the return of the Jews. The downfall of 
Babylon d and of many nations e is also foretold in predictions, the 
successive completion of which kept up the faith of the Jews in 
those that refer to the Messiah. f He foretells very clearly the abro- 
gation of the Mosaic law; speaks of the ark as no more remembered; 
foretells the propagation of a more spiritual religion than the old; 
the mediatorial kingdom of the Messiah, whom he calls "Jehovah 
our righteousness;" describes the efficacy of his atonement; the 
excellence of the gospel in giving holiness as well as pardon; the 
call of the Gentiles; and the final salvation of Israel.* 5 

The Lamentations of Jeremiah. 

This book is a kind of appendix to the prophecies of Jeremiah, of 
which, in the original Scriptures, it formed part. It expresses with 
pathetic tenderness the prophet's grief for the desolation of the 
city and temple of Jerusalem, the captivity of the people, the 
miseries of famine, the cessation of public worship, and the other 
calamities with which his countrymen had been visited for their 
sins. The leading object was, to teach the suffering Jews neither 
to despise "the chastening of the Lord," nor to "faint" when "re- 
buked of him," but to turn to God with deep repentance, to confess 
their sins, and humbly look to him alone for pardon and deliverance. 

No book of Scripture is more rich in expressions of patriotic 
feeling, or of the penitence and trust which become an afflicted 
Christian. 

The form of these poems is strictly regular. With the exception 

* 34. 2, 3: compare 2 Chron. 36. 19: 2 Kings 25. 5 : Jer. 52. 11. 
b 25. n, 12 (see Dan. 9. 2). c 29. ic-14 (Ez. 1. 1). 

d Jer. 25. 12. e See (Ft. ii. § 77). 

f 23. 3-8: 30. 9: 31. 15 : 32. 36: 33. 26. 

s 3. 15-18: 31. 3i-34(see Heb. 10. 15): 23. 5, 6: 31. 31-34: 33. 8 
(Heb. 8. 8-13): 50. 4, 5: 19. 20. 



498 jeremiad:: habakkuk. 

of the last (chap. 5), they are in the original Hebrew alphabetical 
acrostics, in which every stanza begins with a new letter. The 
third has this further peculiarity, that all the three lines in each 
stanza have the same letter at the commencement. 

As a composition, this book is remarkable for the great variety of 
pathetic images it contains ; expressive of the deepest sorrow, and 
worthy of the subject which they are designed to illustrate. 

The Book of Habakkuk, B.C. 612-598. 

91. Nothing is known with certainty of the parentage and 
life of Habakkuk ; but from the fact that he makes no men- 
tion of Assyria, and speaks of the ChaldaBan invasion as just 
at hand, it is concluded that he prophesied in Judah during 
the reign of Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim, shortly before the 
invasion of Nebuchadnezzar (1. 5: 2. 3 : 3. 2, 16-19). He was 
therefore contemporary with Jeremiah, and it is said that he 
remained amidst the desolation of his country rather than 
follow his brethren into captivity. In the days of Eusebius, 
his tomb was shown at Bela in JucLli. 

This book was evidently composed by him (1. 1: 2. 1, 2), and is 
quoted as the work of an inspired prophet by the evangelical 
writers, Heb. 10. 37, 38: Rom. 1. 17: Gal. 3. 11: Acts 13. 41. 

Of all the nations who afflicted the Jews, and in them the church 
of God, the chief were the Assyrians, the Chaldaoans, and the 
Edomites; and three of the prophets were commissioned specially 
to pronounce their destruction. Nahum foretells the destruction of 
the Assyrians; Habakkuk, that of the Chaldaoans; and presently we 
shall find Obadiah foretelling the destruction of Edom. 

The prophet begins by lamenting the iniquities and lawless 
violence that prevailed among the Jews. God then declares that he 
will work a strange work in their days, and raise up the Chaldaoans, 
then probably a friendly nation, who should march through the 
breadth of their land and take possession of its dwellings. In this 
description, the prophet gives the history of the three invasions (in 
the reigns of Jehoiakim, Jeconiah, and Zedekiah) ; foretells the 
fierceness of their attack and the rapidity of their victories ; he then 
briefly contrasts the scene; points to the pride and false confidence 
of the victors, and indicates clearly "the change" and insanity of 
Nebuchadnezzar; the prophet humbly expostulating with God for 
inflicting such judgments upon his people by a nation more wicked 
than themselves. 

He then receives and communicates God's answer to his expos- 
tulation, to the effect^ that the vision, though it tarry, shall surely 



UABAKKUK : DANIEL. 499 

oae: th ^ the just shall live bj their faith, and are to wait foi it. 

ibe judgments that are to befall the Chaldaeans for 

.1 ido. ::_": their graven images cannot profit; but 
the Lorn only •'•'in his holy temple 5 ' (2 . 

n 3 pre hetj hearing these promises and threateningSj concludes 

- book with a sublime song, both of praise and of prayer. ] 
cr^i B6B.] --' iisplays »f the power and grace of Jehovah, 3 suppli- 
cates . : - the speedy deliverance of his people, and closes by 
en pi confidence in God which no change can destroy Thia 
ps hich was evident] r intende 1 for use in public worship, ? 

dgned to afford consolation u the pious Jews under theii 
approaching I mities. 

Ancient Jevrish writers apply :. 3 to the times of the jlessiah, 
and the apostle regai is it as having a still future fulnlment, Heb. 
it. 5-. 5;. In fact, as faith — patient waiting for God, and trust hi 
him — is the great principle of the divine life, so_. in every age, 
::_.■ lete salvation has been a matter : faith rather than of sight. 
i_r Christian character is, that ■'•' he lives by faith;" and in relation 
to the promised leliverance from sin and all its fruits his attitude 
is, " fchat he vraits for ::." 

See Bom. 1. 17: Gal. 5. :: Eom. 5. 1-5; 1 Cor. 1. 7. 

The k . . \ if Daniel (b.c. 606-534 . 

2. Qf Daniel, little is known beyond what maybe gathered 
Da- 4 = from his >wn writings. He was no: a aiiest. like 

-■■ : -■-"■ Jeremiah and Ezekiel ; but. like Isaiah, of the 

tail 3 >f Judah, ana pre . ;. ky of the royal kouss, Dan. 1. 6. 3. 
He was carried to Babylon in tke fourth year of Jehoiakim 
(*. ?., b. c. 606), eight years before EzekieJ, and pa k ibly be- 
sen the twelfth Ignatius) cr tke eighteenth year (Chry- 
sostom k k:- age, 1. 4. There he was placed in the :oura :k 
Nebuchadnezzar, and became acquainted with tke science o? 
the Chaldees. compared with whom, however, Sod gave him. 
as he records, superior wisdom. Ev Nebuchadnezzar he 
was raised to high rank and great power ; a position he re- 
tained, thousrh not uninterruptedly, under both the Baby- 
lonish and Persian dynasties. He died at an advanced a^e. 
having prophesied during the whole of the captivity (1. 21) ; 
and his last prophecy being delivered two years later, in tke 
third vear of the reistn of Cyrus. 

a Tertian is Edom; Cushan, part of Arabia Uhusistan): see also 

Numb. 13. 15: Exod. 15. 15: Numb. 31. t-n: Jiidg. 3. 10: 7. 1. 



600 DANIEL. 

The first event which gained Daniel influence in the court of 
Chronology Babylon was the disclosure and explanation of the 
of his book. <} r eam. of Nebuchadnezzar. This occurred in the second 
year of the sole reign of that monarch, i. e., in 603. Three and 
twenty years later, as Usher thinks (B,c. 580), his companions were 
delivered from the burning furnace (3); Daniel himself being 
probably engaged elsewhere at the time in the affairs of the empire. 
Ten years later occurred the second dream of Nebuchadnezzar (4,); 
and during the seven years of his madness Daniel, it is thought, 
acted as viceroy. The date of the events recorded in chap. 5 is 
B.C. 538, towards the close of the reign of Belshazzar, when it 
appears Daniel was in private life, ver. 12, 13. That night the 
king was slain and the dynasty changed. The dignity which 
Belshazzar conferred on Daniel in the last hours of his monarchy 
was confirmed by Darius and Cyrus. 

The book, it will be seen, is divided into two parts; the historical, 

... . . 1. -6., and the prophetic, 7. -12. Chaps. 2. 4:-?, are written 

Divisions. . , 

in Chaldee ; the rest in Hebrew. The latter half of the 

book is avowedly written by Daniel. In the former part he is spoken 

of in the third person; but he is generally admitted to have been the 

author of the whole. Ezekiel speaks of him (b.c. 584) as a shining 

example of uprightness and wisdom, ranking him with Noah and 

Job, 14. 14, 18, 20: 28. 23. Our Lord quotes him as a prophet, 

Matt. 24. 15. Paul alludes to him in Heb. 11. 33, 34; and in 

the Apocalypse, John takes his language as the model of his 

own. The fullest discussion of the genuineness of this book may 

be seen in the Treatise of Hengstenberg on Daniel, and in the 

general Introduction of Havernick; the former of which has been 

published in English, and is epitomized in Home (Introd.) 

The later portion of the book is divisible, like the earlier, into 
periods. The first prophetic vision occurred in the first year of 
Belshazzar (555 B.C.), 7.; the second, two years later (553), 8.; the 
third, in the first year of Darius the Mede (538), 9.; and the last, 
in the third year of Cyrus (534), 10. -12. The dream of Nebu- 
chadnezzar (2.") is also prophetic. 

The predictions of this book have much of the distinctness of 

__ history, and have long formed an important part of the 

evidence of Scripture. From Porphyry downwards, 

indeed, the only resource of infidelity has been to maintain that 

they were written after the events they describe; a subterfuge, 

entirely unfounded in fact. 

Chap. 2 contains a brief history of the kingdoms which form the 
chief subject of the book. The image represents the Babylonian 
monarchy undar t^e dynasty of Nebuchadnezzar, the Medo- 



DANIEL : PREDICTIONS. 50 i 

Persian empire, the Grecian, and the Roman. The last is seen 
divided into ten kingdoms, and gives way to the kingdom of the 
Messiah, represented by a stone cut out without hands— of mean, 
yet miraculous origin ; mighty as a moimtain, and, finally superior 
to the finest metals, the most splendid earthly thrones. In later 
chapters, one or other of these kingdoms again and again appears. 

In chap. 7, the first four of these kingdoms are represented by 
beasts, all highly significant. Of the ten kingdoms into which the 
fourth is divided, three are subdued by a little horn, or the papal 
power, ver. 8. That power (of which we read again subsequently) 
exercises its tyranny for 1260 years, and then comes the triumph of 
the saints. This view of the four empires has special reference to 
their religious connexions, as the former view had to their political. 

In chap. 8, we have the history of the Medo-Persian and Grecian 
empires, beginning with Cyrus and Alexander : the ram with two 
horns, the one greater than the other, representing the Persian and 
Median dynasty, with its conquests, ver. 4, and overthrow by 
Alexander, the notable horn: his conquests, and the division of 
his kingdom into four parts, out of which comes a little horn, 
probably Antiochus Epiphanes, a false crafty tyrant. This view of 
the " little horn," of chap. 8, is sustained by nearly all antiquity; 
but there are also reasons for concluding that this application of it 
was precursive and partial, the complete fulfilment of the pre- 
diction taking place under the Roman power. 

Chap. 9 foretells the coming of the Messiah. In seven weeks, i.e. 
fortv-nine years, reckoning from the decree of Artaxerxes, Ezr. 
7. 8-1 1, b. c. 457; the walls and the city were to be rebuilt, though 
m troublous times. In sixty-two weeks (434 years), Christ was t<t 
appear, in his ministry, and in the midst of one week, *. e., about 
three and a-half years, he was to be cut off. 

Chap. 10 represents the opposition of the prince of Persia to the 
decree of Cyrus, in favour of the Jews, and the successful struggle 
against him of Michael, the prince, see Rev. 12. 7. 

In chap, n, the history of Persia and Greece is resumed — with 
important additions. Four kings of Persia (Cambyses, son of Cyrus, 
Smerdis, Darius, and Xerxes), are foretold, and the rise of Alex- 
ander. Then follows the history of his kingdom, and of his suc- 
cessors in Egypt (the south), and. Syria (the north), till the times 
of Antiochus Epiphanes, and Ptolemy Philometer, ver. 25. Their 
character and destinies are clearly defined. In ver. 30, the conquest 
of Syria by the Romans is foretold; and thence to the end of the book 
we have a series of predictions, of which the fulfilment is found by 
some few in the history of Antiochus, but by most in the history of 
the church of Christ, and of the papacy till the end of time. The 



502 DANIEL : EZEKIEL. 

later verses of chap, n, are certainly applied in 2 Thess. 2, to 
Antichrist, and the 1260 years of chap. 12, are referred to in the 
Apocalypse, as the time after which a great deliverance is to be 
effected for the church. 

For the fullest literal and restricted exposition of the Book of 
Daniel, see Moses Stuart's Commentary, and Dr. Lee's " Events 
and Times of the Visions of Daniel." For an extended discussion 
of its application to the events of the gospel economy, with a full 
examination of its references to early profane history, see Birks on 
the " first two," and on the " two later" visions of Daniel. For a 
popular and striking exhibition of the visions and their fulfilment, 
see Bp. Newton, Diss. 13-17, and Dr. Keith's Evidence of Prophecy. 
To understand much of the phraseology of the Book, and, as most 
hold, of its facts, compare Rev. chaps. 11-20. 

Quite apart from the significancy of these predictions, are many 
Spiritual °f ^ ne m °ral and spiritual lessons of this portion of 

lessons. inspired truth. It was written in the darkness of the 

most terrible captivity which the people of God had ever known, 
and yet it contains some of the grandest revelations of the future 
glories of the church. . . . Everywhere, moreover, the providence 
of God is seen, working or overruling all for her good. . . . The 
predictions of the book extend from the establishment of the Medo- 
Persian monarchy to the general resurrection, the faith of believers 
being confirmed by the fulfilment of intermediate predictions, fore- 
telling the speedy punishment of two proud and impious kings, and 

the rebuilding of Jerusalem The history of the temptations 

of Daniel and his companions, their constancy and deliverance, is 
highly instructive, illustrating at once the mystery of the Divine 
dispensations, and the spirit of fidelity and patience with which good 
men submit to them. . . . The promise of the rebuilding of the 
temple was given to a penitent and prayerful prophet, the promise 
more comprehensive than the prayer he presented. He asked con- 
cerning Jerusalem: the answer told also of Messiah the Prince. 
The clear announcement of Christ's atonement, and of the time when 
he was to appear (9. 24-26) ; his future dignity, and his coming in the 
clouds of heaven (see Acts 1. 11), make this portion of the book 
of the deepest interest to the church. 

Tlie Book of the Prophet Ezehiel, B.C. 595-574. 
93. Ezekiel {God ivill strengthen, or prevail) was, like Jere- 
miah, a priest as well as a prophet. He was carried captive 
with Jehoiakim by Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 599, eleven years 
before the destruction of Jerusalem. All has prophecies 
were delivered in Oraldaea, on the river Chebar (Khabur), 



EZEKIEL. 503 

which fails into the Euphrates at Carchemish, about 200 
miles north of Babylon. Here he resided (1. 1:8. i), and here 
his wife died (24. 18). Tradition says that he was put tc 
death by one of his fellow-exiles, a leader among them, 
whose idolatries he had rebuked ; and in the middle ages 
what was called his tomb was shown, not far from Bagdad. 

Ezekiel commenced prophesying in the fifth year after the cap- 
tivity of Jehoiakim (1. 2), that is, in Zedekiah's reign, and con- 
tinued till at least the twenty-seventh year of his own captivity 
{29. 17). The year of his first prophesying was also the thirtieth 
from the commencement of the reign of Xabopolassar and from the 
era of Josiah's reform. To one of these facts, or perhaps to his 
own age (see Xumb. 4. 3). he refers in chap. 1. His influence with 
the people is obvious, from the numerous visits paid to him by the 
elders, who came to incmire what message God had sent through 
him (8. 1: 14. 1: 20. 1, etc.) 

His writings show remarkable vigour, and he was evidently well 
fitted to oppose "the people of stubborn front and hard heart," to 
whom he was sent. His characteristic, however, was the subordi- 
nation of his whole life to his work. He ever thinks and feels as 
the prophet. In this respect his writings contrast remarkably with 
those of his contemporary Jeremiah, whose personal history and 
feelings are frequently recorded. That he was, nevertheless, a man 
of strong feeling is clear from the brief record he has given of his 
wife's death (24. 15-18). 

The central point of his predictions is the destruction of Jeru- 
salem. 

Ezekiel's predictions were delivered partly before, and partly 
after, the destruction of Jerusalem. Before this event, his chief 
object was to call to repentance those living in careless security; to 
warn them against indulging the hope that, by the help of the 
Egyptians, the Babylonian yoke would be shaken off (17. 15-17: 
compare Jer. 37. 7); and to assure them that the destruction of 
their city and temple was inevitable and fast approaching. After 
this event, his principal care was to console the exiled Jews by 
promises of future deliverance and restoration to their own land; 
and to encourage them by assurances of future blessings. His pre- 
dictions against foreign nations come between these two great 
divisions; having been for the most part uttered during the in- 
terval between the Divine intimation that Nebuchadnezzar was 
besieging Jerusalem (24. 2) and the arrival of the n^ws that he had 
taken it (33. 21). The periods at which the predictions on ther ; s 
different subjects were delivered are frequently noted. 



504 EZEKIEL : DIVISIONS. 



u 



The book is divided by Havernick into nine sections, and it seems 
probable that the arrangement was made by Ezekiel himself. 

r. Ezekiel's call to the prophetic ofnc3, 1.-3. 21. Here God 
appears, in a cloud, and from between the cherubim gives the 
prophet a commission ; shows him a roll inscribed with prophetical 
characters, and bids him eat it, that is, digest its contents. 

2. Predictions and symbolical representations, foretelliDg the 
approaching destruction of Judah and Jerusalem, 3. 22-7. The 
390 years of Israel's defection, and the forty years during which 
Judah had been specially rebellious, are set forth in the typical 
siege of chap. 4. The threefold judgments of pestilence, sword, 
and dispersion, are set forth by the symbolical representations of 
chap. 5. 

3. Visions presented to the prophet a year and two months later 
than the former, in which he is shown the temple polluted by the 
worship of Thammuz (afterwards Adonis) ; the worshippers turning, 
like Persian idolaters, to the east: the consequent judgment on 
Jerusalem and the priests, a few faithful being marked for ex- 
emption (9.) ; and closing with promises of happier times and a 
purer worship, 8.-11. — Mark how the symbol of the Divine presence 
is gradually withdrawn : it moves from the temple first, and then 
from the citv. 

4. Specific reproofs and warnings, 12. -19. Here he shows the 
captives by two signs (12.) what was about to be the fate of the 
people ; exposes the false prophets who, at Jerusalem and at 
Babylon (Jer. 23. 16: 29. 8), spoke of peace and rest, Ezek. 13. 18; 
repeats his threatenings to some elders who visited him in the hope 
of getting something from him that might contradict Jeremiah, 14.; 
sets forth Israel as a fruitless vine (15.)^ an( i as a base adulteress 
(16). "He showsby one eagle (Nebuchadnezzar), who had taken 
away the top of the cedar (Jehoiakim), and by another eagle 
(Pharaoh), to whom the vine that was left (Zedekiah) was turning, 
the uprooting of the whole; and, digressing to upbraid Zedekiah 
for the oath which he was now breaking (compare ver. 15 with 
2 Chron. 36. 13), he predicts the replanting and flourishing of the 
whole under Messiah the Branch" 0, (17). He shows that this suf- 
fering is the consequence of their own acts (18.), and not only of the 
acts of their fathers. 

5. Another series of warnings, given about a year later, when 
Zedekiah had revolted to Egypt: Zedekiah to be overthrown, 
Jehoiakim to be raised (21. 26: see 17. 15), and all future changes 
preparing for Christ (21. 27), 20.-23. 

6. Predictions uttered two years and five months later, on the 

a Leifchild. 



EZEKIEL : OEADIAH. 505 

very day when the siege of Jerusalem commenced (24. 1: compare 
2 Kings 25. 1), announcing its complete overthrow (24). His own 
wife removed on that day; he weeps not, as a sign to them that the 
fall of Jerusalem would be to them a hardening calamity, leaving 
no time or opportunity for mourning. 

7. Predictions against foreign nations (25.-32.), extending over a 
period of three years, dining which time Jerusalem was besieged, 
and no prophecy was delivered against Israel: see 24. 27. The 
speedy accomplishment of many of these predictions, besides giving 
evidence to all ages of the truth of Scripture, assured the Israelites 
of the certain accomplishment of the rest. 

8. His predictions concerning Israel renewed; the promised sign 
>i, refugee from Jerusalem) having come (compare 24. 26 and 33. 
21). Exhortations to repentance; a prophecy against Edom; the 
triumph of Israel and the progress of the kingdom of God on earth 
foretold (33.-39). 

9. Symbolic representations of the Messianic times : the grandeur 
and beauty of the new city and temple (40.-48). 

These closing chapters are confessedly obscure. Some regard 
them as descriptive of what Solomon's temple was; others, of what 
the second temple should be ; and others, still, of a glorious building 
hereafter to be reared. From the description itself, from the analo- 
gous language of the last chapters of Revelation, and from the 
general tenor of prophetic language, • the whole is deemed by most 
authorities (Havernick, Fairbairn, and others) to be descriptive of 
the vastness, glory, and certain prosperity of the kingdom of God. 

TJie Book of Ouadialu B.C. 588-583. 

94. The time when Obadiah delivered his prophecy is 
somewhat uucertain, but it was probably between the de- 
struction of Jerusalem by the ChaldaeaDS under Nebuchad- 
nezzar (588 B.C.) and the conquest of Edom, which took 
place five years afterwards. Others give an earlier date to 
this book (time of Hezekiah), though with less reason. The 
personal history of the prophet is not known, but several 
eminent persons of his name are mentioned in Scripture. A 
contemporary of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, he treats of the same 
subjects. Between the writings of the three there is an occa- 
sional resemblance. a 

a Obad. 1. -4.: Jer. 49. 14-16: Obad. 6. 8: Jer. 49. 9, 10: ObacL 9: 
LCzek. 25. 13, ver. 12, and Ezek. 35. 15. 

Z 



506 OBADIAH : THE CAPTIVITY. 

Israel had no greater enemy than the Edomites. They were 
proud of their wisdom, ver. 8, and of their rocky and impregnable 
position, ver. 3. But the prophet foretells the uncovering of their 
treasures, and rebukes their unkind treatment of the Jews, their 
kinsmen, in rejoicing over their calamities and encouraging Nebu- 
chadnezzar utterly to exterminate them (Psa. 137. 7); for all which 
an early day of retribution was to come: "As thou hast done it 
shall be done unto thee/' ver. 15. 

But the chosen race themselves had just been carried into cap- 
tivity; the holy land was deserted; and the chastisement denounced 
against the Edomites might therefore appear not to differ from that 
which had already been inflicted upon the seed of Jacob. The 
prophet therefore goes on to declare that Edom should be as 
though it had never been, and should be swallowed up for ever (a 
prophecy which has been remarkably fulfilled^; ; while Israel should 
rise again from her present fall; should repossess not only her own 
land, but also Philistia and Edom; and finally rejoice in the holy 
reign of the promised Messiah. See Pt. i. § 188. 

Compare Amos 1. 11, 12; 9. 11-15: Joel 3. 19, 20: Ezek. 35. 

The Captivity. 

The Babylonish captivity was a remarkable, and, at the 
time it occurred, an unexampled dispensation of Providence. 
The people of Israel, in the time of the judges, had often 
been brought under their enemies ; and the ark, the symbol 
of God's presence, had once forsaken the tabernacle of Shiloh, 
and had been carried away into the land of the Philistines ; 
but the captivity was attended with much heavier calamities. 

The whole land was now desolated, the ark destroyed, the 
temple burned to the ground, and the city of Jerusalem laid waste; 
while the body of the people were delivered into the hands of bar- 
barous enemies, and taken out of their own into a distant country. 
It is not easy to describe tho feelings of distress and amazement of 
the faithful servants of God whose lot was cast in these dark and 
calamitous times. But in the short book of the "Lamentations' 
of the prophet Jeremiah, who lived in the midst of these scenes, 
there is a heart-touching memorial of them, which gives a faithful 
delineation of this visitation and of its results. 

Yet, painful as these events were, they were remarkably over- 
ruled for the further development of the purposes of God and the 
advancement of true religion. The captivity of the Jews in Babylon 
tended greatly to cure them of the sin of idolatry, to which they 
had been addicted for so many ages ; a result which all their 



THE CAPTIVITY. -^07 

previous warnings, corrections; and judgments. Lad failed to pro- 
duce. It diffused the fear of Jehovah among the heathen, and 
elicited from Cyrus, from Nebuchadnezzar, from Darius, acknow- 
ledgments of his perfections and claims. It also prepared the way 

for the coming of Christ and the dispensation of the gospel, by 
taking away many of those things wherein consisted the glory of 
the Jewish dispensation, and by causing the dispersion of the Jews 
throughout a great part of the known world. Those dispersed 
Jews, carrying with them the holy Scriptures containing the pro- 
phecies of the Messiah, became the means of diffusing some know- 
ledge of the true religion, and of raising, to some extent, a general 
expectation of the coming of the Saviour. 

These events were also of great importance, as presenting a 
striking fulfilment of prophecy. Long before the desolation and 
captivity of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, their relative 
destinies had been foretold. When these two kingdoms stood up 
together at the time of their separation, no human calculation 
could Lave determined which would be the more stable or pros- 
perous of the two. That of Samaria seemed rather to have the 
advantage, considering her greater territory and numbers. But the 
voice of prophecy decided the question. The earliest three prophets 
who refer to this subject, Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah, all announce 
the earlier downfal and the utter desolation of Israel. Israel was 
to be '"broken within threescore and five years," and to "cease 
from being a people." Isa. 7. 6-8; and the Assyrian power was fore- 
shown, by Hosea's prediction, to be the instrument of the Divine 
judgment, Hos. 11. 5, etc. 

T„e captivity of Judah was first expressly foretold in the reign of 
Hezekiah, upon the occasion of his displaying to the ambassad 
from Babylon his treasures, and the wealth and splendour of Lis 
kingdom, Isa. 59. 2: 2 Chron. 32. 27. And the fulness of the pre- 
dictions on the subject of the Babylonish captivity is very remark- 
able. They not only describe the calamity which was about to 
overwhelm the Jewish people, but they disclose the reast is and 
purposes of God's providence in bringing it to pass. They represent 
it as a judicial visitation for an extent of sin and corruption not 
otherwise to be purged away; and as designed, not for punishment 
to their destruction, but for discipline to repentance and humilia- 
tion. They foretell, also, the time of its contmu ,::;, which they' 
limit to seventy years, and its issue, together with the penitent 
state of heart and the course of events on which that issue was to 
depend. The restoration of Judah, an event so little to be expected 
in the ordinary course of things, was foretold as plainly as the 
captivity. See Isa. 14. y. 44. 26-28: 45. 1-4, 13: Jer. 25. 9-13. 

Z2 







08 the restoration: ezra. 



29. 10-14: 50. 4, 5: 5r.: Ezek. 11. 16, 17: 12. 15: 20. 34 ; and 
other passages. 

The characteristic peculiarities of prophecy during this 
period have been already noticed (Part ii.) Its extended 
range and explicit denunciations against the heathen, its 
evangelical disclosures of a coming kingdom, the growing 
.spirituality of its precepts, are all deeply instructive, and are 
rendered appropriate, if not necessary, by the depressed con- 
dition of the Jewish church. 

The Restoration. 

Babylon had now fallen, as had been foretold, and Daniel, 
there is reason to believe, stood high in the esteem of the 
conqueror Cyrus. To that monarch he probably showed the 
predictions of Isaiah, and now that at the end of seventy 
years of captivity Cyrus found the sovereign power in his 
hands, he issued a decree, in which, after acknowledging the 
supremacy of Jehovah, he gave permission to the Jews in 
any part of his dominions to return to their own land, and to 
rebuild the city and temple of Jerusalem. The results of 
this decree, and the subsequent history of the Jews till the 
close of the Old Testament canon, are found in the remaining 
books of the Bible. Attention to the chronological order of 
the books is important. The arrangement will be found in 
Pt. ii. § 6. 

■3 

Sec. 5. The Boohs of Ezra, Haggai, ZechartaJi, Esther, Nehemiah, 

Malachi. 

Hie Booh of Ezra, B. c. 536-457. 

95. Ezra was one of the captives at Babylon, where he was 
probably born. He was the grandson of Seraiah, the chief 
priest, who was slain at the taking of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25 : 
18-21), and therefore a descendant of Aaron. He was a " ready 
scribe/' or rather instructor, in the law of God. He was a 
man of deep humility (9. 10-15), of fervent zeal for God's 
honour (7. 10: 8. 21-23), deeply grieving over the sins of the 
people, and sparing no pains to bring them to repentance 
(9. 3 : 10. 6, 10). He joined the Jews at Jerusalem many 
years after their return, going up thither with the second 
large company. 



EZRA. 509 

Part of the book '4. 8-6. 19: 7. 1-27, is written in Chaldee, and 
consists chieflv of conversations or decrees in that tongue. Ezra 

speaks of himself as the author, in 7. 27, 2? : 8. i ; 25-29: 9. 5. 
The whole period comprehended in the book, extends from 536 tc 
45 ; b. c, or about seventy-nine years. 

The history in this book consists of two portions, separated 
from each other by a considerable interval of time. The ~ : .: 
contains the history of the returning exiles, and of the rebuild- 
ine of the temnie, which had been decreed by Cyrus, in the year 
536 b. c, and completed in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. in the 
515 B. C. The second portion contains the personal history 
of Ezra's journey to Jerusalem, with commission from Artaxerxe?. 

in the year -■-,' b. c. : and his exertions for the reformation of the 
people. 

The contents of the book may be divided as follows : 

(i.) The return of the Jews from their captivity in Babylon, end the 
rebuilding of the temple. 

The proclamation of Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem and 
the temple, chap. 1. The people who returned with Zerubbabel, 
the grandson of king Jehoiachin, and Joshua, the grandson of 
Josedek. with then 1 offerings for the temple, 2. Erection of the 

w of burnt-offering: and laying the foundation of the temple. 3, 
Opposition of the Samaritans, and suspension of the building. 4. 
Prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah: recommencement of the build- 
ing; letter of the Samaritans to Darius, 5. Decree of Darius; corn- 
I letion and dedication of the temple. 6. 

(ii.) Ezrcfs journex to Jerusalem, and the reformations which he 
eted. 

Ezra's commission from Artaxerxes; and his journey from Babylon 
i Jerusalem, with his companions, 7, 8. Ezra's mourning for t 
sins of the people; end confession and prayer, 9. Repentance and 
reformation of the people, 10. 

The book of Ezra should be read in connection with the prophecies 
of Haggai and Zechariah. 

In the return of the Jews from Babylon, we see the fulfilment of 
the prophecies of Isaiah (44. 28;, and Jeremiah (25. 12: 29. 10); 
the former had predicted the name of then deliverer, and the latter 
the exact time of their deliverance, as well as the state of heart with 
which it should be accompanied. This restoration of the Jewish 
church, temple, and worship, was an event of the highest conse- 
quence, as tending to preserve true religion in the world, and pre- 
paring the way for the appearance of the Great Deliverer, an ancestor 
of whom, Zerubbabel, or Sheshbazzar, was appointed in the provi- 
dence of God to lead his people from Babylon. 



fi 



10 EZRA ; HAGGAI. 



This deliverance of the Jewish people is much spoken of by the 
prophets as a most glorious display of the providence of God; and, 
Hke the redemption of their forefathers out of Egypt, it may be 
viewed as a type of the great salvation of Christ, and of the journey 
of his redeemed people to the heavenly Canaan, under the care and 
guidance of God their Saviour, Isa. 32. 2: 42. 16: 51. 11. 

Among the remarkable dispensations of Providence recorded in 
this history, we may notice especially how wonderfully God inclined 
the hearts of several heathen princes, Cyrus, Darius, and Artaxerxes, 
to favour and protect his people, and to aid them in the work of 
rebuilding their city and temple, 1:4: 6: 7. Mark, too, how God 
overruled the opposition of the Samaritans, the decree of Darius 
being much more favourable than that of Cyrus (Ezr. 1. and 5: 6.) 
There is also another display of God's special and discriminating 
providence in fulfilment of his promises to his people. Whilst in 
the land of Samaria, colonies of strangers had been planted, which 
filled the territory of Israel with a heathen race, so as to prevent 
the return of the ancient inhabitants; it appears that, in the land 
of Juddhj full room was left for the return and restoration of the 
Jews. 

Unlike Neheiniah, Ezra seems to have remained at Jeru- 
salem. He is said to have lived to the same age as Moses, 
120 years; and is esteemed by the Jews as next to him for 
the services he rendered to their religion. He appears to 
have exercised civil authority for nearly twelve years. We 
read of him in the next book as employed in his sacred duties, 
and zealously co-operating with Nehemiah, who succeeded 
him in the government, in promoting the reformation of the 
people. 

The Book of Eaggai, B.C. 520-518. 

96. Haggai is generally thought to have been born in the 
captivity, and to have returned from Babylon with Zerub- 
babel (Ezr. 2. 2). He is the first of the three prophets who 
flourished among the Jews after their return to Judaea, and 
was raised up by God to encourage Zerubbabel and Joshua 
the high priest to resume the building of the temple, which 
had been interrupted for nearly fourteen years by the 
Samaritans and others artfully attempting to defeat the edict 
of Cyrus (Ezr. 4. 24). Though this interruption was now 
removed, the Jew T s showed no desire to recommence the 
work. The time they said was not come to build the house 



HAGGAI. oil 

( f the Lord. They were more anxious to build and adorn 
their own houses, to cultivate their fields, and multiply their 
Hocks. This worldliness, however, brought its own punish- 
ment. Thev "looked for much," and "it came to little." 
Drought and mildew were sent to rebuke their neglect of 
what ought to have been their first work, and Haggai and 
Zechariah were raised up to reform and encourage them, i. 
4-1 1 : 2. 15-19 : Zech. 8. 9-12. 

This book contains four prophetic messages (1. 1: 2. 1, ic, 20), 
all delivered in about four months. They are so brief, that they 
are supposed to be only a summary of the original prophecies. 

In the first, Haggai reproves the Jews for neglecting the temple, 
and promises that the Divine favour shall attend its erection. 
Twenty -four days after this prophecy, Zerubbabel and Joshua, 
and all the people, resumed their work, and were encouraged by a 
gracious message from God, chap. 1. 

About four weeks afterwards, the zeal of the people appears to 
have cooled; and manv doubts arose in their minds. To remove 
these, Haggai declares that the Lord of hosts is with them; and 
that the glory of the new temple shall be greater than that of the 
former, ?. 1-9. 

Two months afterwards. Haggai addresses them a third time, 
rebuking their hstlessness, and promising them the Divine blessing 
from the time the foundation of the Lord's house was laid, 
2. 10-19. And on the same day another prophecy was delivered, 
addressed to Zerubbabel, the head and representative of the family 
of David, and the individual with whom the genealogy of the 
Messiah (through both Joseph and Mary: see Matt. 1. 12: Luke 
3.27) began after the captivity, promising the preservation of the 
people of God, amidst the fall and nun of the kingdoms of the 
world, 2. 20-23. 

These signal predictions, which gained for Haggai the character 
of a prophet (Ez. 5. 1: 6. 14), were both referred by the Jews to 
the time of the Messiah, Eph. 2. 14: Heb. 12. 26, 27 (Grotius). 
The second temple was to witness the presence of the Great Teacher 
himself; and though that temple was nearly wholly rebuilt by 
Herod, this was a very gradual work, occupying more than forty- 
six years; nor did Jewish writers ever speak of Herod's temple in 
other terms than as the second. In the closing prediction, Christ 
himself is spoken of under the type of Zerubbabel; and the tem- 
poral commotions which preceded his first coming, and are to pre- 
cede his second, are represented, by the shaking and overthrow of 
earthly kingdoms. 



512 ZECHARIAH. 

The Booh of ZechariaJi, B.C. 520-510. 

97. Zechariah, the son of Barachiah and grandson of Iddo ; 
was probably of the priestly tribe (see Neh. 12. 4), and re- 
turned from Babylon, when quite a youth, with Zerubbabel 
and Joshua. Whether Iddo was himself a prophet is not 
clear (compare Hebrew and LXX). His grandson, Zechariah, 
began to prophesy about two months after Haggai (1. 1 : 
Ezr. 5. 1 : 6. 14: Hag. 1. 1), in the second year of Darius 
Hystaspes, and continued to prophesy for two years, 7. 1. 
He had the same general object as Haggai, to encourage and 
urge the Jews to rebuild the temple. The Jews, we are told, 
"prospered through the prophesying" (Ez. 6. 14), and in 
about six years the temple was finished. 

Zechariah collected his own prophecies (1. 9: 2. 2), and is very 
frequently quoted in the New Testament. Indeed, next to Isaiah, 
Zechariah has the most frequent allusions to the character and 
coming of our Lord. 

The genuineness of the closing chps., 9. -14., has been doubted. 
Mede and others refer them to Jeremiah, deeming the reading in 
Matt. 27. 9, io, and internal evidence, in favour of this view. 
Jahn, Blayney, Hengstenberg, and others, refer the whole to 
Zechariah, and suppose the reading to be, as it easily might be, an 
error of copyists. a 

While the immediate object of Zechariah was to encourage the 
Jews in the restoration of public worship, he has other objects 
more remote and important. His prophecies, like those of Daniel, 
extend to the "times of the Gentiles;" but in Zechariah, the 
history of the chosen people occupies the centre of his predictions ; 
and that history is set forth both in direct prophecy and in sym- 
bolical acts or visions. 

As Zechariah abounds in symbolical imagery, we shall give, 
instead of a brief summary, an outline of his different visions, with 
such interpretations as are approved by eminent commentators. 

98. The book of Zechariah may be divided into three parts: — 

1. Chaps. 1-6, containing nine visions, in addition to the warnings 
given in 1. 1-6. The first showing that, though seventy years had 
elapsed since the ninth of Zedekiah, shortly after which time the 
temple was burned, and all the rest of the earth had rest, the Jewa 

a The name is wanting in some mss. and hi the Syriac ; Za^a^m 
is found in others: and to confound Zom with lot* is easy enough. 



ZECHABIAH : EXPOSITION. o!3 

were still molested; the angel of God (i.e., either Messiah or tlie 
church ; asks how long; and good and comfortable words are spoken 
in reply in the hearing of the prophet, i. 7-17. The prophet then 
sees the horns, or four kingdoms, by whom the Jews had been, or 
were yet to be scattered; and also four carpenters* or helpers, by 
whose aid the horns are to be cast out, 1. 18-21. The prophet has 
now a third vision, of a man with a measuring line, to imply the 
rebuilding and enlargement of Jerusalem: she shall overflow, or 
break down her walls, and Jehovah will be at once a wall of fire 
round about her and the glory in the midst. Ee exhorts the Jews 
still in Babylon to return, and foretells yet larger accessions, 2. 
1-13. He then predicts the increased purity of the priesthood in 
the person of Joshua, thence he passes to the office of Christ, as a 
Branch out of David's root (Isa. 4. 2 : Jer. 23. 5: 33. 15): a Stone for 
a foundation, having seven eyes, to indicate his perfect intelligence, 
and Divinely engraven or adorned. In his day all shall dwell safely 
and in peace, 3. 1-10. In the fifth vision, the prophet sees a golden 
candlestick, supplied by two olive-trees dropping their oil into it ; 
and these show how, by the Spirit of the Lord in Zerubbabel and 
Joshua, the temple and the church should be completed, without 
external help (ver. 6), and against all opposition (ver. 7), 4. 1-14: 
compare ver. 12 and Rev. 11. 4. He is then taught, by the vision 
of a flying roll, the swift judgments that are to fall upon thieves 
and false-swearers : by another, of an ephah, or measure, and a 
woman sitting upon it with a talent of lead upon her, and two 
winged women carrvins; the whole to Shinaar, he is tausrht the 
heavy judgment of some nation that has filled up the measure of her 
iniquity an'd is to be established and settled in the Fast, 5. 1-4, 5 -n. 
In the eighth vision, mountains — fixed Divine purposes — are seen to 
send out chariots and horses, instruments of Divine providence. 
They quiet the spirit of the prophet (ver. 8: compare Judg. 8. 3), 
by inflicting punishment upon Babylon (ver. 8: compare Jer. 1. 
14). a In the closing vision, b Joshua is seen crowned with two 
crowns of silver and gold, and becomes in that condition a type of 
Christ, the Branch, who uniting in himself the priestly and kingly 
offices, is to build the temple and bear the glory, 6. 1-15. 

2. Chaps. 7, 8. In the second part, messengers from Babylon 

a Probably the four chariots denote the four empires of Daniel's 

vision; the red horses, the Babylonians; the black, the Persians, 

who overthrew Babylon; the white, the Macedonians, who were 

peaceful to the Jews ; and the spotted bay, the Romans. The 

general import is at least clear. 

b Or svmbolical action, 

z 3 



514 zechariah: exposition. 

come to learn from the prophet whether God had sanctioned the 

new fasts instituted at the commencement of the captivity for the 
destruction of the city and temple. The prophet replies that God 
had not sanctioned them, and that what he requires is a return to 
obedience, which the messengers, or people, refuse, 7. 1-14. Pro- 
phecies, intermixed with warnings, follow: fasting seasons are to 
become cheerful feasts, and the Jews are to be a universal blessing, 
8. 1-23: ver. 13, 23. 

3. Chaps. 9-14. The third part contains the history of the Jews, 
and of the church, to the end of time. Syria, Tyre, and Sidon, are 
to be conquered, though the house of the Lord will be preserved, 
even while heathen armies, and Alexander (9. 6), pass through the 
land: and at length Messiah is to come and establish a peaceful 
kingdom, which shall finally extend over the earth (ver. 9': Matt. 
21. 4, 5): 9. 1-17. Idols are to be everywhere abandoned, Judah, 
and even Ephraim restored, (ver. 7): 10. 1-12. A sad scene, how- 
ever, is to intervene. The destruction of Jerusalem is again fore- 
told, in terms taken probably from the history of her first over- 
throw, the prophetic office is to be in the lowest repute (ver. 12), 
the wands or crooks, symbolical of the shepherd's office, are broken, 
and false hireling shepherds are honoured : all which has its fulfil- 
ment in the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, in the impious 
rejection of Christ by the Jews, the mean undervaluation of him 
by Judas, and the powerlessness and ignorance of the Jewish rulers ; 
"the arm dried up, and the right eye darkened," (ver. 17): 11. 1-17. 
Nevertheless, Jerusalem shall be a burdensome stone to all nations. 
The Jews shall mourn over their sins, and especially over the sin 
that destroyed them, the crucifixion of our Lord (John 19. 37), and 
all shall be forgiven, 12. 1.-13. 1. The idols shall be cut off; false 
prophets shall cease; the prophetic office itself, shall bring persecu- 
tion; the shepherd being smitten, the sheep shall be scattered, 
though a remnant of them shall survive the overthrow of the Jewish 
state, 13. 2-9. Jerusalem, however, will be destroyed, and the 
people scattered. Christ shall ascend from Olivet, and thence shall 
Jewish Christians be forced out by persecutions, and extend the 
church on all sides, the barriers which surrounded the Jewish 
people and state being removed. a Then, and for long after, the 
church is to remain in a state of mingled prosperity and suffering, 
and at the close, not night, but day more glorious than ever, shall 

a Some, however, regard this prediction on the clearing of Mount 
Olivet, as referring to the coming of our Lord, in his premillenial 
glory (see Pt. i. § 447). The view given above, is taken chiefly from 
Leifchild's Help. 



ESTHER. 513 

i 
shine over all the earth, and the world shall become {i Holiness 

imto the Lord/' 14. 

It may be added that, in the version of the LXX, several 
Psalms are ascribed to Haggai and Zechariah (13S, 146-148) ; 
and though nothing can be decided with certainty as to 
these particular Psalms, it is highly probable that both 
prophets were concerned in the composition of some of those 
which were produced after the return from captivity. 

Tne Boole of Esther, B.C. 462-452. 

99. But few comparatively of the Jews availed themselves 
of the privilege to return to the land of their fathers. Most 
of the existing race had been born in Babylonia ; they had 
made that country their home, and had gathered around 
them comforts which were not easily abandoned. Not more 
than 50,000 persons had gone up under Zerubbabel ; and the 
second band, under Ezra, more than seventy years later, 
numbered in all about 6,000 persons. Yet later, other bands 
probably sought the city and temple of God, but even still 
the great bulk of the people remained in the land of their 
exile. 

Some suppose that this book was written by Mordecai; but the 
more probable opinion (and one which may account for the omission 
of the name of God) is, that it is an extract from the records of Persia. 
The Asiatic sovereigns, it is well known, caused annals of their 
reigns to be kept. Numerous passages in the Books of Kings and 
Chronicles, prove that the kings of Israel and Judah had such annals. 
And this book itself attests, that Ahasuerus had similar historical 
records, 2. 23: 6. 1; from which it appears probable that this his- 
tory of the Jews, under queen Esther, might be derived, see chap. 
10. 2.. This supposition accounts for the retaining of the Persian 
word Purim, 9. 24-32; for the details given concerning the empire 
of Ahasuerus : and for the exactness with which the names of his 
ministers, and of Hainan's sons are recorded; also for the Jews 
being mentioned only in the third person, and Esther being fre- 
quently designated by the title of " the queen," and Zvlordecai by 
the epithet of li the Jew," It would also account for those pa- 
rentheses which occur in the course of the narrative; the object of 
which appears to have been to give illustrations necessary for a 
Jewish reader; and for the abrupt termination of the narrative, by 
one sentence relative to the power of Ahasuerus, and another con- 
cerning Mordecai's greatness. 



518 ESTHEil : NEHEMIAH. 

The facts here related, come in between the sixth and seventh 
chapters of Ezra. The institution of the festival of Purim, and its 
continued observance to the present time, is an evidence of the 
truth of this book. It has always been received as canonical by 
the Jews, who hold it in the highest veneration. 

The contents of this book may be thus stated: 

It relates the royal feast of Ahasuerus, and the divorce of Vashti, 
chap. i. The elevation of Esther to the Persian throne, and the 
service rendered to the king by Mordecai, in detecting a plot agaiust 
his life, 2. The promotion of Haman, and his purposed destruc- 
tion of the Jews, 3 . The consequent affliction of the Jews, and the 
measures taken by them, 4. The defeat of Hainan's plot against 
Mordecai, through the instrumentality of Esther; the honour done 
to Mordecai; and the execution of Haman, 5, 6, 7. The defeat of 
Hainan's general plot against the Jews; the institution of the fes- 
tival of Purim, in commemoration of this deliverance; and Mor- 
decai's advancement, 8, 9, 10. 

The book of Esther shows how these Jews, though scattered 
among the heathen, were preserved, even when doomed by others 
to destruction. Though the name of God is not found in the 
book, his hand is plainly seen, anticipating threatened evil, de- 
feating and overruling it to the greater good of the Jews, and even 
of the heathen, 1, 2, 4-10. Nor was it the safety of -the Jews in 
Babylon only that was in peril; if Haman had succeeded, as the 
power of Persia was then supreme at Jerusalem, and throughout 
Asia, the Jews, throughout the world, must have perished, and 
with them, the whole of the visible church of God. 

Mark and admire the providence of God, using what seems the 
most trifling circumstance to accomplish his will (6). Mark also 
the faith of Mordecai, whose fear of the unalterable Persian decree 
was less than his trust in the faithfulness of God (4. 14). Though 
he knew not how, he foresaw indemnity to Israel ; and he asks the 
aid of Esther, rather for her honour^ than for their deliverance. 



The Booh of Nehemiah, B.C. 445-428. 

100. This book was anciently united with Ezra, thougn 
written or compiled by Nehemiah. Chap. 7. 6-73 was pro- 
bably compiled, ver. 5 ; as was 12. 1-26 (ver. 23). In the 
rest there are clear proofs of Nehemiah's authorship (see 
1.-7. and 12. 27-43 : 13. 6-31. 

The book of "N"ehemiah takes up the history of the Jews, about 
twelve years after the close of the book of Ezra; and it .gives an 



NEHEMIAH. 517 

account of the imurovements in the city of Jerusalem, and of the 
reformations among the people, which were carried on by Xehemiah. 
Though the temple had been rebuilt under the administration of 
Ezra, the walls and gates of the city were yet in the state of rum 
in which the ChaMaeans had left them; and consequently, the in- 
habitants were exposed to the assault of every enemy. Xehemiah 
was the instrument raised up for their protection. Though a Jew 
and a captive, he had been, through the overruling providence of 
God, appointed cup-bearer to the king of Persia; an office which 
was one of the most honourable and confidential at the court. 
Though thus in the midst of ease and wealth, yet when he heard of 
the mournful condition of his countrymen, he was deeply affiicted 
by it. He made it the subject of earnest prayer; and after four 
months, the sadness of his countenance having revealed to the king 
his sorrow of heart, an opportunity was given him of petitioning 
for leave to go to Jerusalem. The king (probably influenced by 
Esther, his queen), appointed Xehemiah governor of Jerusalem, 
with a commission to rebuild the walls, and protect the people, i : 
2. 1-8. 

The rebuilding of the city wall was accomplished in fifty-two days, 
notwithstanding the difficulties created by Sanballat and Tobiah, 
who were leading men in the rival colonv of Samaria; thev first 
scoffed at the attempt, then threatened to attack the workmen, 
and finally used various stratagems to weaken Xeherniah's authority, 
and even to take his life. In addition to these dangers from with- 
out, Nehemiah encountered hindrances from his own people, arising 
out of the general distress, which was aggravated by the cruel 
exactions of the nobles and rulers. These grievances were redressed 
on the earnest remonstrance of Xehemiah, who had himself set a 
striking example of economy in his office. It appears, also, that 
some of the chief men in Jerusalem were at that time in conspiracy 
"with Tobiah against Xehemiah, 2. 9-20: 3.-6. Thus the wall was 
built in " troublous times," Dan. 9. 23; and its completion was 
joyously celebrated bv a solemn dedication under Xehemiah's 
direction, 12. 27-43. 

Xehemiah next turned his attention to other measures for the 
imblic good. He appointed various officers, 7. 1-3: 12. 44-47; 
and excited among the people more interest in religion, by the 
public exposition of the law; by an unexampled celebration of the 
feast of tabernacles, and the observance of a national fast; and by 
inducing the people to enter into a solemn covenant " to walk in 
God's law," 8. -10. 

The inhabitants of the city being as vet too few to insure its 
prosperity, Xehemiah brought one out of every ten in the country 



518 nehemiah: malachi. 

to take up his abode in the ancient capital, which then presented 
so few inducements to the settler, that " the people blessed all 
the men that willingly offered themselves to dwell at Jerusalem/' 
7. 4: ir. 1-19. In all these important public proceedings, Nehe- 
miah appears to have enjoyed the assistance of Ezra. 

After about twelve years (5. 14), Nehemiah returned to Babylonia; 
he subsequently went back to Jerusalem, and exerted himself to 
promote the further reformation of his countrymen, particularly in 
the correction of those abuses which had crept in during his absence, 
13. The whole administration of Nehemiah is supposed to have 
lasted about thirty-six years, and with this book closes the History 
of the Old Testament. 

Nehemiah presents a noble example of true patriotism, founded 
on the fear of God (5. 15), and seeking the religious 
welfare of the state. His respect for the Divine law, 
his reverence for the sabbath (13. 18), his devout acknowledge- 
ment of God in all things (1. n: 2. 18), his practical perception of 
God's character (4. 14: 9. 6-33), his union of watchfulness and 
prayer (4. 9, 20), his humility in ascribing all good in himself to 
the grace of God (2. 12: 7. 5), are all highly commendable. In the 
ninth chapter, we have an instructive summary of the history of the 
Jews, in its most important light, showing at once what God is, and 
what men are. Few books, indeed, of the Bible, contain a richer 
illustration of Divine philosophy — that is, of true religion taught 
by example. 

The Booh of Malachi, B.C. 420-397. 

101. Malachi ("my messenger") is the last of the Old Testa- 
ment prophets, as Nehemiah is the last of the historians ; 
and the time of his ministry nearly coincides with Nehemiah's 
administration. The second temple was now built, aud the 
service of the altar, with its offerings and sacrifices, was 
established ; for it is a profane and insincere spirit in that 
service, especially among the priests, which he labours to 
correct. He complains also that divorces and intermarriages 
with idolaters have greatly multiplied — the very evils which 
Nehemiah so earnestly condemns. a He lived between the 
years 436 and 397 b. c. 

Malachi begins his message by reminding the Jews how God had 
preferred them to Edom, and upbraids them with their ungrateful 

a Mai. 2. n, compare Neh. 13. 23-27: Mai. 2. 8: 3. 8, 10: Neh. 13. 
TO, II, 29. 



REIGNS OF REHOBOAM AND JEROBOAM. 



510 



returns; he reproves the priests (i. 6: 2. i), and the people (2. 11); 
alludes to the Divine institution that made two one flesh, ver. 15, 
that the seed might be holy; threatens all with punishment and 
rejection, declaring, that God will " make his name great among 
the Gentiles/' for that he was wearied with the impiety of Israel, 
1: 2. 

He then proclaims the approach of Christ to that temple, and his 
purification by doctrine, judgment, and mercy, of both service and 
worshippers, marking the happiness of the select few, who in 
corrupt times, take counsel together for religious ends, whom God 
will preserve, manifesting at last to all men, that they are his 
own, 3.-4. 1. 

He closes the book, with an assurance of approaching salvation, 
predicts the coming of the harbinger of the Sun of righteousness, 
and enjoins, till that day, the observance of the lav/, Luke 1. 17. 

102. The last predictions of Scripture, therefore, are like 
the earliest. They rebuke corruption and promise deliverance. 
They uphold the authority of the first dispensation and reveal 
the second. The prophet is still the teacher ; and his last 
words are of the law and spiritual obedience, and again of the 
gospel and its healing glory, 4. 2. 

Sec. 6. The ivhole Arranged and Epitomized. 

From the Death of Solomon till the close of the Canon. 
103. (1.) History of the Tim Kingdoms. 



JUDAH. 

Rehoboam, king (17 years), 

1 Kings 14. 21, f.p. (Judah): 

2 Chron. 12. 13, f.p. 
{reigned) . 

Rehoboam, preparing to at- 
tack the ten tribes, is for- 
bidden by Shemaiah, 

1 Kings 12. 21-24: j 
2 Chron. n. 1-4. 
Rehoboam fortifies his king- 
dom ; the priests and Le- 
vites of Israel resort to him, 
Rehoboam's familv, 

[2 Chron. n. 5-23]. 



B.C. 

976 

[975. 

Usher] 



974 



Israel. 
Jeroboam, king (22 years); 
he establishes himself at 
Sheehem, 1 Kings 12. 25. 



Jeroboam, having set up 
golden calves at Dan and 
Bethel, is reproved by a 
Man of God, 1 Kings 12. 
26-33: 13. 1-10. 



Note. — The names of prophets are here printed in bold type, 
of new kings in Roman capitals, and of the first kings of new 
dynasties in Italic capitals. 



520 



ABIJAH : ASA : NADAB : BAASHA. 



JlJDAH. 



B.C. 



Rehoboam's and Judah's 

idolatry, i Kings 14. 22-24: 

2 Chron. 12. 1. 
Shishak plunders Jerusalem, 

1 Kings 14. 25-28: 2 Chron. 

12. 2-12. 
Character and death of Reho- 

boam, 1 Kings 14. 21, Lp. 

29-31: 2 Chron. 12. 13, I. p. 

14-16. 
Abijah, or Abijam, king (3 

years), 1 Kings 15. 1, 2, 6: 

2 Chron. 13. 1, 2. 

Abijah defeats Jeroboam in 

battle, 2 Chron. 13. 3-21. 
His heart not perfect. 

Character and death of Abijah. 
Asa, king (41 years), 
1 Kings 15. 3-10: 2 Chron. 
13. 22: 14. 1. 



973 



972 

[970, 
Usher] 

959 

[95 a, 

Usher] 

959 

[958, 
Usher] 

958 

95 7 
956 



95 



Asa puts away idolatry and 
strengthens his kingdom, 
1 Kings 15. ifc-15 : 2 Chron. 
14. 2-8: 15. 16-18. 
Asa's victory over the Ethi- 
opians, 2 Chron. 14. 9-15. 
Moved by Azariah, Asa makes 
a solemn covenant with God, 
2 Chron. 15. 1-15, 19. 
Asa bribes Ben-hadad, king of 
Syria, to attack Baasha, 

1 Kings 15. 16-22. 
Asa, reproved by Hanani for 

applying to Ben-hadad, puts 
him in prison, 

2 Chron. 16. 7-10. 
His idolatrous alliance with Syria, 

and bis imprisonment of the pro- 



953 



95i 



944 
942 

941 



Israel. 

Seduced by an old prophet of 
Bethel, the Man of God dis- 
obeys the word of the Lord, 
and is slain by a lion, 

1 Kings 13. 11-32. 

These calves borrowed from 
Egypt, where Jeroboam had 
resided. 

Twice warned, by the Man of 

God and by Ahijah, yet 

persisting in his idolatry. 
The step seemed politic. It seemed 
a form of worship something like 
that established at Jerusalem, and 
attracted the tribes, but in the end 
it proved the ruin of the kingdom. 



Ahijah denounces Jeroboam, 
] Kings 13. 33, 34: 14. t-i8. 

Very touching is the narrative of the 
visit of the wife of the king of 
Israel to Ahijah, to learn the fate 
of her sick, but pious son, 14. 

Jeroboam's death. Nadab, 

king (2 years), 1 Kings 14. 

19, 20: 15. 25, 26. 

Nadab slain at Gibbethon. 

Baasha, king (24 years), 

1 Kings 15. 27-34. 



Baasha, attempting to build 

Ramah, is attacked by the 

king of Syria, 
2 Chron. 16. 1-6. 
Ver. 1, i.e., the 36th year of Asa's 

kingdom (Lft.), or read 24th 

(Hales). 



ASA : JEHOSHAPHAT : ZIMRI : AHAZIAH. 



521 



JUDAH. 

pbet, after all his reformations, 
prove his ruin. In his sickness, 
he trusts not in God, but in his 
physicians. 



B. C. 

93 1 



930 



Asa's death. Jehoshaphat, 
king (25 years) ; his piety 
and prosperity, 
1 Kings 15. 23, 24: 22. 41- 
47: 2 Chron. 16. 11-14: 17. 
1:20.31-35: 17. 2-19: com- 
pare ver. 6 and 20. 33. 

His great error is his alliance with 
Ahab, whose daughter, Athaliah, 
his son Jehorara marries. Hence 
his expedition to Ramoth, which 
nearly cost him his Ufe. 



926 



Jehoshaphat visits Ahab, and 
joins with him in battle 
against the Syrians, 

2 Chron. 18. 

Jehoshaphat reproved by Jehu 
for joining with Ahab. He 
visits his kingdom, and ex- 
horts the judges, etc., to be 
faithful, 2 Chron. 1 9 : Psa. 8 2 . 

Overthrow of Moab, etc. Je- 
horara regent, 2 Chron. 20. 
1-30: Psa. 115 : 46. 

Jehoshaphat joins Ahaziah. 
Being reproved, and his 
ships wrecked, he refuses 
to join in a subsequent ex- 
pedition, 1 Kings 22. 48, 
49: 2 Chron. 20. 35, 37. 

Afterwards joins Joram a- 
gainst Moab, and is saved 
only by a miracle, 2 Kings 3. 



917 

915 
[914 

to 

912, 

Usher] 

910 

to 

906 



902 
and 



gor 

900 



898 



897 



Israel. 
Baasha denounced by Jeiiu; 
his death. Elah, king (2 
years), t Kings 16. 1-8. 

Elah slain. Zimri, king (7 
days) ; destroys Baasha's 
house. Omri elected king. 
Zimri destroys himself, 

1 Kings 16. 9-20. 
Omri, king (12 years, in- 
cluding 6 years' civil war 
with Tibni) . Samaria built, 
1 ICings 16. 21-26. 
Omri dies. Ahab, king (22 
years). Jericho rebuilt by 
Hiel, who reaps Joshua's 
curse, 1 Kings 16. 27-34. 
1 Kings 16. 25, comp. Mic. 6. 26: 
1 Kings 16. 34 : Josh. 6. 26. 

Elijah prophesies a famine; 
raises the widow's son; his 
trial with the prophets of 
Baal. Elisha a prophet, 

1 Kings 1 7. -19. 

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria. 
The Syrians twice defeated. 

• Ahab denounced, 1 Kings 20. 

Ahab seizes Naboth's vine- 
yard. Elijah denounces 
him, 1 Kings 21. 

Ahab makes war on Syria, and 
is slain, as Micaiah pre- 
dicted. Ahaziah, king, 

1 Kings 22. 1-35, 36-40, 51-53. 
[Ver. 39: see Arnos 3. 15.] 



Psa. 82 placed here from internal 
evidence, (Towns.) 



Psa. 115 and 46 (Wells, Rosenmul). 

The schools of the prophets (Naioth), 
1 Sam. 10. 10 : 19. 20 : 2 Kings 2. 2, 
seem to have trained at this time 
a large number of religions 
teachers. 



Ahaziah falling sick and send- 
ing to inquire of Baalzebub, 
is denounced by Elijah, 



522 



JEKORAM : AHAZIAH : JORA.M. 



JUDAH. 

On the trade between Judaea and 
Irxdia, see Prid. Con. i. p. 7. 
[On 2 ChroD. 20. 13 : see Joel 2. 16.] 



2 Kings 9. 2, 13. Head, therefore, in 
1 Kings 19. 16, grandson; and by 
Elijah anointing Jehu, understand, 
ordering Elisha to do it. Jehu 
was anointed to exterminate the 
house of Ahab. 



Jehoram begins to reign in 
consort with Jehoshaphat, 
2 Kings 8. 16. 

2 Chron. 21. 5. Three dates are given 
for the beginning of Jehoram's 
reign : b. c. 897, when he was re- 
gent during his father's absence 
(2 Kings 1. 1*] 3. 1) ; 891, (2 Kings 
8. 16); and 889, (Lit.) 

Death of Jehoshaphat. Je- 
horam, or Joram, king (8 
years); his wicked and 
troubled reign. Elijah's let- 
ter, written before his trans- 
hition, brought to him, 
1 Kings 22. 45, 50: 2 Kings 
8. 17-22: 2 Chron. 20. 34: 

21. 1-18. 

Ahaziah begins to reign as 
viceroy to his father, 

2 Kings 9. 29. 

Death of Jehoram. Aha- 
ziah, king (1 year) ; his 
evil reign, 2 Kings 8. 23, 
24, 25-27: 2 Chron. 21.19, 

20: 22. 1-4 

Ahaziah joins Joram against 
Hazael, and afterwards 
visits him at Jezreel, 

2 Kings 8. 28, 29. 

Ahaziah slain by Jehu, 

2 Chron. 22. 7-9. 



894 



893 
892 



b. c. I Israel. 

Jehoram, or Joram, his 

brother, king (12 years), 
2 Kings 1: 3. 1-3 

Elijah translated. Elisha ac- 
knowledged as his successor; 
his miracles, 2 Kings 2. 

Joram, joined by Jehoshaphat 
and the king of Edom, de- 
feats Moab, 2 Kings 3. 4-27. 

Elisha multiplies the widow's 
oil; promises a son to the 
Shunam te ., 2 Kings 4. 1-17. 
I Xaanian healed, 2 Kings 5 . 
j Elisha causes iron to swim; 
discloses the Syrian king's 
purpose, and smites his 
army with blindness, 

2 Kings '). r-23. 

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria; 
severe famine ensues ; plenty 
restored by the sudden 
flight of the Syrians, 

2 Kings 6. 24-33: 7. 

Elisha raises to life the wi- 
dow's son : other miracles, 
2 Kings 4. 18-44: 8. 1, 2. 

2 Kings 4. 44. This is Elisha's twelfth 
miracle, Elijah having wrought 
six. Townsend places 4. 18 alter 
4. 17; but there is clearly an in- 
terval of two years or so between 
them. 

2 Chron. 21. 12. Elijah's letter, Lft. 
thinks, was sent to Jehoram in 
897. Hales reads Elisha. Wall 
supposes another Elijah. Tatrick 
and others take the view given 
op£ in the opposite column. 



891 



890 



889 
to 

887 



885 Return of the Shunammite. 
Hazael kills Ben-hadad and 
becomes, as Elisha pre- 
dicted, king of Syria, 

2 Kings 8. 3-15. 
884 Joram, being wounded in bat- 
tle by the Syrians, retires 
to Jezreel, 
2 Chr^n. 22. 5, 6. 
Jehu anointed, 2 Kings 9. 1-13 
Joram slain by Jehu, 
2 Kings 9. 14-28. 



JOASH : AMAZIAH : JEHU : JOASH. 



523 



JuDAH. 

[Athaliah usurps the 
throne (6 years). Joash, 
the sou of Ahaziah, rescued], 
2 Kings ii. 1-3: 2 Chron. 

22. 10-12. 

Jehoash, or Joash. king 

(40 years). Athaliah slain, 

2 Kings 11.4-12.2:2 Chron. 

23.-24. 3. 



Joash repairs the temple, 
2 Kings 12. 4-. 6: 2 Chron. 

24. 4-14. 
Death of Jehoiada, 

2 Chron. 24. 15, 16. 



Joash and the people fall into 
idolatry ; Zechariah, re- 
proving them, is slain in 
the temple-court (of. Matt. 
23.35). The Syrians invade 
Joash, 2 Chron. 24. 17-22, 
23, 24: 2 Kings 12. 17, 18. 

Joash slain by his servants. 
Amaziah, king (29 years), 
2 Kings 12. 19-21: 14. 1-6: 
2 Chron. 24. 25-27: 25. 1-4. 



Amaziah hires an arnry of Is- 
raelites to assist him against 
Edom, but at a prophet's 
command he sends them 
back, 2 Chron. 25. 5-10. 

Amaziah smites the Edomites 
and worships their gods, 
2 Chron. 25. 11: 2 Kings T4. 
7: 2 Chron. 25. 12, 14-16. 

Amaziah provokes the king of 



B.C. 

883 



877 
860 

850 

849 

842 

841 

840 



Israel. 

Jehu, king (28 years); slays 

Jezebel, Ahab's sons, Aha- 

ziah's brethren, and Baal's 

worshippers, 

2 Kings 9. 30-37: 10. 1-3 1. 



838 



Hazael oppresses Israel, 

2 Kings 10. 32, ^. 
Death of Jehu. Jehoahaz, 
king (17 years), 
2 Kings 10. 34-36: 13. 1, 2. 
History of Jonah, 

Jon. 1. -4.? [See 808]. 

Israel given over by God to 

Hazael and Ben-hadad. and 

delivered, 2 Kings 13. 1-7. 

Jehoash begins to reign in 

consort with Jehoahaz, 

2 Kings 13. 10. 



Death of Jehoahaz. Jeho- 
ash, or Joash, king (16 
years). He visits Elisha, 
who promises three vic- 
tories. Hazael dies, 2 Kings 
13. 8, 9, 11, 14-19, 22-24. 

Elisha dies. A corpse thrown 
into Elisha's sepulchre re- 
vives, 2 Kings 13. 20, 21. 

Jehoash thrice beats the 
Syrians, 2 Kings 13. 25. 



The Israelites, who had been 
dismissed bv Amaziah, 
plunder the cities of Judah 
as they return, 

2 Chron. 25. 13. 



826 Jehoash defeats the king of 



838 

836 
827 



bU 



UZZIAH : JEROBOAM II. : PEKAH. 



JUDAH. 

Israel to battle, and is taken 
prisoner by him, 

2 Kings 14. 8-14. 



B.C. 



Amaziah slain. Uzziah, or 
Azariah, king (52 years). 
During the days of Zecha- 
riah he reigns well, 
2 Kings 14. 17-22 : 15. 1-4: 
2 Chron. 25. 25 : 26. 15. 



Amos 7. 10-19, Lighifoot and others 
place after 2 Kings 14. 28. 

On the increase of Uzziah's 
army, Joel foretells the over- 
throw of Judah, Joel 1.-3. 



llos. i : 2 : 3. So Lightfoot, Gray, 
and others: see 1. 1. The three 
children have names given to 
them, indicating the place of the 
wickedness of the house of Ahab 
(ver. 4; see 1 Kings 21. 1); their 
punishment, not finding mercy in 
calamity, and their rejection, no 
longer the people of God. They 
are, however, to be gathered again 
under Messiah, their one Head, 
ver. 11 ; ver. 7, see 2 Kings 19. 35. 



Uzziah struck with leprosy 
for invading the priest's 
office. Jotham, regent, 
2 Kings 15. 5 : 2 Chron. 26. 

16-20, 21. 

2 Kings 15. 5, several, i. e., lone or 
separate, see 120. 



823 



822 



808 
to 

800 



801 

793 

787 

783 



77* 



770 



769 

765 
761 

759 



Israel. 

Judah, and plunders the 
temple, 

2 Chron. 25. 17-24. 

Death of Jehoash. Jero- 
boam 11., king (41 years); 
he reigns wickedly, 2 Kings 
13. 12, 13: 14. 15, 16, 23,24. 

Jeroboam restores the coast 
of Israel according to the 
word of Jonah, 

2 Kings 14. 25-27. 

[Jonah 1. -4.?] See B.C. 850. 



Hosea makes his first appeal 
to the ten tribes, [Hos. 1.-3.] 

Amos denounces judgment a- 
gainst the surrounding na- 
tions, and against Israel and 
Judah, [Amos. 1.-9.] 

1. 3, see 2 Kings 16. 9 ; ver. .6, see 
2 Kings 18. 8 ; 1. 8, see 2 Ghr. 26. 
6; ver. 11, see Numb. 20. 14; 5. 
27, see 2 Kings 10. 32 : 17. 6. 

Death of Jeroboam, 

2 Kings 14 28, 29. 

An interregnum for eleven yea?^s. 

State of Israel during the 
interregnum. Hosea de- 
nounces judgment, [Hos. 4]. 

Zechariah, fourth from Jehu, 
king (6 months). Shallum 
slays him, 2 Kings 15. 8-12. 

Shallum, king (1 month). 
Menahem slays him, 

2 Kings 15. 13-15. 

Menahem, king (10 years); 
2 Kings 15. 16-18. 

Pul, of Assyria, coming a- 
gainst Israel, is bribed to 
return, 2 Kings 15. 19, 20. 



Death of Menahem. Peka- 
hiah, king (2 years), 

2 Kings 15. 21-24. 
Pekahiah slain by Pekah. 
Pekah, king (20 years), 

2 Kings 15. 25-28. 



JOTHAM : HEZEKIAH : HOSHEA. 



525 



JUDAH. 

Isaiah, designated in a vision 
to the prophetic office. He 
prophesies of Christ's king- 
dom, and of judgment on j 
the people for their sins, 
Isa. i. i : 6: 2 : 3 : 4: 5 . 

Death of Uzziah. Jotham, 
king (16 years); his pros- 
perity, 2 Kings 15 . 6, 7, 
32-35: 2 Chron. 26. 22, 23: 

27. 1-6. 

Micah reproves the wicked- 
ness of Judah, Mic. 1: 2. 

Judah begins to be afflicted 

by Syria and Israel. Death 

of Jotham, 2 Kings 15. 

36-38: 2 Chron. 27. 7-9. 

Ahaz, king (16 years), 2 Kings 
16. 1, 2-4: 2 Chron. 28. 1-4. 

Invasion of Pekah and Rezin. 
Isaiah prophesies on the oc- 
casion, denouncing Ahaz's 
intended alliance with As- 
syria, 2 Kings 16. 5: 
Isa. 7.-9.: 10. 1-4. 

Isaiah prophesies the ruin of 
Damascus and of the ten 
tribes, Isa. 17. 

Judah devastated by Syria 
and Israel ; the latter restore 
their captives, by advice of 
Oded, 2 Chron. 28. 5-15. 

Ahaz, being assailed by ene- 
mies, hires Tiglath-pileser, 
the king of Assyria, against 
them. Obadiah and Isaiah, 
2 Kings 16. 6-8, 9: 2 Chron. 
28. 16, 21, 17-19, 20: 

Obad. : Isa. 1. 2-31: 28. 

Sacrilege and idolatry of Ahaz, 
2 Chron. 28, 22, 23-25 : 
2 Kings 16. 10-18 : Hos. 5 : 6. 

Gbad. On order, see 2 Chron. 28. 17. 



Death of Ahaz, 2 Kings 16. 

19, 20: 2 Chron. 28. 26, 27: 

Isa. 14. 28-32. 

Hezekiah, king (29 years), 

2 Kings 18. 1, 2: 2 Chron. 

29. i.l 



B. C. 

757 



756 



753 
742 



740 



740 



738 



730 
726 



Israel. 
[Isa. 1.1. On this order, see Town- 
send, 2. 230. 
Isa. 7.-10. 4. On the order, compare 

7 1 with 2 Kings 16. 5. 
Isa. 1. 2-31. On order, see ver. 7, 8, 

comp.with 2 Chron. 28. 6-9. 
Isa. 6. 1, see John 12. 41. 
Isa. 6. 13, see 2 Kings 25. 12. 
Isa. 2 19, see Rev. 6. 15. 
2 Chron. 27. 2, see chap. 26. 19. 
Isa. 7. 8, see 2 Kings 17. 24. 
Reign of Ahaz . . 15 
Hezekiah. 29 
2nd Manas. 21 



» 



» 



65 years. 
Isa. 7. 16, see 2 Kings 15. 29. 
Isa. 8. 1, a man's pen, i.e., common 
writing; see Rev. 13. 18 : 21. 17. 

Mie. 1. 5, see 1 Kings 16. 32, 
Mic. 1.13, see Jer. 34. 7.] 



Isa. 17., see 2 lungs 16. 9: 18. 11. 



Tiglath-pileser ravages Gilead, 
Galilee, and Xaphtali, and 
carries captive their in- 
habitants to Assyria, 

2 Kings 15. 29. 

Isa. 5. 21, see 2 Sam. 5. 20." 
Pekah slain by Hoshea, 

2 Kings 15. 3c, 31. 
[On date, see 558 c]. 

Anarchy for nine years. 
Hoshea, king (9 years). 
Shalmaneser, king of As- 
syria, invades his territory 
and makes him a tributary, 
2 Kings 17. 1-3. 

Isa. 14. 28-32, against Philistia, see 
2' Chron. 26. 6. Ahab, who sub- 
dued them, was dead ; but a cock- 



52G 



CAPTIVITY OF 1SRA1X. 



JlJDAH. 

Reformation by Hezekiah, 
2 Kings 18. 3, 4-6: 2 Chron. 
29. 2, 3-36: 30: 31, 

Moab denounced, Isa. 15: 16. 

Micah supports Hezekiah's re- 
formation, Mic. 3.-7. 

See Jer. 26. 18 : Mic. 



Hezekiah's prosperity, 

2 Kings id. 7, 8. 



Prophecy of the restoration 
of the ten tribes, of the 
punishment of Egypt, and 
conversion of Egypt and 
Assyria, Isa. 18: 19. 



B.C. 



■ ■11 
#0 



723 



721 



Israel. 

atricc out of that nest, Hezekiah, 
was still to bite them, 2 Kings 18. 8. 

Isa. 15. The destruction of Moab by 
Shahnaneser foretold. They are 
exhorted to renew their tribute, 
16. 1 ; see 2 Kings j. 4. 

Hoshea attacked and impri- 
soned by Shalmaneser for 
not giving the tribute. 
Hosea predicts the captivity 
of the ten tribes, and ex- 
horts to repentance, 
2 Kings 17. 4: Hos. 7. -14. 

Comp. on order Hos. 12. 1. 

Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, 

2 Kings 17. 5 : 18, 9. 

The ten tribes carried into 

captivity unto Assyria, 

2 Kings 17. 6-23 : 18. 10-12. 



History of Judah. from the overthrow of Israel to the end of the 
Captivity, B. C. 720 to B. c. 536 ; 184 years. 

104. (2.) History of Judah to the Captivity, 114 years. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

7 J 5- 
714. 

713, 
Judaja. 



n Tor date, see 
ver. 16. 

Jerusalem. 



b On order, see 
Towns. 2. 347. 



Event or Narrative. 



Tyre denounced, Isa. 23. Prophecy concerning the 

invasion by Assyria, Isa. 10. 5 M4. 27. 

The desolation and recovery of Judrea predicted, etc. 

Isa. 24 [26. 17, i8]:-27. 
Isaiah predicts the invasion by Assyria and the des- 
truction of Babylon. Sennacherib comes up against 
Judah, but being pacified by a tribute, retires. 
Isaiah denounces Egypt, and warns Jerusalem, 
Isa. 22. 1-14: 21 : a 2 Kings 18. 13-16: 2 Chron. 
32. 1-8: Isa. 36. 1: 20: 29:-3i. 
Sickness of Hezekiah; his song of thanksgiving. 
Isaiah predicts the blessings of Christ's kingdom, 
and judgments of the enemies of Ziou, 

2 Kings 20. 1-6, 8, 9-1 t, 7: Isa. 38. 1-6, 22, j, 8, 
2r ; Q-20: 2 Chron. 32. 24: Isa. 32 :-35. b 



JUDAH, B.C. 713-612. 



527 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 

712, 
Jerusalem. 



7"> 
Judasa. 



1.-3, 



710-699. 

697. 
Jerusalem. 



a Towns. 2. 427.; 

678, 
Samaria. 

6::.. 

Babylon. 

642, 

Jerusalem. 
640. 



628. 

628. 

623, 
Jerusalem. 



622, 

Jerusalem. 

612. 
b For order, see 
rer. 6. 



Nineveh denounced by Nahum, Nah 

Hezekiah showing in pride to the Ambassadors from 
Babylon his treasures, Isaiah predicts the Baby- 
lonian captivity, 

2 Kings 20. 12-19: Isa. 39: 2 Chron. 32. 25, 26. 
Second invasion of Sennacherib; destruction of his 
army, 

2 Kings 18. 17-37 [26-28]: 19. 1-37: Psa. 44, 73, 

75, 76: Isa, 36. 2 [11, i2]-22 : 37. 1-38: 

2 Chron. 32. 9-21, 22, 23. 

Various prophecies of Isaiah, Isa. 4066 [57. 3-9]. 

Hezekiah's wealth; his death. Manasseh, king (55 

years); his awful impiety; judgment denounced 

by God's prophets, 

2 Kings 20. 20, 21: 2r. 1-16: 2 Chron. 32. 

2?-3 r J 32, 33: 33, i-if. 

Isaiah predicts the captivity of Shebna, Isa. 22. 15-25/ 

The heathen nations, who had been transplanted to 

Samaria in place of the Israelites, being plagued by 

lions, make a mixture of religions, 2 Kings 1 7. 24-41. 

Manasseh taken captive by the king of Assyria ; his 

conversion and restoration; he puts down idolatry, 

2 Chron. 33. 1 1 -1 7.* 
Death of Manasseh. Amon, king (2 years); his im- 
piety, 2 Kings 21. 17-22: 2 Chron. 33. 18-23. 
Amon slain by his servants. Josiah, king (31 years), 
2 Kings 21. 23-26: 22. 1, 2: 2 Chron. 33 
24, 25: 34. 1, 2. 
Josiah vigorously puts down idolatry, 

2 Chron. 34. 3-7. 
Jeremiah called; he expostulates with the Jews, on 
account of their sins, Jer. 1. 2 [3. 1-5]. 

Josiah provides for the repair of the temple. The 
Book of the Law having been found, Josiah con- 
sults Kuldah; he causes it to be read publicly, and 
renews the Covenant, 

2 Kings 22. 3-20: 23. 1-3, 4-20; 2 Chron. 34. 

8, 28, 29-32,* 33. 

Zephaniah exhorts to repentance, [Zeph. 1, 2, 3]. 

A most solemn celebration of the Passover bv Josiah, 

2 Kings 23. 21-23, 24-27: 2 Chron. i'^. 1-19. 

Jeremiah reproves the backsliding of the people, and 

bewails the coming captivity, 

Jer. V 3. b [6-11], 12-25: 4>6. 



* In Kings, no account is given of Manasseh' s repentance, 
f With qualification, see 2 Kings 23. 26, and Jer. 3. 10, etc.; 
the change was chiefly external. 



628 



JUDAH, B.C. 612-606. 



Date and Place. 



B.C. 

612. 
611. 

610. 

609, 

Megiddo and 

Jerusalem. 



Riblah. 



h Jer. 1.-12., in 
Josiah's days ; 
Towns. 2. 454-9- 

608. 
6c6. 

c For order, see 
ver. 2. Comp 
Ez. 29. 17. 



Jerusalem. 



606. 



Event or Narrative. 



Eabakkuk predicts judgment, [Hab. i:-3], 

Jeremiah exhorts the people to repentance, and la- 
ments their approaching calamities, Jer. 7:-io. 

Jeremiah reminds the people of the Covenant of 
Josiah, Jer. 11: [15], 12. 

Josiah slain in battle with the king of Egypt. 
Jeremiah and the people lament him. Jehoahaz 
king (3 months), 

2 Kings 23. 29, 30, 28, 30 /.£>., 31, 32: 2 Chron. 
35. 20-27; 36. 1, 2. 

Jehoahaz deposed and imprisoned by Pharaoh-Necho 
and subsequently taken to Egypt. Jehoiakim, 
king (11 years), 
2 Kings 23. S3> 34, i 35> 36, 17' } Chron. 36. 3, 4, 5. 

Jeremiah delivers various predictions, and appeals to 
the Jews respecting the captivity and destruction 
of Jerusalem, Jer. 13 1-19. ° 

Jeremiah predicts the fate of Pashur, Jer. 20.: of 
Shallum, i. <?., Jehoahaz, and Jehoiakim, 22. 1-23. 

Apprehension and arraignment of Jeremiah, Jer. 26. 

Jeremiah predicts the overthrow of the army of 
Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Jer, 4.6.° 1-12. 

The obedience of the Rechabites to their father con- 
trasted with the disobedience of the Jews, Jer. 35. 

Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews for 
seventy years, and the subsequent judgment on 
Babylon, Jer. 25. 

Jeremiah desires Baruch to write his prophecies on a 
roll, and then to read it publicly in the temple, 

Jer. 36. 1-8: 45. 

Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and puts Jehoiakim 
in fetters, intending to take him to Babylon, but 
afterwards releasing him, makes him a tributary, 
and spoils the temple, 
2 Kings 24. 1 : 2 Chron. 36. 6, 7: Dan. 1. 1, 2. 

Nebuchadnezzar orders the master of his eunuchs to 
select and send to Babylon some of the royal family 
and nobility, to stand in the king's palace. Daniel, 
Hananiah,. Mishael, and Azariah (otherwise called 
Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego), 
are taken there, Dan. 1.3, 4, 6, 7. 



PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY, B. C. 605-590. 



529 



105. (3.) From the first capture of Jerusalem, B.C. 606, to the 
decree of Cyrus, for the restoration of the Jeius, B. C. 536 ; 
70 years. 



Bate and Place. 



B. C. 

Babvlon. 
605. 

603. 

Babylon. 



599- 



597 



59: 



Babylon. 
tiOn order, see 
'corns, vol. ii. 

594. 
Babvlon. 

V 

595. 

Jerusalem . 



Event or Xarrative. 



590. 



I 



Events at Jerusalem, with contemporaneous events 

at Babylon. 

Daniel meets with kindly treatment, Dan. 1. 5, 8-17. 

Baruch again reads the Prophetic Boll; Jehoiakiin 
bums it, Jer. 36. 9-32. 

Jehoiakim rebels against Nebuchadnezzar, 

2 Kings 24. 1 /. p., 24. 

Daniel before Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1. 18-21. 

Interprets Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2.; des- 
cribing the Babylonian, 32; Medo-Persian, 32-39; 
Macedo- Grecian. 32-39; and Boman Empires, 33, 
40-43; with Messiah's Kingdom, 34, 35, 44, 45. 

Death of Jehoiakim. Jehoiachin or Jeconiah, king 
(3 months), 2 Kings 24. 5-9: 2 Chron. 36. 8, 9: 

Jer. 22. 24-30: 23. 

Second capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 

Jehoiachin is carried to Babylon, with many of his 

subjects. Zedekiah or Mattaniah, king (11 

years), 2 Kings 24. 10-19: 2 Chron. 36. 10-12: 

Jer. 52. t, 2: 24. 

Predictions of the duration of the captivity, 

Jer. 29. 1-14, 16-20, 15, 21-32. 

Of the restoration of the Jews, Jer. 30., 31. 

Predictions against the surrounding nations. Ha- 
naniah the false prophet denounced, 

Jer. 27, 28, 48, 49. 

Prophecies against Babylon, Jer. 50: 51. 

Ezekiel's vision in Babylon; his commission, a Ezek. 
1, 2, 3. 1-2 1. He prophesies of the miseries of 
Jerusalem, Ezek. 3. 22-27 [4 : "7]« 

Visions of the idolatries which occasioned the cap- 
tivity, Ezek. 8, 10 [11]. 

Various predictions against the false prophets, Jeru- 
salem, and the Jewish nation, 

Ezek. 12. -19 [16, 18. 5-18]. 

Prophecies addressed to the Elders of the Jews, 

Ezek. 20: [21 1-23]. 

Zedekiah' s rebellion and wickedness, Jer. 37. 1, 2: 
2 Kings 24. 20: 2 Chron. 36. 13: Jer. 52. 3. 

The wickedness of priests and people (the cause of 
the captivity, v. 15, 16), with a summary account 
of the judgments that followed, 2 Chron. 36. 14-21. 

Nebuchadnezzar. lays siege to Jerusalem for the third 
time, 2 Kings 25. 1: Jer. 39. 1: 52. 4: 37. 3, 4. 

2 A 



530 



PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY, B. C. 589-587. 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 

a See '1 owns. 
ii. 559. 

589. 
Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 

b For order, 
see 32. 2. 



587. 

c On order, 
compare 29. 1, 
and 26. 1 ; ver. 
17-21 written 
years 



1 
sixteen 
later. 



<l On order, 
comp. 30. 20, and 
29. 1. 

e Comp. ver. 
5, 7 ; Town. ii. 

579- 



Event or Narrative. 



Babylon. 



Ezekiel foretells the destruction of Jerusalem, 

Ezek. 24. 
Capture of the city foretold. The people, at Jere- 
miah's word, release their Hebrew bond-servants, 

Jer. 34. i-io. a 
Jeremiah shut up in prison; his predictions there, 

Jer. 32: 33. b 
Ezekiel in Babylon, prophesies against Egypt, Ezek. 
29. i-i6; c and against Tyre, Ezek. 26.: see Isa, 23. 
The Chaldeans raise the siesre to march against the 
approaching Egyptian army. Jeremiah predicts 
the destruction of the Philistines, Jer. 3 7. 5 : 47. 
On the departure of the Chaldrean army, the people 
recall their bond-servants, for which Jeremiah 
denounces them, and predicts the speedy return of 
the Chaldseans, Jer. 34. 11-22: 37. 6-10. 

Jeremiah again imprisoned, Jer. 37. 11-21; continues 
to denounce Zedekiah, 21: he is put into the 
dungeon of Mai chiah, 38: 39. 15-18. 
Ezekiel in Babylon, again prophesies against Egypt 
and Nineveh, Ezek. 30. 20-26: 31. d 

Jerusalem finally taken. Zedekiah carried to Baby- 
lon. Jeremiah delivered, 

2 Kings 25. 2, 4-7: Jer. 52. 5-7: 39. 2-7, 11-14. 

N ebuzaradan burns the temple, and carries away the 

people, leaving a few poor persons to till the land, 

2 Kings 25. 8-21: Jer. 52. 12-30: 39. 8-10: 

Psa. 74 : e 79: 83: 94. 

Jeremiah bewails the desolation of his country, 

Lamentations i>5. 
Gedaliah appointed governor. Jeremiah and many 
others attach themselves to him, 

2 Kings 25? 22-24: Jer. 40. 1-16. 

Ishmael slays Gedaliah, and attempts to carry away 

the people to the Ammonites; Johanan intercepts 

him; the people, fearing the Chaldseans, flee into 

Egypt, contrary to tbe command of God, 

2 Kings 25. 25, 26: Jer. 41: 42: 43. 1-7. 
Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt and the idola- 
trous Jews, Jer. 43. 8-13: 46. 13-28: 44. 
Brief summary of the captivities, by Nebuchadnezzar, 

Jer. 52. 28-30, 

Remainder of the History oflhe Jews in Captivity — 

Babylon. 

Ezekiel predicts the utter desolation of Jud&a, 
i Ezek. 33. 21-33. 



PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY, B. C. 587-536. 



531 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B.C. 

587. 



573. 
5 7^. 

5 7°> 
569. 

568-563. 

561. 

• 558. 
556. 

538. 

537. 

Jerusalem 
md Babylon. 



Predictions against Auimon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, 
Tyre, and Egypt, Ezek. 25: 27: 28: 32. 

Ezekiel appeals to the captives, 

Ezek. 33. 1-20. 
Evil rulers denounced; restoration of the Jews pro- 
mised; predictions of Messiah's kingdom, 

Ezek. 34:-3 7 [17, last clause]. 

Prophecies of the church and its enemies, and of the 

conversion of the Jews, Ezek. 38: 39. 

Ezekiel' s vision of the future temple, Ezek. 4o:-48. 

Last prediction against Egypt, 

Ezek. 29. 17-21: 30. 1-19. 
Nebuchadnezzar sets up an image, Dan. 3. 

Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's second dream, 

Dan. 4. 1-27. 

The fulfilment of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, in his 

madness, and subsequent recovery, Dan, 4. 28-37, 

Evil-Merodach, king of Babylon, releases Jehoiachin, 

2 Kings 25. 27-30: Jer. 52. 31-34. 
Daniel's first vision of the Living Creatures, Dan. 7 
Belshazzar's Feast. Babylon taken, Dan. 5 

Daniel's vision of the Ram and He -goat, Dan. 8 

Daniel's prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem 
Prophecy of the Seventy Weeks, Dan 9, : Psa. 102 
Daniel cast into the den of lions, Dan. 6 

Decree of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the temple, and 
restoration of the Jews to their own country, 

2 Chron. 36. 22, 23: Ezra r. 1-4: Psa. 126: 85. 

Psalms written during the distresses and afflictions 

of the church, chiefly in the Babylonish captivity, 

Psa. 10, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27, 36, 37, 49; 5 C > S3, 

67, 77, 80, 89, 92, 93, 123, 130, 137. 



\ 



106. (4.) From the decree of Cyrus, B. c. 536, to the final 
prophecy of the Old Testament, B. c. 420-397 ; about 139 years. 



Date and Place. 



Event or Narrative. 



B. C. 



5 36, 

Jerusalem. 



1. From the return of the Jews, to the Dedication of 
the Second Temple. 

Return of the Jews. Cyrus restores the vessels of 
the temple. An altar set up, 

Ezra 1. 5-11: [2:], 3. 1-7: Psa. 87, 107, 111, 112, 
113, 114, 116, 117, 125, 127, 128, 134. 

2 ; a 2 



532 



THE RESTORATION, B. C. 535-445. 



Date and Place. 
B. C. 

535, 
Jerusalem. 

534. 

Babylon. 

520, 

Jerusalem. 



Event or Narrative. 



519. 
516. 



486. 
464. 

462, 

Susa. 

45 3. 

45 7. 
Jerusalem. 



Susa. 
453,452. 



445, 
Susa. 

Jerusalem. 



Foundation of the second temple, under the direc- 
tion of Zerubbabel, Ezra 3. 8-13; Psa. 84, 66. 
The building of the temple interrupted by the Sa- 
maritans, Ezra 4. 1-5, 24: Psa. 129. 
The last vision of Daniel, Dan. 10.-12. 
Building of the temple resumed. Haggai and 
Zechariah incite the people to the work, and ex- 
hort them to repentance, 

Ezra 4. 24: 5. 1: Hag. 1. 1-11: Ezra 5. 2: 

Hag. 1. 12-15: 2. 1-9: Zech. 1. 1-6: Hag. 

2. 10-23: Zech. 1. 7-21: 2:-6 [2. 5]. 

The building of the temple again interrupted, and 

resumed, Ezra 5, 3-17: 6. 1-13 : Psa. 138: Zech. 7: 8. 

Dedication of the second temple, 

Ezra 6. 14-22: Psa. 48, 81, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150. 

2. From the opposition to the Jews in the reign of 
Xerxes, to the Death of Haman. 

Opposition in the reign of Xerxes, Ezra 4. 6. 

Opposition in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, 

Ezra 4. 7-23. 
Artaxerxes (or Ahasuerus) divorces Yashti, his 



queen, 



Esth. 1. 



Susa. 



Ezra commissioned to visit Jerusalem, Ezra 7 [2-14]. 
Artaxerxes makes Esther queen, Esth. 2. 1-20. 

Ezra comes to Jerusalem; causes the people to put 

away their heathen wives, Ezra b:-io [18-44]. 

Concluding prophecies of Zechariah, Zech. 9 :-i4. 
Mordecai discovers the conspiracy against Ahasuerus, 

Esth. 2. 21-23. 
Plot of Haman to destroy the Jews, and its defeat. 

The feast of Purim, Esth. 3 :-io. 

3. From the first commission of Nehemiah, to the 
closing of the Canon* 

Nehemiah receives a commission from Artaxerxes to 
visit it, and rebuild the wall, Neh. 1 : 2. 1-8. 

Nehemiah arrives at Jerusalem. Sanballat strives to 
hinder the work; the builders work under arms, 

Neh. 2. 9-20: [3:], 4. 

Nehemiah relieves the Jews oppressed by usury; his 
own generosity, Neh. 5 . 

The wall completed by the Jews and dedicated, 

Neh. 6: [12. 27-43]. 

Nehemiah returns to Persia, Neh. 7. 1-4. 



\ 



THE RESTORATION, B. C. 444-397. 



533 



Date and Place. 



B. C. 

444, 

Jerusalem. 

433- 

428. 
597- 



Event or Narrative. 



Second commission of Xehemiah, and reformation. 
Nek 7 [6-73]: 8: 9: [ic:], 11 [1:. 1-9,. 44-47]: 

13. 1-3 : Psa. 1. 119. 
Malachi prophesies against the corruptions intro- 
duced during the second absence of Nehemiah, 

Mai. 1:2:3. 1-15. 
Further reformation by Xehemiah, Xeh. 13. 4-31. 
Final prophecy of the Old Testament, 

Mai. 3. 16-18 : -„ 
Detached Genealogies, etc., inserted probably at the 
completion of the Canon. 

1 Chron. n-9: Xeh. 12. 10-26. 



Sec. 7. Chronology of Scripture^ and early profane HisU - . 

ion. The chronoloev of the earlier historv of Assvria and Egypt,— the mcs: 
-p t , ancient of the nations mentioned in Scripture, involves difficulties, 

1? -Z . ^ffi which, in the presentstate of our knowiedgeare inextricable. Ctesii 
~ and Herodotus (the two profane historians on whom we rely for in- 
formation on Assyria), diner in chronology by Bog years, and propor- 
tionably in their dynas:ies ; Here iotas fixing the duration of the Assyrian dominie d 
in Upper Asia at 520 years ; and Ctesias (whose historical authority is very low), 
at 1305 (Diod. Sic. ii. 21). Semiramis is supposed, in one account, to have lived 
3. c. 2017, and in another (Dr. Hales), b. c. 747, The mode of solving these, and 
some other difficulties, is to assume the existence of two Assyrian empires ; an as- 
sumption supported by some passages in Herodotus (i. c. 95, 102, 106, 185). The 
difficulties in the case of Egyptian History, arise from the fact, that many contem- 
poraneous dynasties are given by ancient authorities, and the same king has often 
several names. 

In the Tables of Egyptian History, we adopt the chronology of the English Bible. 
a m-v, -,-a For the facts, we use the Tables of 3Ir. Corv, published bv Pickering ; 
f U^ed for As 3 *™™ History, the Tables of Dr. Russell. 

It may be observed, that tram the date of Solomon's temple (b.c. 
1012), downwards, there are no serious discrepancies between competent authorities 
except in relation to Assyria (1012 to 771). Eor the whole of this later period, T 
adopt the dates of " Clinton's Fasti, - ' which seldom differ more than a year from 
those of the authorized version. 



B.C. 
2} 4 3 

2192 



Tabular History of Egypt, etc., from the Deluge to the 
days of Solomon. — From Usher. 



Egypt. 



Pat.kstttce, etc. 



The Deluge. 

Foundation of kingdom of Egypt.* 
16th, or 1st earthly dynasty. 



B.C. 

2214 



il 



Ximrod establishes 
regal government 
(Hales 2554). 



* In this Table the following abbreviations are used :— (D.) Diodoras Sfcoras. 
(E.) Eratosthenes. (H.) Herodotus. (M.) Manetho. (M. J.) Manetho according 

10 Josephus. (M. M. and M. T. A Memphite and Thinite list of Jlanetho. .-.' 
Sanchoniatho. (S. S.) Bible. Champollion, Wilkinson, Syncellus, and ancient 
classic authors are also c note eL 



534 



EARLY PROFANE HISTORY : EGYPT, ETC. 



Tabular History of Egypt, etc. — continued. 



Egypt. 



Palestine, etc. 



B.C. 
2192 

2IJO 



2071 
2039 
202I 

2002 



2002 
1983 

19*9 

1956 
1920 



1903 
1897 
I877 
l86l 
1845 
1842 
I829 
3813 
1792 
1772 

1768 

1755 
1748 

1748 

1730 
1715 



1710 

1706 
1688 
1676 
1649 

1635 
1610 

1579 

1543 
1543 

1530 

1504 

1504 



1. Menai. Menes (HA Misor (S.), Mizraim 
(S. S.) 

2. Thoth I. Athothes (E.), Tosorthus 
(M. M.), inventor of letters and medicine, 
JEsculap. 

3. Thoth n. Athothes (E.), Kenkeres (M. T.) 

4. Didbies (E.), Messochris (M. M.) 

5. Pemphos (E.), Sonthis (M.M). 
Pyramids begun ? 

Invasion of shepherds : not fully expelled for 

511 years. 
Native kings, 17th dyn. Shepherd kings. 

1. Salatis. 

2. Beon. 

3. Apachnas. 

6. Keres. 

7. Osirtesen 1. Tosertasis (M. M.), Misar- 
tesen (Pliny) ; several obelisks and monu- 
ments left by him. 

4. Apophis. 
Osirtesen breaks the power of the shepherds. 

8. Amun Muthah r. 

9. Amun Muthah 11. 

10. Osirtesen 11. 

5. Janias. 

11. Osirtesen nr. 

12. Amun Muthah in., left several monuments. 

6. Kertos. 

13. Eakor? Acheres (M. M.), Alisphragmu- 
thosis (M. J.) 

7. Aseth. 

14. Amos. Siege of shepherds in Avaris. 
Expulsion of shepherds ; death of Azeth. 

34. Amos alone. 18th dyn., Amosis (M.), 
Cheops (? Her.) 

15. Amenoph 1. 

Regency till Thothmos in. Joseph (S. S.), 
Chebron {Hebrew ? MA Ameuenthe 
(Champ), Amun-neit-gori (\Vilk.), Amnuth 
(Hierogl.) 

Appearance of the Phoenix, or 2nd Hermes, 
supposed to be Joseph the Hebrew. 

16. Thothmos I., and Amesse. Maoris (H.), 
Mephres (M. J.) 

Regulation of Calendar. Phoenix. 
Thothmos alone. 

17. Thothmos 11. Mephra Muthosis (M. J.) 

18. Thothmosm. Maeris (H.), Thmosis(M. J.) 
Cessation of Regency; great architectural works. 

19. Amenoph it. (M.) Anouphis (E.) 

20. Thothmos iv. Onis (M. J.), Soris (M.) ; 
Persecution of Israelites. 

Regent Achencheres. Chnubus Gneurus (E.) 

21. Amenoph in., and Amun Toohn. Rathek 
(Hierog.), Danaus (Gr.), Rathoti's (M. J.) 

Danaus expelled by Amenoph. 
Danaus and his son drive Amenoph into 
Ethiopia. 

22. Amun me Avamek. Achencheres 11. (M. J.), 
Choncheres (Syn.), Bocchoris (Tac), Bu- 
siris (Grks.) 



B.C. 

2147 

.2124 

2069 

2059 

2017 

1996 
1978 

1975 



1836 



1728 



1577 

1571- 

32 



153 1 



Babylon founded. 

Asshur (or Nimrod? 
or Ninus?) founds 
Nineveh. 

Death of Nimrod. 
Ninus ? or Belus ? 

Ninus, the beautifier 
of Nineveh. 

The Assyrian empire. 
Babylon taken. 

Semiramis succeeds 
Ninus. 

Abraham born. 

Victories of Semi- 
ramis. 

Ninyas succeeds Se- 
miramis. 

Abrah. visits Egypt. 

Now follow the reigns 
of three-and-thirty 
kings, according to 
Eusebius, or six- 
and-thirty according 
to Syncellus, ending 
with Sardanapalus 
(see p. 533, 5i6). 

Jacob born. 



Joseph sold ; inter- 
prets Pharaohs 
dream ; his eleva- 
tion. 



Jacob goes to Egypt 



Joseph dies. 

Israelites multiply. 
Birth, and early life 
of Meses. 



Moses in Midian. 



EARLY PROFANE HISTORY : EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. 535 
Tabular History of Egypt, etc. — continued. 



Egypt. 



b. c. 
1492 

1491 



1491 
1490 

1486 



1418 

H99 
1366 

1323 



IJ2I 

1263 
1223 
1222 



1209 
1 194 
1179 

1 164 

1 149 

1134 
1119 
1101 

971 



Death of Amenoph. 

Final expulsion of shepherds and Danaus , the 
mixed multitude (M.)j Exode ; Bocchoris 
drowned. Syn. says this occurred 700 
years after Menes, and after twenty-five 
reigns. 

23- Harnesses 1. Sethos (T.), Suphis (M.M.) 

24. Amun, or Phthah me Phoenicheen, or 
Armeen. Armais (M.), Hermseus (M. J.) 

25. Harnesses 11. Sethos (T.),Souphis(M.M.), 
Sesostris (Grks.), Sesoosis (D.), Great war- 
rior. 

26. Amenoph rv. Phthahmen (TVTik.), Me- 
nephtha (Champ.), Mencheres (M. IvI.) 

27. I9tn dynasty. Phthahmen Se Phthah, 
Sethos (M.), Musthis (E.) 

28. Osiri men Phthah. Rapsaces(M.), Phius 
CM. M.) 

29. Osiri ta Hemerrer. Ammenemes (M.) 

30. Harnesses in. Aphrops (M.), Sesoosis ir. 
(D.), Sesostris 11. (M.), Maeris (Her.) adonis 
Thebes. 

The Cycle of Meeris begins. 

31. Harnesses rv. Ammenephthes (M.) 

32. Harnesses v. Menthe Suphis (M. M.) 

33. Xitocris and Harnesses vi. Nitocris and 
Thuoris (M. M.), Nitocris (E.), Proteus 
(D.), 26th Dyn. 

34. Harnesses vn. (Syn.), Rhemphis (D.) 
3$. Harnesses vm. Ousiumares (Syn.) 

36. Harnesses ix. Rhamsmitus (H.), Nileus 
(D.), Sethos Nilus (E.) 

37. Harnesses x. (Syn.), Semphucrates (E.) 

38. Harnesses xi. (Syn.), Chuthen Taurus (E.) 

39. Amun Mai Pouee, Rhamesse Jubasse 
(Syn.) 

40. Amunmeses. Rhamesse Yaphris (Syn.) 
The sceptre now passes to Lower Egypt. 

There are in the 21st dyn., nine Theban kings, 
and seven known Tanite, reigning 130 years. 
22nd dynast}^. Sheshonk or Shishak. 



Palestine, etc. 



B. C. 






The Exode. 


I49I- 


Israel in the wilder- 


51 


ness. 


1466 : 


Danaus (Eratos.) 


1451 


Charge to Joshua. 


1444 


Conquest of Canaan 




completed. 


1433? 


Deucalion (Eratos). 


1402 


Judges. 




Othniel. 




Ehud. 


TJ?1 ? 


Erectheus (Eratos.) 




Shamgar. 




Deborah. 


1313 


Cadmus (Eratos.) 


1283? 


Pelops (Eratos.) 


I26l 


Hercules (Eratos). 




Gideon. 


1225 P 


Argonauts (Eratos). 


1213 


1st Theban war. 


1198 


2nd Theban war. 




Jephthah. 


1192 


Troy besieged (Erat.) 


Il83 


Trojan "war ends. 


1176 


Orestes at Argos. 


IIl6 


Death of Samson. 


III2 


Samuel. 


II06 


Heraclidae. 


IO=f6 


David king. 


1045 


Death of Codrus. 


I044 


Ionic migration. 


IOl6 


Solomon king. 


976 


Division of kingdom. 



ASSYEIA. 



From 841-773. Thonus Concholerus and Sardanapalus reign. In 
3oo, Jonah visits Nineveh; in 773, the governors of Media and 
Babylon rebel. Nineveh is besieged, and in 771, Sardanapalus 
perishes in his palace by fire. Three kingdoms are formed, of which, 
at first, Assyria is chief. 



Assyria. 



Babylon. 



Media. 



Pul reigns over all ; makes Israelites pay tribute, 769. 
Gives his kingdom to 



B. C. 

747 
740 



Tiglath Pileser. 
Yietories in 
Syria. 



b. c 

766 

747 



Belesis, or 
Nabonassar. 



B. C. 

1 / u 



Arbaces, who 
conspired 

against Sar- 



: 
1 

1 


Egypt, etc 


1 
1 

! B. C. 

972 


Shishak (Sesos- 
tris?) invades 
Juda?a, 2 Chron. 


812 


12. 9. 

Bocchoris. 


; 776 

! 773 

1 


[Era of Olymp. 
So (or see below .5 

■ 



536 



EARLY PROFANE HISTORY: EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. 



Chronology of Scripture, etc. — continued. 



Assyria. 


Egypt, etc, 




Assyria. 


Babylon. 


Media. 


B.C. 

153 


[Decennial Ar- 


B. C. 




B.C. 




B.C. | 


1 


chons at Ath.] 


:js 


2 Kings 16. 


133 


Nadius. 




danapalus, 






730 


Shalinanezer, 


131 


Porus. 




forms a Me- 








2 Kings 17. 


726 


Jug33US. 




dian republic, 


725 


So, the Ethio- 


721 


Samaria subdued 


721 


Merodach Bal., 




Phraortes 


i 


pian, invades 


714 


Sennacherib. 




Isa. 39. 


chief. 


1 

i 


Judsea, 2 Kings 


113 


Sennacherib in- 






153 [Rome founded.] 


1 

1 


17.4. 




vades Judaea. 






743 


[First Messe- 


i 713 


Usurpation of 


712 


Sennacherib in- 








nian war.] 




Sevechus, the 




vades Judasaa 






720 


[First recorded 




priest. 




second time, 








eclipse of the 








2 Kings 19. 








moon, 19th 


1 




711 


Sennacherib as- 
sassinated in 
the temple of 
Nisroch. 








March.] 


711 


Tiraca, the last 
Ethiopian, 
fights with Sen- 
nacherib, 2KgS. 


710 


Esarhaddon. 
Other kings 


710 


Babylon inde- 
pendent under 


710 


Dejoces king, 
slain. 


1 
1 
1 


19.9: Isa. 37. 9. 




mentioned, but 




Merodach who 


672 


[Tullus Hos- 


685 


Egypt govern- 




doubtful. 




sends to He- 




tilius.] 




ed by twelve 


699 


Esarhaddon 




zekiah; again 


657 


[Byzantium 




kings, for fif- 




takes Babylon. 




dependent 




built.] 




teen or twenty- 


677 


Esarhaddon car- 
ries Manasseh 
to Babylon. 




till 




Phraortes. 


670 


five years. 
Psammitichus r. 


667 


Ninus in., or 












overthrows 




Saosduchinus. 






641 


Cyaxares 1. 




them, and rules ; 


650 


( Chinaladanus, 
) Nabuchadono- 


625 


Nabopolassar, 








takes Ashdod, 




father of Ne- 








see Isa. 20. 


or 
630 


\ ser, or Sarda- 




buchadnezzar 






647 


Memphis made 


[ napalus n. 




the Great. 








capital; Psam- 
















mitichus in- 










troduces Greek. 




Babylon and Persia. 


Media and Persia. 


616 


Pharaoh -Necho 


B. c. 




B. c. 






11., 2 Chron. i$ y 


625 


Nabopolassar, king of 


641 


Dynasty of the Kaianites, 




36. 




Babylon, asserts indepen- 




Kair-Kobad or Cyaxares 1., 


610 


Navy ; canal to 




dence of Assyria. 




subject to Scythians, ex- 




connect Medit. 


623 


Nebuchadnezzar, his son, 




pels them, and takes 




and Red Seas at- 




marries the daughter of 




Nineveh. 




tempted, fails. 




Cyaxares of Media. 




Previous to this time, 






608 


Nineveh besieged by Ba- 




there is no credible his- 


609 


Necho invades 




bylon and Media, under 




tory of Persia, Kai-Kans, 


1 


Asia. 




Nebuchadnezzar. 




or Astyages. 


606 


Defeated by Ne- 


606 


Taken and added to Media. 


621 


[Draco, Athens.] 


1 
1 


buchadnezzar. 


606 


Takes Jerusalem. 


619 


[Tarquin r., Rome.] 


\ 600 


Fsaminis suc- 


606 


Nebuchadnezzar defeats 








ceeds Necho. 




Necho. 






1 594 


Apries, or P. 


604 


Nebuchadnezzar reigns 


601 


Birth of Kai-Khosru 


i ' ■ 


Hophra, con- 




alone ; founds Babylonian 




(Cyrus). 


1 


spires with 




empire, etc. 








Zedekiah, 


587 


Nebuchadnezzar conquers 
Judsea. 


595 


[Sappho, Solon, Thales.] 




against Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 


582 


Nebuchadnezzar takes 






= j! 1 


Apries deposed 




Shusan. Dan., Ezek. 






1 


by Nebuchad- 


513 


Nebuchadnezzar takes 
Tyre, after thirteen years 


572 


[iEsop flou.] 


t 


nezzar, Jer. 44, 
30: 46-. 'Ezek. 




siege, 






. 










29, J©; J2. 



EARLY PROFANE HISTORY : EGYPT, ASSYRIA, ETC. 



537 



Chronology of Scripture, etc. — continued. 



Assyria. 



B.C. 

57° 

561 

559 

558 

556 

m - * 

J55 



551 

or 

553 
540 
533 



525 
522 
521 
518 

508 

499 

492 
490 
484 
480 
465 

457 
454 
445 
425 
424 
414 
405 



-T I 



Babylon and Persia. 



Golden image set up. 
Evil-Merodach succeeds. 
Evil-Merodach slain, by 

Cyrus. 
Neriglassar (Belsh.), sue. 
Babylon besieged ; tbe 

" writing on tbe wall." 
Darius, king of Babylon 

and Media. 

^abonadius rules ; aspires 
to be independent. 

Babylon again besieged. 
Babylon taken by Cyrus, 

and annexed to Persian 

empire. 



Media and Persia. 



Egypt, etc. 



B.C. 

560 
559 



B. C 
569 



55* 



54^ 
538 

515 



[Peisistratus, Athens.] 
Cyaxares 11. (Darius). 
Cyrus general, and rules. \ 554 
Persian monarchy founded 
by Cyrus. 



Zoroaster. 
Cyaxares dies. 
Cyrus reigns alone. 
Conquers Crcesus ardAsia 
Minor. 

Takes Babylon. 
And Egypt. 



Death of Cyrus in battle (Her.), in peace (Yen.) 

Cambyses, his son, succeeds ; conquers Egypt. 

Smerdis the Magian. 

Slain, and succeeded by Darius Hytaspes, Dan. 11. 2. 

Babylon revolts, and is destroyed. 

Egyptian canal completed (see 610, Egypt.) 

Macedon and Thrace tributary. Ionians revolt, and Athenians 

assist. War against Greece. 
Two expeditions against Greece defeated. 
Egypt revolts. 

Xerxes succeeds Darius ; subdues Egypt, Dan. 11. 2. 
Expedition against Greece fails. 
Xerxes murdered ; Artaxerxes 1. ; Longim. succeeds, Neb. 2.6; 

Themis tocles in Persia, 
Esther queen. 
Ezra visits Jeiusalem. 
Nehemiah. 

Xerxes 11. succeeds, and is assassinated ; Sogdianus. 
Darius 11. : No thus. 
Egypt regains her independence. 
Artaxerxes Mnemon. See p. 538. 



5J6 
535 

525 



486 

484 
460 



448 
414 



350 



Amasis made 
king by Nebu- 
chadnezzar ; 
Egypt very 
prosperous. 

Solon visits 

Egypt. 



Pythagoras visits 
Egypt. 

Egypt made tri- 
butary by Cy- 
rus. 

Psammenitus 
revolts, and is 
defeated, Isa. 
19; Egypt a 
Persian pro- 
vince : end of 
dynasty of 

Pbaraob. 

Egypt revolts 
(and is again) 

Subdued. 

Again rebels 
under Inarius, 
aided by Athens. 

Herodotus visits 
Egypt. 

Indep. Amyr- 
tams ; nine 
kings succeed', 
Pausiris, Psarn- 
mitichus 11., etc. 

Subdued by Oo 
hus the Per- 
sian. See p. 538. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Civil and Moral History of the Jews from Malachi to 

John the Baptist. 

Sec. 1. Sketch of the Civil History of the Jews during the Period 
"between the Old and New Testaments. 
108. Although we have no account of this period in Scrip- 
ture, its events are frequently referred to in prophecy, and 
many of them throw light upon the New Testament. The 
following sketch is founded chiefly on Josephus and the 
books of the Maccabees. 

2 a 3 



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OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 541 

1 10. After Neheniiah (b.c. 420), Judaea continued subject to the 
The Jews kings of Persia for nearly a hundred years. It ceased, 
under the however, to form a distinct government, and was annexed 
to the satrapy of Syria ; the administration of affairs 
being intrusted to the high priest, subject only to the control of 
the Syrian governor. This union of the civil government and the 
pontificate soon made the office one of high ambition to the different 
members of the family of Aaron, and gave occasion to many violent 
and disgraceful contests. 

in. Upon the overthrow of the Persian army by Alexander, Syria 
Alexander, fell under his power; and Tyre was taken after an ob- 
b.c. jji. stinate resistance. Alexander then marched into Judaea, 

to punish the Jews, who, out of respect for their oath to the king of 
Persia, had granted the Tyrians supplies of provisions and refused 
them to him. But (it is related) as he approached Jerusalem, and 
saw a solemn procession of the people coming to meet him, headed 
by the high priest Jaddua, and all the priestly race, in their robes 
of office, God turned his heart to spare and favour them. He con- 
tinued to them the free enjoyment of their laws and religion; 
granted them exemption from tribute during their sabbatical years; 
and when he built the city of Alexandria, placed a great number of 
Jews there, and gave them the same privileges as his Greek subjects. 
On the division of Alexander's empire, Judsea ultimately fell to the 
T^ share of Ptolemy Lagus, and formed part of the 

Egyptians. monarchy of Egypt. That prince removed many of the 
people to Alexandria, confirmed their privileges, and even advanced 
some of them to offices of authority and trust. By successive de- 
portations and voluntary removals, Egypt became, and long con- 
tinued, an important seat of the Jewish population. The moral 
influence of this change will be noticed below. 

During the time of Ptolemy Lagus, the prosperity of the 
Jews was much promoted by the internal administration of an 
excellent high priest, Simon the Just. He repaired and fortified 
their city and temple with strong and lofty walls, and made a 
spacious reservoir of water, "in compass as a sea." He is said to 
have completed the canon of the Old Testament by the addition of 
the books of Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Kehemiah, Esther, and 
Malacni. The Jews also affirm that Simon was " the last of the 
great synagogue," which is described as having consisted of 120 
individuals, among whom were Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Nehemiah, 
and Malachi. They appear to have been -a succession of devoted 
and patriotic men, who distinguished themselves after the captivity 
by their labours in collecting and revising the sacred books, and in 



542 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 

settling and improving the civil and religious institutions of their 
country. Simon died in the year 291 B.C. 

After the Jewish nation had been tributary to the kings of Egypt 
for about a hundred years (during the last sixty of which it enjoyed 
almost uninterrupted tranquillity under the shadow of their power), 
it became subject, in the reign of Antiochus the Great, to the kings 
of Syria (b.c. 198). They divided the land into five provinces; three 
of which were on the west side of Jordan, namely, Galilee, Samaria, 
and Judaea (though the whole country was frequently called Judcea 
after this time) ; and two on the eastern side, namely, Trachonitis 
and Peraea : but the Jews were still allowed to be governed by their 
own laws, under the high priest and council of the nation. 

Judaea, being situated between Syria and Egypt, was much affected 
by the frequent wars in which those countries were engaged. The 
evils to which it was thus exposed were aggravated by the cor- 
ruption and misconduct of its high priests and chief men, and the 
increasing wickedness of the people. 

112. God saw fit to punish the Jews for this defection by the hand 
T , „ . of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, who came and 

plundered the city and temple of Jerusalem with every 
circumstance of cruelty and profanation, and slew or enslaved great 
numbers of the inhabitants (b.c. 170). For three years and a half 
they were altogether deprived of their civil and religious liberties. 
The daily sacrifice was taken away; the temple itself was dedicated 
by Antiochus to Jupiter, whose statue was erected on the altar of 
burnt offering; the observance of the law of God was prohibited 
under the severest penalties; every copy of the sacred writings 
which could be seized was burned; and the people were required, 
under pain of death, to sacrifice to idols. Never before had the 
Jews been exposed to so furious a persecution. Numerous as were 
the apostates, a remnant continued faithful: and these events were 
doubtless made instrumental in calling the attention of the heathen 
around to those great principles for which many of the Jews at that 
time were willing to peril their lives. 

113. At length God raised up a deliverer for his people in the 
The noble family of the Asmonaeans. Mattathias, a priest 
Asmonasans. emmen t f or hi s piety and resolution, and the father of 
five sons, encouraged the people, by his example and exhortations, 
(i to stand up for the law:" and having collected around him a large 
number of faithful men, he undertook to free the nation from the op- 
pression and persecution of the Syrians, and to restore the worship 
of the God of Israel; but being very old when he engaged in this 
arduous work, he did not live to see its connection. At his death, his 



OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS CONNECTED. 543 

eldest son, Judas, succeeded to the command of the army (b.c. 163), 
in which he was assisted by his four brothers, especially by Simon, 
the elder of them, who was a man of remarkable prudence. The 
motto on his standard was, Exod. 15. 11, " Who is like unto thee 
among the gods, Jehovah?" The Hebrew words being Mi Camoka 
Baelim Jehovah ; and from the initial letters of these words MCBI 
was derived the word Maccabi, or Maccabee, which became the sur- 
name of the family, and was applied also to all who joined their 
cause. 

. After several victories over the troops of Antiochus, he gained 
possession of Jerusalem and the temple. His first care was to 
purify both from all traces of idolatry. The temple was con- 
secrated anew to the service of God, and the daily sacrifices were 
resumed. Thi3 reconsecration of the temple and revival of worship 
was ever after celebrated by an annual feast of eight days. It oc- 
curred at the time of the winter solstice, and was called the feast of 
the dedication, John 10. 22. 

114. Under the Maccabean princes, Judaea became a free state, sup- 
ported by regular troops, strong garrisons, and alliances with other 
powers, including even Rome itself. The country began to enjoy 
its former fertility and peacefulness ; and the boundaries of the 
state were extended in the direction of Syria, Phoenicia, Arabia, 
and Iduinaea. This prosperity, however, was but of short duration. 
The decline of Egypt and Syria, and the gradual extension of the 
Roman power, soon led to the overthrow of the Jewish common- 
wealth. Pompey marched his army into Judaea, besieged and took 
Jerusalem, and made Judaea tributary to the Romans; though it 
was still governed by the Maccabean princes. The last of that 
family was conquered and deposed by Herod the Great, an Idumaean 
by birth, but of the Jewish religion ; a favourite of Rome, and con- 
nected, by his marriage to Mariamne, with the Asmonaean family. 
He enlarged the kingdom, but reduced the power of the high 
priesthood, which, instead of being an hereditary office held for 
life, was now granted and held at the pleasure of the monarch. He 
was a cruel tyrant to his people, and even to his own children, 
three of whom he put to death; a slave to his passions, and indif- 
ferent by what means he gratified his ambition. But, to preserve 
the Jews in subjection, and to erect a lasting monument to his own 
name, he repaired the temple of Jerusalem at a vast expense, and 
greatly added to its magnificence. 

115. In the thirty-sixth year of the reign of Herod, while Augustus 

was emperor of Rome, the Saviour of the world was 
born. 



644 MORAL CONDITION OF THE JEWS. 

Herod was succeeded in the government of part of Palestine by 
his son Archelaus, who acted with great cruelty; and in the tenth 
year of his government, upon a complaint being made against him 
by the Jews, he was banished by Augustus to Vienne, in Gaul, 
where he died. Publius Sulpitius Quirinius (who, according to the 
Greek way of writing the name, is by Luke called Cyrenius), 
the president of Syria, was then sent to reduce the countries over 
which Archelaus had reigned to a Eoman province; and a governor 
of Judaea was appointed under the title of procurator, subordinate 
to the president of Syria. During our Saviour's ministry, Judaea 
and Samaria were governed by a Roman procurator, who had the 
power of life and death; while Galilee was governed under the 
authority of the Romans by Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the 
Great, with the title of tetrarch. 

Sec. 2. Sketch of the Moral and Beligious History of the Jeivs, 
during the jperiod between the Old and Neiv Testaments. 

116. Between the close of the Old Testament canon, and 
the time of our Lord, the Jews appear in a somewhat new 
light. Their intercourse with Gentiles in Babylon, and else- 
where, and the severe chastisements they had undergone, 
checked their tendency to idolatry, and confirmed them in 
their own faith. The Scriptures were also more frequently 
consulted than under the earlier monarchy, and synagogues 
were established in most of the cities of Palestine. 

The intercourse of the Jews with other nations, had become 
during the same period more general. As early as the 
intercourse time of the captivity, a colony was formed in Egypt ; 
Saiherf ^ us violating the law (Deut. 12.), and weakening the 
ties which bound them to the holy city. Their earlier 
connection with Egypt had been a scourge, and now it became a 
snare. From choice or necessity, settlers established themselves 
in Asia Minor, in Greece, in Africa, and in Italy, so that when 
our Lord appeared, there was scarcely a country in the whole 
Roman empire in which a Jewish colony might not be found. It 
was well nigh literally true that Moses had in every city those that 
preached him, Acts 15. 21, 

As a consequence of this intercourse, the original language of 
Palestine, which had been subject, as we have seen, to various in- 
fluences (Pt. i. § 34), was forgotten by many of the Jews, and Greek 
became as familiar in the towns of Judaea as Aramaean. Hence the 



RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE JEWS. 545 

translation of the Old Testament into Greek, the admission by the 
Jews into their purer faith of some of the absurdities of heathen 
philosophy. Hence, also, an extensive acquaintance among the 
Gentiles with the Jewish Scriptures, and a general expectation 
throughout all the east of the coming of the Messiah. 

117. Other influences were also at work, of a directly reli- 
gious kind. 

Most of the rites of the law derived their significance from their 
Other in- symbolical character. They were doctrines in action; 
fiuences. an( } though some were intended merely to preserve the 

Jews distinct from neighbouring nations, most were intended to 
teach lessons of piety and morality, or to point attention to the 
office and work of the Messiah. 

Towards the close of this period, however, all that was spiritual 
in the law was overlooked; the ritual alone being regarded. Hence 
arose a variety of sects, a knowledge of whose tenets helps us to 
appreciate the allusions of our Lord. This knowledge, moreover, 
is highly instructive in illustrating the deceitfulness of human 
nature, and its tendencies in our own age. We may notice, in 
fact, in Judaea, the direction which the mind of man everywhere 
takes as true religion decays. There was first the traditional ten- 
Pharisaism dency, under whose influence foreign human elements 
Sadduceeism, were mingled with the Divine. Forms which com- 
pressed and destroyed the substance of piety were sub- 
stituted for such as grew of it: the law was made void through 
traditions. In the place of the real essence there came the dead 
ceremonial. This was Pharisaism, or legal Judaism. But extremes 
confirm one another. The foreign additions introduced by one sect 
were disowned by others; and with the rejection of the additions 
came the rejection of much that was true. Hence arose Saddnceeism, 
or rationalistic Judaism, ending often in infidelity. In time, it was 
earlier than Pharisaism, but it never nourished till that system be- 
came prevalent. Neither error met the wants of men of warmer 
devotional feeling. The Pharisee believed too much, the Sadducee 
too little. Both failed, in the opinion of this third sect, to see the 
import of Scripture, which is not on the surface, but beneath, and 
must be reached by profound meditation and allegorical interpreta- 
tions. Hence arose the Essenes, the representatives of the monasti- 
cism of all ages. How easy to avoid the errors of others, and yet 
have errors no less fatal of our own ! 

It is worthy of remark, that the three Grecian sects— the Stoics, 
the Epicureans, and the Pythagoreans — did not widely differ from 



546 JEWISH SECTS : TRADITION. 

Correspond- these Jewish sects. Sir John Malcolm has also shown 
ing Greek that the three chief Mohammedan sects fell into the 
same errors. The Sunis are the traditionists ; the Sheas 
adhere to the Koran; and the Sufis sought their religion in what 
Mahommed called "internal divine sensation/' (History of Persia, 
chap. 22). 

Later than the time of our Lord, these sects were known by dif- 
ferent names. The Pharisees were called successively, Rabbinists 
(disciples, that is, of the rabbis, or great teachers) ; Cabalists (t. e. f 
traditionists) ; and Talmudists. Those who held the doctrine of 
the Sadducees on the supremacy of the literal text of the Penta- 
teuch, though not holding their other errors, were called Karaites, 
or Scripturists. The Essenes, also, are known in history as Thera- 
peutas (i. e., soul -physicians) ; though some think that this name 
was given to a distinct, but similar sect. (Burton's Bampton Lec- 
ture, Note 32; and Neander's Church History, i.) 

118. It is instructive to observe, that while the Pharisees 
used tradition for the discovery of truth, the Sadducees used 
rationalistic logic for the same purpose, as did the schoolmen 
in later times ; and that these sects owed their origin to the 
tendencies of human nature, and the decay of spiritual reli- 
gion. The great question between them, moreover, was on the 
extent and authority of tradition. The Sadducee, though 
willing to compare it with so much of Scripture, as he be- 
lieved, denied its authority : The Pharisee received it as 
Divine. 

119. The body of tradition referred to in these disputes, 
Jewish tradi- was collected in the second century, or later, by 
tion. Jewish doctors, and especially by E. Judah, the 
Holy, a descendant of Gamaliel (Lightfoot), and a favourite of 
one of the Antonines. 

The collection is called Mishna, or the repetition. 8 Later doctors 
added to it various comments, under the name of Gemara (a com- 
pletion); and the two works — Mishna and Gemara — are together 
Jewish tra- called the Talmud, from a Hebrew word signifying to 
dition. teach. The Mishna, with the comments collected by 

Jerusalem rabbis in the fourth or fifth century, has the name of 
the Jerusalem Talmud. The comments of the Babylonish Talmud 
were collected in the sixth century by rabbis residing at Babylon. 
The Mishna, or text, is the same in each. The traditions which 
compose it arose about 300 years before Christ, and, interpolations 



iHSHNA : GEMARA : TALMUD. 547 

excepted, were no doubt such as met our Lord in the days of hi3 
personal ministry. 

In the Talmud are found many critical and grammatical comments 
on the texts of Scripture. These comments, with, others which 
tradition had handed down, were brought together into one book 
under the title of Masora (or tradition). When these Masoretic 
comments originated is not agreed. Some Jewish writers maintain 
that many of them are as old as the days of Moses. Kimchi and 
others think that they commenced with the revision of the mss. of 
Scripture effected by Ezra; and others still (among whom is Eben 
Ezra, 1150), that they had their origin in the school of Tiberias, 
between the third and the sixth centuries after Christ. Eichhorn 
thinks it demonstrable that they are not the production of any 
one age, but were written at long intervals, and some of them in 
comparatively modern times. The whole were published in Bom- 
berg's Rabbinical Bible (Venice, 1518-36). They are printed on the 
side of the text and at the end of each book. Extracts from this 
Masora (under the title of the lesser Masora) have been frequently 
printed, and portions of these are found in nearly all editions of 
the Hebrew Scriptures. 

To the Masorites, probably, we owe the points, accents, and most 
of the corrections of the printed text, together with a large mass of 
curious, though unimportant information, on the words and letters 
of Scripture. Some of their corrections are critical-, they suggest 
the right division of words, Psa. 55. 16: 123. 4; the transposition, 
alteration, and omission of consonants, 1 Kings 7. 45: Ezek. 25. 7: 
Amos 8. 8; grammatical or orthographical, as in various passages of 
the Pentateuch (see Pent.) and Ez. 27. 5; and euphemistic or ex- 
planatory, 1 Sam. 5. 6: 6. 4; Deut. 28. 17: 2 Kings 18. 27: Isa. 
26. 12. 

The Masorites notice seven passages in which words are read 
(keri) in the Hebrew which are not written (kethib), 2 Sam. 8. 3: 
16.23; five, where words are written, but not read, 2 Kings 5.18, etc. 

They made it their business, also, to count the words and letters 
of each book, as well as unusual constructions and forms, and to 
mark many facts of no importance, except that the care thus exer- 
cised in accumulating them, tended to guard the purity of the 
sacred text. They note, for example, that the middle letter of the law 
is in Lev. n. 42; the middle words in Lev. 10. 13; the middle 
verse, Lev. 13. 13. Of the Psalms, the middle letter is in 80. 14, 
and the middle verse, 78. 36. They also state how often each 
letter occurs in each book and in all the Bible. a 

The middle letters were written, and are still printed, in an 

a De Wette's Intr. i. 256; Walton's Proleg. vili. 8; Buxtorfs 
Tiberias. 



548 



PHARISEES : SADDUCEES. 



unusual position, or of an -unusual size, and are said by the 
Cabalists to have a deep spiritual meaning. 

120. The Cabala (or received) was the mystical interpretation of 
Scripture, said to have been received from God, by Adam, Abraham, 
and Moses, and to have been handed down through Joshua to the 
seventy elders and their successors, the rabbinical doctors. The 
term is also applied to the whole system of philosophy in vogue 
among the Rabbins, who supposed that each letter of Scripture 
contained some mystery (see examples, Pt. i. § 428). 

ill. The Pharisees formed the most 

Pharisees and ™f? n i^ a J?™ s £ e 
Sadducees. 



Jews.a Their name sig- 
nifies expounders, or sepa- 
rated, either because they expounded 
the law by tradition, or because they 
deemed themselves more holy than 
others,** John 7. 49. They represented 
the legal spirit of Judaism ; and reflect- 
ing most truly the national character, 
they were the favourite sect among the 
people. They were among the bitterest 
enemies of our Lord. 

Such was their general character; in 
some few, however, religion was the ex- 
pression of honest, but misguided zeal, 
Rom. 10. j. 



The Sadducees take their name either 
from Tsedek, righteousness, or from 
Sadok, the pupil of Antigonus Sochasus, 
the first Mishnical teacher, and president 
of the great Sanhedrim (b.c. 250 ). They 
denied the authority of tradition, and re- 
garded with suspicion all revelations 
made later than Moses. They objected 
to all development of Divine truth, even 
of such truth as was plainly implied in 
the Pentateuch ; so that they often mis- 
understood the very books they pro- 
fessed to receive. On this ground, they 
denied the doctrines of the resurrection 
and the immortality of the soul. Their 
denial of the existence of angel and 
spirit is hardly explicable on any prin- 
ciple, except that when once men have 
become sceptical their unbelief is closely allied to credulity. The precepts of the 
law were the only parts they regarded as clear ; all else they thought uncertain. 
Without formally denying a Providence, they made God, as far as possible, an idle 
spectator of the affairs of the universe, and w r ere led by this view to a system of 
deism which all but set aside the authority of revelation. Their doctrines were 
favourably received by the young men of Judaea, and produced (as Josephus has 
affirmed) dispositions cold and repulsive. The Sadducees were mostly persons ov 
wealth, who lived a life of ease and earthly enjoyment, without opening their 
minds to any higher aspirations. From their position, they gained some of the 
most important posts in the country. Caiaphas, who condemned our Lord, w-as a 
Sadducee ;c and Josephus says that Herod, who felt John's preaching so keenly, 
belonged to this sect.d He thus furnishes an illustration of the power of conscience 
over a system of infidelity which his heart, rather than his head, had embraced. 



122. Closely akin to the Pharisees in 
Galileans, ^ eir religious views were 
Herodians the Gahtea™* though 
differing in their political 
tenets. They sprang from Judas of 
Galilee (Gamala), who, in •* the days of 
the taxing," taught that all foreign domi- 
nation was unscriptural, and that God 
was t'z> only king of the Jews. Deem- 
ing it unlawful to pray for foreign 
princes, they performed their sacrifices 
apart. As our Lord and his disciples 
were from Galilee, the Pharisees at- 
tempted to identify him with this sect. 

Of this party, the most violent pro- 
bably were called zealots. They occur 
just before the destruction of Jerusalem, and are perhaps referred to in Acts 21. 38 

A better class of zealots are mentioned in Acts 21. 20: 23. 3. 

a Josephus reckons them at 6, coo, chiefly of the priestly order. Founded b.c. 13$. 

b See Lightfoot's Hor. Heb. on Matt. 15. 2, § 4. 

c Acts 4. 6 : 5. 17. d Matt. 14. 2. 



The Herodians were chiefly Sadducees 
in their religious tenets (compare Mark 
8. 15 with Matt. 16. 6), but were rather 
a political than a religious sect. They 
took their name and their views from 
the family of Herod, who derived their 
authority from the Roman government. 
It was their principle to promote inti- 
macy with Rome by flattery and un- 
limited submission, but especially by in- 
troducing into Judasa the usages of the 
conquerors. This union with idolatry, 
on the ground of worldly policy, w r as 
probably the leavfn against which our 
Lord cautioned his disciples. 



ESSENES : SCRIBES : PROSELYTES. 549 

125. The Essenes are reckoned by Philo at 4,000, and probably 
owe their origin to Egypt. They renounced the plea- 
sures and conveniences of life, and were in their creed 
unqualified fatalists. Matt. 19. 12: Col. 2. 16-19; and some parts of 
John are supposed to refer to their doctrines; but as they had 
seceded from the body of the Jewish people, they are not formally 
noticed in the narratives of our Lord's ministry. 

124. The scribes were a learned profession and not a religious 

sect. It was their business to make copies of the law 

and to expound it. Hence they were called lawyers 5 

and doctors of the law. b As religionists, they generally favoured 

the Pharisees, and are therefore often mentioned with them (Matt. 

23), though all sects had their friends in this profession. 

The scribes of the people were probably members of the San- 
hedrim, not of the priestly order. This body, the Sanhedrim, 
consisted of seventy-two members, of whom twenty-four were 
priests, and twenty-four elders (Rev. 4. 4); and probably the scribes 
of the people were the rest (see 1 Chron. 27. 32). . 

125. The Proselytes were, in the time of our Lord, a very nume- 

„ , rous body. The name was given to those Gentiles who 

Proselytes. J D 

took upon themselves the obligations of the Mosaic 

law. They joined in offering sacrifices to the God of Israel in the 

outer court of the temple. The Pharisees took great pains to make 

these proselytes, and were aided m their efforts by the fading 

authority of the old religions, and the reverence in which the God of 

the Jews was held by the heathen. As these teachers had no true 

idea of their religion, they could impart none ; their converts, 

therefore, only changed their superstition, hushed the accusations 

of conscience, and became twofold more than before c< the children 

of hell." These were called Proselytes of Righteousness, and were 

often among the bitterest enemies of the Christian faith. 

126. There was also a large body of Gentiles called (in later 
times) Proselytes of the Gate, d who simply pledged themselves to 
renounce idolatry, to worship the true God, and to abstain from all 
heathenish practices. They had generally heard of the coming of 
the Messiah, and were free from most of the prejudices of the Jews. 
Hence the new religion made great progress among them. 

a Matt. 22. 35, compared with Mark 12. 28. 

b Luke 5. 17, 21. c Matt. 2. 4. 

d This name was unknown to Christians before the 14th century 
(Lardner). It is given, however, in Maimonides (a. d. 1200), and it 
is certain that the class existed in the days of our Lord. 



550 SAMARITANS. 

They are called in the New Testament " devout persons, fearing 
God," and religious proselytes, Acts 13. 16, 43, and seem to have 
been numerous in Damascus and Thessalonica (13. 50: 17. 4: see 
also 10. 2). 

127. The Samaritans claimed an interest in the Mosaic covenant; 

but our Lord distinguishes them from the lost sheep of 
the house of Israel and from the Gentiles (Matt. 10. 
5, 6). Those of the time of our Lord sprang from the colonists 
with whom the king of Assyria peopled Samaria after the ten tribes 
were carried away (2 Kings 17). A captive priest was sent to teach 
them, and though at first they regarded God as a kind of tutelary 
Deity, and much of their religious system was corrupt, yet they 
afterwards sought to be united with the Jews. "With this view, 
Sanballat, the Cushite (not the Sanballat of Neh. 13. 28), ob- 
tained the aid of a Jewish priest, Manasses, whom the Jews forced 
into banishment. With him, a numerous train of followers settled 
in Samaria. They then erected on Mount Gerizim an independent 
temple, which remained till the days of John Hyrcanus, B.C. 109, 
and established what they deemed a more orderly observance of the 
Mosaic law. Their faith and practice they founded on the Penta- 
teuch alone, and rejected the whole of the other inspired writings. 

This division was overruled for the general good. The Samaritan 
copy of the law has been carefully preserved, and the enmity be- 
tween the Jews and themselves has made both parties the more 
jealous for the purity of their respective texts. The Samaritans 
were free also from the pride and narrowness too prevalent among 
their neighbours. Of spurious descent themselves, and despised by 
those around them, they had probably a more just appreciation of the 
comprehensiveness of the gospel. They regarded all nations as 
entitled to an interest in its blessings. They accordingly received 
from our Lord one of the earliest express intimations that he was 
the Messiah (John 4), and were otherwise frequently noticed by 
him in the course of his ministry. 

As they received only the Pentateuch, it is peculiarly interesting 
to notice the passages on which, to this day, they rest their belief 
on the coming of a Saviour. They point to Deut. 18. 15-19: and 
conclude that he is the Saviour of the world, from Gen. 12. 3: 22. 
18: 26. 4: 28. 14, etc. 

After the time of our Lord, three sects sprang up among them; 
of which two, founded by Simon Magus and his pupil Menander, 
survived for centuries, and were often confounded by heathen 
writers with Christians. 

128. These sects, it mav further be observed, are not isolated 



* 



THE GOSPELS. 551 

These sects phenomena, confined to the countries or times in which 
exhibit the they appeared. They exhibit human nature throughout 

huinan C na-° a ^ time > anc * the pi" ece P ts an( * truths which were adapted 
ture. to their condition are not less adapted to ourselves. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Gospels. 

Introductory. 

129. We now come to the New Testament, the fullest and 
latest revelation of God. The ancient dispensa- 
ment com- tion, made nothing perfect. Apart even from the 
iSeof our th8 abuses, D y which it had been corrupted, it was in 
Lord. itself incomplete, Gal. 3. 21 : Heb. 7. 18 : 9. 9, 11. 

He came to "Whatever was wanting, however, in the ancient 

be the sub- 

jectof the institution, is supplied by the incarnation, the life 
gospel. an( ^ death of our Lord : facts which form the theme 

of the Gospels, as the explanation of them forms the theme 
of the Epistles. He is himself, in truth, the gospel. His 
coming and work, apart even from all he directly taught, 
constitute the glad tidings of great joy unto all people. Did 
men need a real sacrifice for sin, in which the rites of the 
law should find their explanation and end ? That sacrifice he 
offered. Did men need a perfect rule of life ? That rule he 
gave when he dwelt amongst us ; and immortality he brings 
to light, not so much by teaching it, or promising it, as by 
the actual fact of himself rising from the dead in our nature, 
and on our behalf. There is, indeed, no question in religion 
which it is essential for us to know, which the life of Christ 
has ,not solved. In Him we see God himself revealed, his 
mercy, justice, faithfulness, and power ; and in Him we see 
no less clearly our own nature ; its sinfulness in his sufferings ; 
its duties in his example ; its dignity, if we are united with 
him, in his ascension and glory. 

This double purpose of our Lord — to fulfil the ancient 
institute, and to be himself the foundation of a 
liaritiesofhis new one — explains peculiarities in the Gospels, 
teaching. which would otherwise be inexplicable. 

Hence, for example, the substance, and even the form of his 
teaching. Types and predictions which had served in ancient times 
as a depository of spiritual truth he fulfilled. His lessons are often 



552 TRUTH HOW REVEALED. 

given in parables, testing the hearts of the uncandid and indifferent, 
and reminding all of the true character of their own dispensation. 
His acts were often symbolical on the same ground, He washed 
his disciples' feet; he took and set little children in the midst of 
them; and in all his miracles he carefully looked to this double 
end — to suggest the true rule of interpreting the ancient law, and 
to teach the mysteries of his own kingdom. 

130. To this cause, too, it may be attributed, that our Lord's 
revelations were gradually disclosed, and never fully till 
gradual after he had risen. Other reasons there were also. The 
disclosure of prejudices of his disciples were strong, and a gradual 
disclosure of truth was on that account desirable; for 
they were not at first able to bear it. It was his rule, moreover, to 
reward faith in a little, by imparting more, as he himself taught 
them. But the chief reason seems to be that the doctrines of 
Christianity spring out of the facts, and could not therefore be re- 
vealed till the facts had been accomplished. Hence peculiarities 
such as the following. He first hints at some doctrine, or event, 
then repeats the lesson more explicitly, and then either clearly 
reveals it, or refers his disciples to the teaching of the coming 
Spirit. He avoids everywhere a full disclosure of his character, 
even forbidding others to declare it. His ministry he confines to a 
small district and a despised people. Doctrines he seldom or never 
propounds; but he does the works that are at the foundation of 
them. He suffers, and hence the doctrine of atonement. He 
pleads, and hence the doctrine of spiritual influence. He rises 
from the grave, and hence our resurrection and glory. The truth 
is, as Macknight has remarked, our Lord came from heaven, not so 
much to teach the gospel as to be himself the subject of it, leaving 
the Spirit to be its chief interpreter. "We study, therefore, the law 
in the Gospels; the Gospels in the Epistles; and all in Christ. 

" All in Christ" we repeat. For a personal Saviour is the glory 
All truth in .of the gospel, and the study of a personal Saviour the 
Christ. great instrument of our holiness. Religion is not 

merely the contemplation of truth and the practice of morality ; it 
is fellowship with God through his Son. We are to love not moral 
beauty only, but Christ; to believe not so much in it, as in Rim. 
Hence the peculiarity of all apostolic teaching. In place of incul- 
cating virtue, they bid us " walk in his steps," and do what is 
"well pleasing" in his sight. Death they represent as union with 
him; and to "follow the Lamb whithersoever he goeth' 1 is given 
as the sum of Christian duty and of Christian blessedness. To 
understand even the morality of the New Testament, much more 
its doctrines, we must study the Gospels. 



MIRACLES : THEIR IMPORT. 553 

131. The recorded discourses and parables of our Lord, are 
Import of his to us with the Bible in our hands, sufficiently 
miracles. clear. The rules that teach their meaning and 
application may be gathered from Part i., Sec. 7, etc. The 
significancy of his miracles is perhaps less obvious. " They 
have clearly an outward and an inward meaning. 

Outwardly, they are expressions of power (5f ya^eis). They excite 
surprise, and so, as "wonders" QrepaTa), they prompt inquiry: 
they give evidence of a Divine mission, and are therefore signs 
(o"ofjLeia). In each of these characters they are important. The 
constancy of the processes of nature had been converted into an 
argument against an active Providence. In miracles, the perpetuity 
and extent of providential government are vindicated and proved. 
They show that a natural law is one thing, and a living agent 
another. Nor are they, as evidence, less significant. Inwardly, in 
the moral lessons they teach, they are even more important. As a 
whole, they may be called redemptive, as those of the older dispen- 
sation were chiefly judicial: the earlier illustrating a state of law; 
the later, a state of grace. Each miracle, moreover, has its own 
essential characteristic, teaching some truth or duty, and often 
foreshadowing a glorious future. The miracles, in fact, of our 
Lord are as parabolic as his parables, and should be studied for the 
same ends. His own work, his kingdom, and our duty, are re- 
vealed in both. 

132. If the truth of miraculous interference create a difficulty in 
M . . . the mind of an inquirer, it may be well to remind him 
contrary to that a miracle, though above nature, is not contrary to 
nature : -^ an( ^ ma y e y en "b e sa id to be in the strictest harmony 

with it. What we call natural laws are nothing more than uni- 
formities of existence or of sequence, and really imply at some 
stage Divine power. They account for nothing; and after we have 
reached the highest law we say, "Here God himself seems to inter- 
pose: second causes can be traced no further." A natural law, 
therefore, is but a theory (as of motion, for example) ; it is not a 
living force. It is only the plan on which some agent works, and that; 
agent works miraculously — that is, supernaturally — though with 
constancy. The miracles of the gospel, therefore, suppose no 
greater interference than may be found already in any department 
of physical science. 

1.33. The supernatural interference of malevolent beings referred 

„. _ . . to in the Gospels has also created difficulty, but admits 
Nor Satanic . . . . . 

agency in of a satisfactory interpretation. Some have said that 
disease. such interference was peculiar to the time of our Lord^ 

2 B 



554 THE GOSPELS. 

and is now withdrawn. And it was natural, it is added, that the 
manifestation of God in the flesh should be accompanied with un- 
usual activity on the part of the powers of evil : their design was the 
defence of their own cause ; God's design, in permitting it, his 
glory. Others have supposed that Scripture, when speaking of 
disease as the result of Satanic agency, lifts up the veil and reveals 
a secret which is still true. Devils, it is implied, are the first 
causes of suffering; though second causes are also permitted to 
work; and in our own time, it is added, they act with power as 
real, and with results as seemingly natural, as in the days of our 
Lord. Either interpretation is consistent with physical facts. 
What men call causes of disease are either second causes or symp- 
toms. The agent that originates them is not seen. In ascribing 
them, therefore, to an extraneous cause, Scripture is in harmony 
with philosophy; and in ascribing them to a spirit of evil, it is not 
otherwise than in harmony with the indications of even natural 
reason. 

134. One remark more, on the nature of our Lord. The 
Christ God Gospels give the life of One, who was both God and 
and Man. ]vj; an . anc [ we mus t not be surprised to find him 

spoken of now in the one character, and now in the other. 

Sec. 1. The Gospels in their mutual relation. 

135. The word gospel means good news, and corresponds 

exactly to the Greek term a by which this portion 
of sacred Scripture is distinguished. 

The Gospels were written at different times, under the guidance 
of the Holy Spirit, by the men whose names they bear. They give, 
not a complete history of the Saviour's life, but such facts and 
discourses as explain the nature, and prove to different readers the 
Divine origin, of the Christian system. The four books make really 
not a biography, but a memoir, and only one. They form one 
Gospel — a " four-sided Gospel," as Origen called it — and by then' 
marvellous unity and diversity are adapted to interest and instruct 
every class of character in every age. 

136. The /rs£ Gospel (by Matthew), was intended for Jews. He 

therefore gives no explanation of Jewish customs or 
Charac- ° x 

teristics of topography. The genealogy of our Lord he traces 
each. through his reputed father to Abraham, and shows how 

the New Testament is the fulfilment of the Old. The second 

a evayythiov, see Luke 2. 10. 



THE GOSPELS : THEIR PECULIARITIES. 555 

Gospel (by Mark), was written for the instruction of Roman con- 
verts. Jewish customs and places have consequently explanations 
appended. Narrative is preferred to discourse, and the writer 
dwells rather on the actions than on the teaching of our Lord. His 
Gospel is thoroughly practical, and though he has added but 
twenty-four verses which are not found in the Gospels of Matthew 
or Luke, the whole is admirably adapted to the energetic business 
habits of the Roman people. The third Gospel was written by 
Luke, for the use of the Gentiles generally. Here, again, Christ 
appears under a new aspect, not as the minister of the circumcision 
' — his character in Matthew— nor yet as the Lion of the tribe of 
Judah, "Lord of all power and might" — his character in Mark- 
but as the Saviour of the world. His genealogy is traced through 
his mother to Adam, the head of the whole human family. While 
Matthew tells of the twelve apostles who were sent to Israel, Luke 
speaks also of the seventy disciples who were sent as to the nations 
of the earth. Several parables are found in this Gospel alone, and 
among them, the good Samaritan and the prodigal son — the one 
humbling to Jewish pride, the other cheering to the Gentile peni- 
tent. Jewish customs and chronological statements are made intel- 
ligible to a foreigner, while the fulness of his record of the dis- 
courses of our Lord meets the curiosity of the Grecian character. 
In the fourth Gospel, we have something that meets the higher 
speculative tendencies of men; correcting what was false in the 
Jewish and heathen systems of religious philosophy, and com- 
pleting what was deficient in previous revelations. ISTone has 
spoken so fully of the Divine character of our Lord, or of the 
inward spiritual life which springs from union with him. As 
Matthew's Gospel was called the material one, so John's was called 
the spiritual, or Divine. a 

Thus it is that the gospel stands "four-square," with a side 
fronting each side of the spiritual world : Matthew, addressing the 
Jew, reveals the Messianic king; Luke, the Greek, reveals the man: 
Mark, showing the power and vital force of truth; and John, its 
attractive and subduing love. Matthew exhibits chiefly the Jewish 
and subordinate ; John, the spiritual and Divine, in our Redeemer ; 
Mark, his authority over nature and devils ; Luke, his personal 
history as man. In all combined, Jesus is represented as the 
Messiah, the Teacher, the Pattern, the Brother, and the God. 

Sec. 2. The Genuineness of the Gospels. 

137. The general evidence of the genuineness of the Xew 

a By Clement. 

2 b 2 



556 



THE GOSPELS : THEIR GENUINENESS. 



Genuineness Testament has been already given. Evidence of 
of each. ^he genuineness of particular books of Scripture 

we shall briefly sum up in a tabular form. The authors re- 
ferred to belong to the first two centuries and a half of our era. 

The passages on which the Table is formed may be seen referred 
to in Less' Treatise on the Authenticity, etc., of the New Testament. 
For passages marked thus f, see Davidson's Introduction to the 
New Testament, vols i.-iii. The testimony of later witnesses may 
be seen in Lardner's Credibility. Several of the earlier testimonies 
may also be seen there, but Less' list is more carefully prepared 
than his. 







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The testimonies marked J are less decisive than those marked i 
or f, though most of them would be deemed quite satisfactory in a 
case of ordinary criticism. A few other passages may be seen in 
the works of Davidson and Lardner. They are not included above, 
because not decisive. 

Evidences of authenticity may be seen in Part i., Sec. 4. These 
, testimonies on the genuineness of the Gospels apply to the whole, 
with slight exceptions. The 1st and 2nd chaps, of Matt., the last 
eleven verses of Mark, the 1st and 2nd chaps, of Luke, the last two 
verses of John, John 7. 531-8. 1, and John 5. 34, have been ques- 
tioned; though now they are all generally admitted to be genuine. 
The least certain are the last two passages. 

Sec. 3. Introductions to the Gospels. 

TJie Gospel according to Matthew. 
138. Matthew was a native of Galilee, and held the office 



i 



THE GOSPEL BY MATTHEW. 557 

Matthew, his of receiver of customs under the Roman govern- 
iiistory. ' ment at t ^ e sea f Tiberias (Matt. 9. 9). By Mark 

and Luke he is called Levi (Mark 2. 14 : Luke 5. 27-32), 
which was probably his Hebrew name, as Matthew was pro- 
bably the name he assumed on obtaining a Roman office. 
At the call of Christ, he left his business, and became one of 
the disciples a short time before the delivery of the sermon 
on the mount. In enumerating the apostles, he speaks of 
himself as Matthew the publican (10. 3), anxious to magnify 
the grace of God in his call. The language in which he de- 
scribes the abandonment of his worldly prospects for Christ 
is a remarkable instance of humility, and illustrates one prin- 
ciple on which the Gospels are composed. The writers never 
make themselves prominent, nor do they give any details 
respecting their personal history. Their theme is — not 
themselves, but Christ Jesus their Lord. 

The exact date of this Gospel is not known. By some it is placed 
n as early as a. d. 37 ; a by others, as late as 63. The 

weight of evidence, however, is in favour of a few years 
later than the earlier date (t. e. } about a. d. 42), and it was cer- 
tainly written before the destruction of Jerusalem. 

It was a general tradition in the early church that there was a 
, . Gospel, written by Matthew, in Syro-Chaldaic. That 

language he did write some notices of our Lord's life in the ver- 
wntten. nacular language of Palestine is probable. But the 

originality and genuineness of the Greek Gospel are sustained by 
the strongest evidence. No trace of any Hebrew Gospel now re- 
mains. In Palestine, moreover, Greek was the language of books, 
of business, and of common life. Looking, therefore, to the habits 
of his countrymen, and to the approaching dissolution of the Jewish 
state, he had every inducement to employ that tongue. 
His Gospel may be thus divided : 

Chaps. 1, 2. Contain a brief notice of the infancy 
and childhood of our Lord. 
Chaps. 3.-4. 12. A record of his entrance on his public ministry, 

and of events preparatory to it. ^ 

Chaps. 5.-7. An exhibition of Christ as a public teacher, illus-, 

trated in the sermon on the mount. 
Chaps. 8, 9. An exhibition of Christ as a worker of miracles, 
giving in one view several miracles of different kinds per- 
formed in various places. 

* Tillemont, Owen, and Tomline, 38: Irenseus, later than 60. 



558 THE GOSPEL BY MARK. 

Chap. 13. An exhibition of Christ as a teacher by parables, ir« 
some of which there are also prophetic intimations. 

Chaps. 10. -20. We have instruction, miracle, and narrative, in 
more regular order, and in 

Chaps. 2o»-28. We have a record of the last sufferings, death, 
and resurrection of our Lord. 
The intention of the writer is clearly, by a simple record of what 
Aim of this our Lord did and suffered, to redeem his Master's 
Gospel. memory from reproach, to disarm the. prejudices of his 

countrymen, and to set forth for future ages the true character of 
the Messiah. Hence his frequent appeals to the prophets (1. 23 : 
2. 6, 15, 18: 3. 3: 4- 15: 8. 17, etc.), his accounts of the refutation 
of the various Jewish sects, his care in narrating such parts of our 
Lord's discourses as were best suited to awaken his owe nation to a 
sense of their sins, to correct their hopes of an earthly kingdom, 
and to prepare them for the admission of the Gentiles to the 
church. For the special instruction of Jewish Christians, he gives 
the predictions of our Lord in relation to Jerusalem, and the argu- 
ments by which he sought to reconcile his disciples to opposition 
and persecution for their adherence to him. 

TJie Gospel according to Mark. 

139. Mark, who, besides his Latin name of Marcus, appears 
Mark's his- to have had the Hebrew name of John, was the 
tor F- son of Mary, a pious woman at Jerusalem, who re- 

ceived in her house the assemblies of the primitive church, 
and welcomed the apostle Peter after his deliverance out of 
prison by the angel, Acts 12. 12. Mark was the nephew of 
Barnabas, Paul's companion in his travels, Col. 4. 10. These 
two, being at Jerusalem about the time of Peter's deliverance, 
took Mark with them upon their mission, Acts 12. 25. He 
accompanied them to Antioch ; and thence, on their first 
journey, as far as Perga in Pamphylia ; where he left them, 
and returned to Jerusalem, Acts 13. 5, 13. We afterwards 
find him at Antioch, with Paul and Barnabas, desiring to ac- 
company them on a second journey*; but Paul, regarding him 
as unfit for the work, since he had left them on the former 
occasion, was unwilling to take him. This decision caused a 
warm dispute and a temporary separation between the two 
apostles ; and Barnabas, influenced probably by his affec- 
tion for his kinsman, " took Mark, and sailed unto Cyprus/' 
There can be no doubt that Mark afterwards acknowledged 



THE GOSPEL BY MARK. 559 

his error, whatever it was — whether he was wanting in the 
courageous self-denial of the missionary, or had misgivings 
on the extension of the gospel to the heathen — for the apostle 
Paul appears to have given him his confidence and affection, 
and commends him to the churches. See Col. 4. 10 : 2 Tim. 
4. 11 : Philem. 24. 

To these notices, gathered from the sacred writers, others 
add that Mark afterwards went to Egypt ; and, having planted 
a church at Alexandria, died there. » 

■ Thus it appears that Mark, though not himself one of the 
twelve, was a friend and companion of the apostles ; and, 
living at Jerusalem, was upon the spot where the most im- 
portant events in our Lord's life occurred, and where many 
of his miracles were performed. But, in addition to these 
means of knowledge, it is the concurrent testimony of the 
early Christian writers that Mark attended Peter (by whom 
he was probably brought to a knowledge of the truth, see 
1 Pet. 5. 13), during a considerable portion of his ministry ; 
and having for some years enjoyed the intimate friendship of 
that apostle, wrote this account of our Lord's life under his 
immediate direction. So that Justin calls his Gospel " the 
Gospel of St. Peter." Some commentators suppose this fact 
to be referred to in 2 Pet. 1. 15, 16. 

The internal evidence is in favour of Peter's superinten- 
dence. Scarcely an action or a work of Christ is related, at 
which Peter was not present ; and those events in our Sa- 
viour's life are related in detail which must have made the 
deepest impression upon Peter. Many things honourable to 
Peter are omitted by Mark, which are mentioned by the other 
evangelists ; whilst, on the other hand, the failings of Peter 
are fully recorded. Comp. Mark 8. 29, with Matt. 16. 17. 
See also Mark 8. 33 : 14. 31-71. 

The time when this Gospel was written is uncertain. Various 
_ dates have been assigned to it, between a. d. 48 and 6<. 

I)3.t6. . 

Some suppose it written at Rome, others at Caesarea; 
but all agree that it was intended for Roman converts. 

The chief peculiarities of Mark as a writer are, (1.) That he 
^ . relates rather the works than the discourses of our 

Lord. His descriptions are more graphic than those of 
Matthew and Luke. He frequently employs the present tense, intro- 
duces persons as speakers, and is often minute in his descriptions of 



560 THE GOSPEL BY LUKE. 

persons and localities. In many instances where the same events 
are related by Matthew and Mark, the latter fills up the outline of 
the former, giving greater distinctness to the picture. Compare 
Mark 5, 22-43, an d Matt. 9. 18-26: Mark 9. 14-29, and Matt. 17. 
14-21. 

Tfie Gospel according to Lake. 

140. Luke, the writer of the Gospel which bears his name, 
Lukes his- i s generally allowed to have been the " beloved 
tory. physician" mentioned by Paul, Col. 4. 14. Ac- 

cording to the testimony of some of the Fathers, he was a 
native of Antioch. He would appear, from his intimate ac- 
quaintance with the Greek language, as well as from his Greek 
name, Aovkcls, to have been of Gentile extraction. But, from 
the Hebrew terms occurring in his writings, and from his ac- 
curate knowledge of the Jewish religion, ceremonies, and 
customs, it is highly probable that he was in early life a 
Jewish proselyte ; and, having afterwards embraced the gos- 
pel, he became a faithful and zealous companion of Paul in 
many of his labours and travels, Acts 16. 10: 20. 5, etc. We 
learn from Acts 28. 15, and Philem. 24, that he was with the 
apostle at the time of his first captivity at Rome ; and from 
2 Tim. 4. 11, that, during his second imprisonment, Luke 
alone remained by his side. 

Luke is generally supposed to have been a scholar. His 
style is more classical than that of the other evangelists. 
Being a physician, his description of diseases, and his accounts 
of cures wrought by the Saviour and his apostles, have more 
of technical definiteness than the other Gospels. 

With regard to the questions ichen and where this Gospel was 
written, there is no certain information. Some suppose 

T)*! ft 1 

that it was written during the time that Luke was in 
Paul's company, probably during his confinement at Rome, about 
the year 62 or 63, a. d. Others give it an earlier date, and suppose 
it to have been written at Philippi, about 57, A. d., see 2 Cor. 8. 
18-21. But, however that may be, it is evident that it was originally 
written for Gentile readers, as that of Matthew was originally de- 
signed for Jews. He has always before his eyes the 
" salvation prepared for all people;" — " a light to 
lighten the Gentiles" (2. 31, 32), and, as writing for heathen who 
had departed so widely from God, he has been careful to record 



THE GOSPEL BY JOHX. 561 

the Lord's declarations concerning the free mercy of God to the 
greatest sinners (7. 36-50: 15.: 18.10-14: 19. 5-10: 23. 40-43, etc.) 

The Gospel of Luke is generally considered to be more of a re- 
gular biography than any of the others, He appears to have pre- 
served the chronological order of his main facts ; closing the various 
periods of his history with a number of incidental circumstances and 
discourses, which belong to that division of time, but the exact 
sequence of which he is not careful to specify. 

The numerous and important additional facts which Luke has 
supplied, give to his Gospel a peculiar value. He relates with 
remarkable clearness the conversations of Jesus, with the incidents 
which gave rise to them, the remarks of those who were present, and 
their results. Though containing information supplementary tc 
that given by Matthew, his Gospel has not the character of a sup- 
plemental document; but is evidently an independent and original 
work. Generally, the parables and discourses of Luke's Gospel, 
are less full than those of Matthew. 

The Gospel according to John. 

141. John, the younger brother of James, who with him 
Johns his- was called to the apostleship, was the son of Zebe- 
tor y- dee and of Salome. His father was a fisherman, 

living at Bethsaida in Galilee, on the borders of the lake of 
Gennesareth. The family appear to have been in easy cir- 
cumstances ; at least, we find that Zebedee employed hired 
servants, Mark i. 20 ; and that Salome was among the wo- 
men who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus, Matt. 
27.56. 

Having been brought up in the knowledge and the love of 
the true God by a pious mother, he appears to have early 
become a disciple of our Lord's forerunner ; and to have been 
directed by him to Jesus, whom he followed ; it being generally 
considered that he was one of the two disciples mentioned in 
chap. 1. 37-41. He w T as soon admitted, with his brother 
James, and Peter, to particular intimacy with the Saviour, 
who selected them as witnesses of the most important and 
solemn events of his life, Mark 5. 37 : Matt. 18. 1 : 26. 37. 

It appears that, of all the apostles, John was especially 
favoured with our Lord's regard and confidence, so as to be 
called " the disciple whom Jesus loved." He was devotedly 
attached to his Master ; and though he fled, like the other 
apostles, when Jesus was apprehended, he recovered his firm- 

2 B 3 



562 THE GOSPEL BY JOHN. 

ness, was present during the trial and crucifixion of our 
Saviour ; and was intrusted by Him with the care of his 
mother (19. 26, 27). 

John is said to have remained at Jerusalem till the death of 
Mary, about the year a. d. 48. After Paul had left Asia 
Minor, John went to labour there, residing chiefly at Ephesus, 
and foundiog several churches in that country. Shortly 
afterwards, during the persecution under Domitian (or accord- 
ing to others, towards the end of the reign of Nero), he was 
banished to Patmos, an island in the JEgean Sea ; where he 
received the visions of the Apocalypse. On the accession 
of Nerva he was liberated, and returned to Ephesus ; where 
he continued to labour during the rest of his life. He died 
in the hundredth year of his age, about A. D. 100. 

According to. the general testimony of antiquity, John wrote his 
Gospel at Ephesus, about the year 97, long after the 
destruction of Jerusalem. He therefore makes no men- 
tion of our Lord's predictions of that event, and the dispersion of 
the Jews ; those prophecies having at that time received their ac- 
complishment. 

It is generally considered that John had the other three Gospels 
before him when he wrote; inasmuch as he omits all 
that had been described in them w T ith sufficient minute- 
ness. He supposes the great events of our Saviour's life and his 
principal instructions, to be already known to his readers. If at 
any time he relates what had been mentioned by the other evange- 
lists, it is generally with a view to introduce some important dis- 
course of our Lord; or because it was particularly connected with 
the main object of his Gospel. 

The object which this evangelist had in view is very clearly stated 
in chaps. 1. 1-18: 20. 31. His design appears to have 
been to convey to the world just and adequate notions 
of the real nature, office, and character of the Divine Redeemer. 
For this purpose are especially recorded those passages of our 
Saviour's life, which most clearly displayed his Divine power and 
authority; and those of his discourses in which he spoke most plainly 
of his own nature, of the work given to him by the Father, and the 
efficacy of his death as an atonement for the sins of the world. And 
it is from this Gospel that the most numerous and decisive proofs 
of our Lord's deity are derived. Yet no evangelist has portrayed 
the softer lineaments of our Lord's humanity with more delicacy 
and beauty, or disclosed more of the inmost affections and feelings 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 563 

of the Saviour's heart. The other evangelists give the history of 
our Lord in Galilee chiefly; in John he is seen generally in Judaea. 
Here we find him attending three passovers at least, the others 
giving the history of but one. Two-thirds of this Gospel are new; 
the most important additions being in chaps. 13-17, and in chap. ir. 
He records but six miracles, and omits most of the parables, and 
the sermon on the mount. 

This Gospel was probably the last written of all the books of the 
Bible ; and while proving the Divine nature of Christ, it corrected 
several of the heresies which sprang up in the first age of Chris- 
tianity, and supplies an answer to some that prevail in our own. 

Sec. 4. The Chronology of the Gospels. 

142. The chronology of the Gospels is a subject of much 
interest and considerable difficulty. It will be sufficient to 
indicate the evidence and results which have been ascertained 
by recent and protracted inquiry, 

1. The present Christian era a. d. i, is a. u. c. 754, and was fixed 
in the 6th century by Dionysius Exiguus. It came into use in the 
8th century, and was adopted by Bede. Shortly afterwards we find 
it employed in public transactions by Pepin and Charlemagne. 
iSow Herod the Great died A. u. c. 750, just before the Passover (*. e. 
between the latter part of March, and the latter part of April) : a 
statement made by Josephus, and confirmed by astronomy, which 
shows that an eclipse of the moon,- said to have taken place just 
before his death, did take place in that year. Allowing then, four 
or six months for the visit of the Magi, and the flight into Egypt, 
the birth of our Lord cannot be later than January, 75 o, or October, 
749, see Matt. 2. 1-6: Jos. Antiq. xvii., xviii. 1: xvii., 9, 3. The 
Christian era, therefore, is wrong by at least four years, and in 
this decision nearly all chronologers agree. 

The conclusion to which the testimony of Josephus leads us, is 
confirmed by other evidence. . . . From Luke 3. 1, 2, 23, we 
learn that John entered upon his ministry in the 15 th year of 
Tiberius, and that Christ was about thirty years of age at his bap- 
tism. Both probably entered upon their work when they were 
thirty (see Num. 4. 3, 35, 39, 43, 47). Tiberius was associated 
with Augustus (and the original of Luke implies that he dates from 
that time), A. u. c. 764; so that the 15th year of Tiberias begins 
A. u. c. 779. Christ, therefore, was born in A. u. c. 750, or 749. . . 
Again, from John 2. 20, we learn that then the temple had been 
forty-six years in building (Greek). Josephus states that Herod 
began this work in the 18th year of his reign (which is reckoned 
from the death of Antigonus, A. u. c. 714). Hence, when our Lord 



564 HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS. 

spoke (the time being the date of his first Passover, when he was 
probably thirty and a-half years old), the 65th year from the com- 
mencement of Herod's reign was in progress, or a. u. c. 779. On 
this reckoning, therefore, Christ must have been born a. u. c. 749. 
The Latin fathers, moreover, had a tradition, that Christ was put 
to death in the consulate of the Gemini, Rubellius and Fufius, i. e., 
A. u. c. 782-3, and reckoning his ministry at three and a-half years, 
we are again brought to a. u. c. 749, as the date of his birth. 

2. This view represents our Lord as entering upon his ministry 
when he was thirty. Usher, overlooking part of the evidence, and 
misunderstanding Luke 3, supposes our Lord to have commenced 
his ministry in his 34th year, t. <?., A. d. 30. This conclusion is now 
generally admitted to be an error. 

3. On the duration of his ministry, there is also a difference of 
opinion. The first three evangelists seem to give events connected 
with only one Passover; the last mentions three, and probably four 
(see next Sec). Usher supposes that three only are mentioned, 
and hence he makes the duration of our Lord's ministry Wo and 
a-half years. Greswell and Robinson suppose that four are men- 
tioned, and make his ministry three, or three and a-half years. 

4. The date of our Lord's death is of course known ; the day of 
his birth can be only conjectured. Lardner reckons that Christ 
was born between August and November, 748, or 749 ; and Gres- 
well maintains that he was born April 5, 750. As early as the 3rd 
and 4th centuries, the 6th of January and the 25 th of December 
were celebrated as the festival of his birth and baptism, by the two 
chief sections of the church. 

Sec. 5. TJie Gospels Harmonized. 

143. While the Gospels as they lie before us are a precious 
importance record of our Saviour's life, it is highly interest- 
of a synopti- ^ ng . ^ com p are them, and to ascertain the chrono- 

cal view of & r ' 

the Gospels, logical order of the events they describe. The 
chronological evangelists are their own best interpreters. Each 
harmony. narrative is supplementary to the rest, in minute 
as well as in important particulars. The characteristic of 
their testimony is unity in diversity. And these advantages 
appear only on comparison of the narratives themselves. 

144. This process is easy. A precise chronological arrangement 
. .. , of the events and discourses is more difficult, though 

A synoptical > t m 7 " 

view easy : also instructive. A synoptical view of the Gospels 

chronological t r> i i n 7 7*7 i,^,,,^ -.,-, T » 

arrangement may De framed by all; a chronological naimony 
difficult. requires much learned research. The order adopted 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 565 

in the Harmony of the Eeligious Tract Society, which is 
founded on Dr. Robinson's, carefully compared with the 
Harmonies of Greswell and Wieseler, is perhaps the best. 

145. In fixing the order of the events of the Gospels, the first ques- 

tion to be decided is, the number of passovers that oe- 
Hon* num" curred during our Lord's ministry. One only is mentioned 
ber of pass- by the first three evangelists ; three at least by the last 

(John 2. 13: 6. 4: 13. 1), and probably four (5. i). a 
Some, as Sir I. Newton, and Dr. Macknight, have supposed even a 
fifth, but of this there is no satisfactory evidence. A few, main- 
tain but one ; many, as Lardner, Bengel, Benson, three ; but most, 
iucluding Grotius, Lightfoot, Newconie, Hengstenberg, four. 

146. An extreme view, in opposition to all attempts to frame a har- 
mony of the Gospels, was once common on the continent, and was 
maintained by Osiander (1537), an d other Lutherans. In this view, 
each Gospel was held to preserve a strictly chronological order, 
and all events, however apparently identical, which occupied in any 
two Gospels different places, were deemed distinct. Elsewhere, and 
in later times, sounder views prevailed, especially through the ex- 
positions of Calvin and Bengel. It is now generally admitted that 
Which Gos- ^he evangelists do not profess to adhere to a chronolo- 
pel is on the gical order, and that no harmony can be made without 
most chrono- some transposition. In this principle, all modern har- 
iogical. monists concur, and they differ only in the importance 
which each attaches to the order of some one evangelist. In the 
chronological Tables, given by Dr. Robinson, the order of John is 
never altered, though between the events he records, large portions 
of the other evangelists are introduced. Mark's order is only twice 
inverted, Luke's not much oftener, Matthew's most of all: though in 
no case are the alterations very serious. The first three Gospels are 
sometimes called synoptical, from the fact, that their narratives are 
parallel to a much larger extent than those of John. 

147. Two things are very obvious on comparing the Gospels. 

„ , , They contain many verbal agreements so marked as not 

v erbal agree- J . . 

ments be- to admit the supposition that they are accidental ; b and 

tween the they contain some apparent discrepancies. The first 

origin of fact has been variously explained. A common opinion 

them. was ^ -1-}-^ ^e Gospel first written was freely used by 

a See on the Grammar of this passage, if read without the article, 
Winer, § 19. 4, Matt. 27. 15: Mark 15. 16: and on the whole 
question, The Harmony of the Gospels, Religious Tract Society. 

b The English version does not always give a full idea of the 
remarkable sameness of expression to be found in the different 
Gospels: see Dr. Stroud's Harmony of the Gospels. 



566 CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 

subsequent writers; and each, of the first three Gospels has been 
regarded as the Gospel which was used in this way. Now, how- 
ever, this theory has few advocates. The inspired writers them- 
selves say nothing of such dependence as this practice would imply. 
The passages and expressions in common, moreover, are few, com- 
pared with those which are peculiar; so that this theory creates 
more difficulties than it explains. A second opinion maintains that 
all the evangelists used some common Gospel now lost; but the 
absence of all traditional support for such a theory, and the diffi- 
culty of applying it so as to explain the admitted facts, have in- 
duced most critics to reject it. The latest suggestion is, that all 
the Gospels are founded on narratives already familiar, through 
frequent repetition, to the inspired writers. The chief facts of our 
Lord's life and teaching had certainly been promulgated for many 
years before the Gospels were written, and many expressions and 
descriptions must have been, from this circumstance, familiar to 
the inspired writers. Olshausen combines the first and the last of 
these views; Matthew and Luke were written, as he thinks, inde- 
pendently, and Mark had the Gospel of Matthew before him. 
These theories are important chiefly as they serve to remove ob- 
jections founded on the marked verbal agreement of the inspired 
writers. The last theory, it will be noticed, explains the facts, 
without adding materially to the difficulties. 

148. The apparent discrepancies of the Gospels are not numerous, 

. but they are obvious, and have probablv created more 

Apparent J . ' r 

discrepan- difficulty than their marked agreement. Examples are 

cics: how the following: 
reconciled. ■»«- 

The genealogies, Matt. 1. 1-17: Luke 3. 23-32. The 

solution of the difficulty is found in the fact, that Matthew traces 

our Lord's descent through Joseph, and Luke, through Mary. 

The call of Peter, Matt. 4. 18-22: Mark 1. 16-20: Luke 5. 1-11. 
Greswell supposes two transactions; Robinson, but one, main- 
taining, with Spanheim, that one evangelist supplies what another 
omits, and that there is no discrepancy. 

The sermon on the mount, Matt. 5. 1 : Luke 6. 20. Greswell thinks 
the sermon was delivered twice; Robinson, but once, the narrative 
of Luke ending 6. 19. A third solution explains "in the plain" 
(inl, 6. 17) as meaning on a level spot upon the mountain, 
Matt. 5. 1. 

The two demoniacs, Matt. 8. 28: Luke 8. 26: Mark 5.2. Matthew 
says there were two ; Mark and Luke mention but one. Le Clerc 
remarks that the fuller account includes the briefer, and the briefer 
does not contradict the fuller. Matthew reads Gergesenes, though 
there is a difference of reading. Gergesa, however, was compre- 
hended in the district of Gadara. 



CHKONOLOGY OF THE GOSPELS. 567 

Hie centurion's servant. Matt. 8. 5-12: Luke 7. 1-10. Some sup- 
pose these to have been two transactions, but they occurred in the 
same city and about the same time. What Matthew says the cen- 
turion did, Luke says was done by the elders of the Jews and his 
friends; not an uncommon mode of speech: compare Mark 10. 35 
and Matt. 20. 20. A third explanation supposes both the cen- 
turion and the elders to have gone to Christ ; he later than they. 

The two blind men near Jericho, Matt. 20. 29-34: Mark 10. 46-52: 
Luke 18. 35-43. Here are several difficulties. Matthew speaks of 
two, Mark and Luke, of one. Matthew and Mark say the occurrence 
took place as Christ departed from Jericho; Luke says it took 
place when he was come nigh. Greswell, after Lightfoot, regards 
these miracles as distinct ; the one occurring as Christ entered 
Jericho, the other, as he left it. The word used by Luke, how- 
ever, may mean (hellenistically) to be near, answering to our 
phrase *'in the neighbourhood," 1 Kings 21. 2: Deut. 21. 3: Ruth 
2. 20: Phil. 2. 30. De "Wette and several others translate, when 
Christ was drawing near to Jerusalem, at Jericho, etc., see ver. 3 r : 
29. 29, 41. 

These instances illustrate the difficulties of the narrative, and 
explain the various modes adopted in removing them. On any in- 
terpretation, the moral lessons of the narrative are unimpaired. 

149. The study of the Gospels synoptically, and in the 
order of time, will often suggest important lessons. 

Importance ; &D r 

of studying Look, for example, at the record of Christ's early 

in this way: life. The first act of worship was paid to. him by 
illustrated in Gentiles, whose gifts proved a providential supply to 
his family when escaping from the jealous hatred of 
Herod. The history of the subsequent youth of our Lord, till he 
was twelve years old, is given in one sentence: "he grew, and 
waxed strong in spirit, filled with wisdom, and the grace of God 
was upon him." 

He was not in haste to enter upon the more public duties of his 
office. After his baptism even, there is an interval of several 
months before he reveals himself (at the Passover at Jerusalem) as 
a "Teacher sent from God." That interval he spent (in part) in 
the wilderness, conquering temptation, and enduring mysterious 
suffering. He thus learned, at the outset, to succour the tempted. 
These temptations preceded his public ministry, and followed the 
public recognition of him by the Father, at his baptism. The 
same voice was again heard on the eve of the crucifixion. Tokens 
of peculiar favour often precede severe suffering, and both prepare 
for the discharge of onerous duties. 



568 chronology: lessons. 

The threefold recognition of sonship is instructive : first, at his 
birth, to indicate his Divine nature (Luke i. 35); the second, at his 
baptism, to indicate the divinity of his mission; the third, at his 
transfiguration, to indicate his regal dignity and authority, "Hear 
ye him." At his resurrection all were confirmed, and he "was 
declared to be the Son of God with power." 

The first announcement of Christ refers to his kingdom, Matt. 
3. 2; the second, to his sacrifice, John 1. 29. 

The first miracle of our Lord was performed in Galilee, and 
taught that, in his official character, no earthly relationship could 
be acknowledged (John 2. 4); that he came, not as John, austere 
and unsocial, but sympathizing with man in every condition of joy 
as well as of sorrow. It taught also that the water of purifying 
under the law was to give place to the wine of his kingdom ; the 
richest revelation being reserved to the close. 

The first of his public acts (John 2. 15), and one of the last, was to 
purify the temple, showing that he was its Lord, and fulfilling a 
prophecy of Malachi (chap. 3. 1). He also intimated that thence- 
forth his own body (as afterwards his church) was to be the true 
temple (John 2. 21), wherein God himself would dwell. 

His first recorded discourse was with Nicodemus, on regeneration, 
on salvation by faith, on God's love to the world in the gift of his 
Son. He announced at the same time that he was son of God and 
son of man; that his kingdom was to be established in human 
hearts; that he himself was to be lifted up, not on an earthly 
throne, but on the cross. The first scenes of his life, therefore, in 
Jerusalem, shadowed forth the truths which were embodied in 
terrible reality in the last. His second discourse was with the 
Samaritan woman, and ended in the conversion of many of the 
Samaritans. The earliest extensive success of our Lord's mission 
was witnessed in a district that was the most despised, and where 
he had wrought no miracles. He was first rejected at Nazareth. 

How instructive to observe, that though " the whole multitude 
of the disciples ' had rejoiced and praised God, on their way to 
Jerusalem, "for all the mighty works which they had seen," within 
a week, one had denied our Lord, others had slept during his 
agony, and all had forsaken him. "He trod the wine-press alone," 
though, but a few days before, that prophecy did not seem likely 
to be fulfilled. 

The day after, he delivered the parable of the wicked husband- 
men, asserting his own dignity as "the son," and foretelling his 
death. 

The contention among the disciples who should be greatest seems 
to have been settled by our Lord taking a towel, girding himself, 



CHRONOLOGY : LESSONS. 5G 



and washing their feet ; thus teaching them that the chief among 
them was to be as he that did serve. Compare Luke 22. 24-30 and 
John 13. 1-20. 

Careful attention to the order of the narrative will show that, 
while Pilate declared that he found no fault in Him, and Herod 
acknowledged that there was no charge against him worthy of 
death, he was crucified on the charge of olasphemy, making him- 
self cqaal with God. That was his true character, or he was justly 
condemned. 

It will be seen that it was after Judas Iscariot had left the com- 
pany that our Lord gave his disciples the new commandment, in- 
stituted the last supper, and delivered the tender farewell discourse 
recorded in John 14.-16. 

Nearly one-third of the Gospels is occupied with the events of the 
last seven days of our Saviour's life, including his crucifixion. The 
prominence given to these scenes he himself explains. "The hour 
is come when the Son of Man shall be glorified. Verily, verily, I 
sav unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it 
abideth alone ; but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit." 

150. The connection of miracles and parables is no less 

In parables instructive. 

For parables, see Part i. § 418. For miracles, we may 
take the 8th and 9th of Matthew. Christ first heals with a touch 
the man whom the law had pronounced unclean (8. 2-4), and then 
proceeds to assert practically his power over disease (14-17), over 
devils themselves (16), over physical nature (23-27), and over even 
brute creatures (28-34). What can be more complete than this 
view of his reign? In chap. 9, ^re see him in his spiritual kingdom, 
forgiving sin (1-8), and answering prayer, direct (2022), inter- 
cessory (23-26^, united (27-31), unuttered (32, 33). Whether 
these are precisely the characteristic features of this group may 
admit of a question, but there are characteristic features, and our 
wisdom is to ascertain and examine them. 

So, again, of the cases in which Christ raised the dead. Three 
only are given, but each is characteristic. In the case of Jairus' 
daughter, the spirit had but just quitted the body; the son of the 
widow of Xain was being carried to the grave; and the summons to 
Lazarus was addressed to one who had been dead "four days 
already." Christ therefore raised the dead from the couch, the 
bier, and the sepulchre: an ascending series of difficulties, but all 
possible with him. Each miracle, moreover, had in other respects 
its appropriate lessons. 



570 



TOPICS IK READING THE GOSPELS. 



Sec. 6. Topics to be Noticed in Reading the Gospels. 

151. In the study of the New Testament, and of the Gos- 
pels especially, we need to inquire and compare. The in- 
spired writings are infinitely rich in truth, and each verse is 
so connected with the rest that an intelligent inquirer may 
easily extend his investigations from one passage over the 
whole of Scripture. Without attempting to exhaust topics 
of inquiry, we mention the following. The letters may be 
prefixed to each verse, or not, according to the taste of the 
reader. 



A. What analogies between sensible and 

spiritual things may be here traced ? 

a. What prophecy is here accomplished? 

where found ? when written ? what 

rule of interpretation is illustrated? 

B. What Messing is here sought or ac- 

knowledged, or promised, and why ? 

C. What custom is here referred to? 

c. What trait of character is here given? 

good or bad? belonging to our na- 
tural or our renewed state? what 
advantages are connected with : t? 

D. What doctrine is here taught ? how 

illustrated? what its practical in- 
fluence ? 

d. What duty is here enforced, and 

how? from what motives? 

D. What difficulti/ is here found in 

history or in doctrine? how ex- 
plained? 

E. What evangelical or other experience 

is here recorded ? 

e. What example is here placed before 

us? of sin or of holiness? lessons? 

F. What facts are here related? what 

docirine or duty do they illustrate? 
do you commend or blame them, 
and why? 

G. What is the geographical position of 

this country, or place? and what 
its history ? 
II. What facts of natural history or of 
general history are here referred to 
or illustrated? 

I. What institution or ordinance is 
here mentioned? on whom bind- 
ing? what its design? what its 
connection with other institutions? 

i. What instructions may be gathered 
from this fact, or parable, or 
miracle ? 



K. What knowledge of human nature, or 
want of knowledge, is here dis- 
played ? 

L. "What lofty expressions of devotional 

fervour ? 
I. What Levitical institute is here men- 
tioned? why appointed? 

M. What miracle is here recorded? by 
whom wrought ? in whose name ? 
what were its results? what 
taught ? 

iV. What is worthy of notice in this 
name ? 

P. WTiat prohibition is here given? is it 
word, or thought, or deed, it con- 
demns? 

p. What is the meaning of the parable 
here given? what troth as to God, 



" +1 



the 



kingdom, 



is 



Christ, man, 
taught ? 

P. What promise is here given? to 
whom ? 

E. What prophecy is here recorded? is 
it fulfilled? how? when? 

S. What sin is here exposed ? 

s. What sect is here introduced? men- 
tion its tenets. 

T. What type is here traced ? 
t. What threatening? when inflicted? 

U. What unjustifiable action of a good 
man ? what unusual excellence in 
one not pious? 

W. What wo is here denounced ? what 
naming given? against whom, 
and why ? 

X. What is here taught of the work, 
character, person of Christ ? 

x. What sublimity of thought or of lan- 
guage is here ? what inference 
follows? 



Lessons to be gathered from a Comparison of Passages. 

152. Sometimes, instead of marking the lessons taught in 
single verses, it is useful to compare, in order to ascertain 



gospels: method of study. 57 J 

and contrast the duties or truths involved. The following 
(taken from Nichols' Help) are specimens. Many more 
might be added. 

Give instances of our Lord's attendance on public worship, at the 
temple, and in the synagogue ; his submission to the rites and cere- 
monies of the Mosaic law (Luke 4. 16: John 7. 37); his retirement 
for private prayer, and under what circumstances (Matt. 14. 23. 
26. 36: Mark 1.35: Luke 6. 12); his prayers for others (Luke 22. 
32, for Peter: John 17, for his church: Luke 23. 34, for his 
enemies); his prayer with others (Luke 9. 28). 

Give instances of his submission to the will of his heavenly 
Father (John 4. 34: 5. 30: 18. 11); his zeal (John 2. 17: 4. 31- 
34: Luke 9. 51, etc.); his giving an improving turn to events and 
circumstances (Matt. 9. 27: Luke 12. 15: John 4. 32: 6.27: 7. 37); 
his humility (John 8. 50: 13. 1, etc.); and his self-denial. 

Give illustrations how our Lord acted as a son (Luke 2. 51: John 
19. 26); as a friend (John 11); as a subject (Matt. 17. 24); as a 
teacher (Matt. 11. 29). 

Give instances of his reproof, and show the grounds of it in the 
following cases (his apostles, as Peter, Matt. 16. 23: Luke 22. 61: 
John 21; James and John, Luke 9. 55; Thomas, John 20. 27; 
Judas, John 12. 7, 8; other disciples, Luke 24. 25;. What sins 
seemed to call forth his severest reproof (John 8. 44: Matt. 23)? 

What does our Lord say of unbelief (Matt. 11. 21: John 3. 36); 
of covetousness and other vices ; and of particular virtues ? 

Who were particularly the objects of our Lord's commendation, 
and for what (Matt. 8. 10: 15. 28: 26. 13: Luke 10. 42: 21. 3)? 

When did our Lord give offence, and what occasioned it (Mark 
6. 3 : John 6. 66: 19. 7)? 

What charges were brought against our Lord? By what oppro- 
brious names was he called? Collect the different reasons which 
were given by individuals for not following, or for rejecting him 
(Mark 6. 3: 10. 22: John 7. 41). What reason does he give ? 

Give instances of our Lord's command of temper under circum- 
stances calculated greatly to irritate it (Matt. 27. 14: Luke 22: 
John 13); and of his condescension to the infirmities of others 
(John 20. 27: Matt. 26. 41). 

Under what circumstances did our Lord turn away from those 
who applied to him, or refuse to comply with their request (Mark 
8. 11, 12: 10. 35, etc.: Luke 23. 8), or seem to check their coming 
(Matt. 8. 19, 20: Mark 5, 19: Luke 14. 25, etc.)? 

Isa. 52, 13, speaks of his dealing prudently. Observe his pru- 
dence in declining ail interference with civil affairs (Luke 12. 13: 



572 THE GOSPEL AND THE GENTILES. 

John 6. 15); and in the use of means for the preservation of his 
life (Matt. 4. 12: Mark 3. 6, 7: John 7. 1-10: 10. 39: 11. 53, 54); 
as also his wisdom in suiting his instructions to his hearers. 

"WTiat does our Lord say as to the great principle which influenced 
him in all he did (John 4. 34)? also as to his object in coming into 
the world (Matt. 20. 28: Luke 19. 10: John 9. 39: 10. 10: 18. 37)? 

How does our Lord describe a future state of happiness and of 
misery? How does he describe his kingdom and his second 
coming? 



CHAPTEK VI. 

The Book of Acts. 

Sec. 1. The Gospel and the Gentiles, 

153. And now the gospel is about to be diffused among the na- 
tions. The Book of Acts gives us the history of its progress in 
Judasa (1.-7), in Samaria (8), and then " to the uttermost parts of 
the earth" (10. -28). How far did the Gentiles need the gospel? 
and what new truths did it reveal to them ? are therefore instructive 
questions. 

Some reply, by affirming, that to the Gentile world, the gospel 
What r the was we l come chiefly as a code of perfect morality; 
gospel to others affirm with Paley, that its chief excellence was 
the Gentiles. itg revelat i on f eternal life; and others still, that it 

is essentially a revelation of religion, the morality of the heathen 
being political or secular, not spiritual or religious. It tells nothing, 
they say, of man's relation to God, nor did it base moral sentiment 
on his character or will. This peculiarity, it is added, Josephus 
pointedly marks. Other nations, says he, have a morality without 
religion; among the Jews alone is religion made the basis of virtue. 
Unsatisfactory as these statements are, each of them contains a 
portion of the truth. The whole truth we reach only by combining 
them, and adding others which they do not include. It may in- 
deed be summed up in one sentence — the gospel is the revelation 
of Jesus Christ, and of God in him, —but this summary involves 
particulars, which must be stated in detail, before we can under- 
stand its significancy and beauty. 

154. (1.) Apart from the gospel, men had a very imperfect 
Man ignorant knowledge of their nature and guilt. The fact that they 
of the extent were sinners was obvious to all. But the extent of their 

sin, needing as it did to be compared with a perfect lav/; 
the aggravation of it, springing from a depraved nature ; the guilt of 



STATE OF THE GENTILES. 573 

that very depravity, itself the result, not of chance or of circum- 
stances, or of any corrupt tendency in the matter (uA7j), of which 
man was formed, least of all of an act of God, but of man's own 
voluntary transgression, they did not know, or had forgotten. A 
law to test the measure of our guilt, a history to trace our ruin to 
ourselves, and evidence to prove that man's nature is not better 
than his practice, are therefore strictly revelations; and thev seem 
as essential to our penitence as to our restoration. Once, al men 
possessed the knowledge of these truths, but now it can be regained 
from the Bible alone. 

155. (2.) Of God himself, the heathen were no less lamentably 
Of God's ignorant. Whether he were one or many, or as most 

character. held, both many and one : whether, as the Stoics main- 
tained, God was everything, and everything God, matter itself being 
but the remotest emanation of Deity ; or, as the Platonists limited 
the doctrine, God was all spirit, and all spirits were God, emanating 
from him, and ultimately absorbed into him; or, whether he 
were not a being who took no interest in earthly concerns, as 
Epicurus taught, none knew. All did know, however, that the 
objects of popular worship embodied the vices of their worshippers, 
and that easy indifference, virtuous contempt, or guilty fear, were 
the feelings with which they were regarded. A God of holiness, 
of providence, and of love, guided by integrity, was either alto- 
gether unknown, or if made the theme of discussion, was re- 
garded with dismay. " This, " says Cicero, ' ' is the common principle 
of all philosophies, that the Deity is never displeased, nor does he 
... inflict injury upon men," a principle involved no less in 
the moral character ascribed to the divinities, than in 
the apathetic indifference thought essential to their dignity. 

I 5^- (3-) The influence of the evils already named on the moral 

ne f <r systems of the heathen, is obvious. The relations and 
Of a perfect . ' 

system of truths on which morality is based, were imperfectly 
morality. perceived, and the obligations thence arising, still more 
imperfectly felt. In Greece, religion was devotion to external na- 
ture, and at last to art: in Rome, devotion to country, and then 
to power: in each respectively, it was energy and taste. Political 
virtues both recognised; and at first, Eome prized as the highest 
political virtue, domestic fidelity; but in neither nation had religion 
any good moral tendency, and in both, religion became the chief 
servant of licentiousness and vice. 

I 5 7« (4-) ~$ov was this tendency checked by any belief of a per= 

Of the -er- sona l conscious immortality. A resurrection of the 

taintyofa dead was universally rejected as ridiculous. An im- 

mortality of the soul, properly so called, none admitted. 



574 STATE OF THE GENTILES. 

That tlie souls of men might survive, in some shadowy semi« 
conscious state, or even enjoy for a time the company of their 
deities, a few were disposed to maintain ; but the evidence was so 
faint, and the difficulties were so serious, that even the greatest of 
heathen philosophers, Socrates, was constrained to confess, that 
whether it were better to live or die, was known only to the 
gods, 

158. (5.) It is not intended by these statements, to deny that 

there may not be found in the writings of some ancient 
& system that philosophers, both classic and oriental, glimpses of 
shall recon- diviner truth, moral and speculative. Such glimpses 
and fears P there are. Plato attempted, as the founder of Buddhism 
himself and did, to bring back the faith of man from innumerable 

visible deities (0eol ytvriToi), to the Great Invisible (wy), 

Socrates discourses eloquently on " the good," ** the beautiful." 

But on the other hand, both Plato and Socrates, when speaking 

most justly, confess that they are but guessing at truth, and that 

whether their conclusions are sound, cannot be told till some Divine 

teacher appear The real difficulty in all these inquiries 

remained, a difficulty that drew thousands to results which their 

better principles condemned. If man is thus guilty; if this be 

virtue : if God is just; if another life be a reality: how 
Can guilty . . . 

man be just is man to attain the purity and blessedness of which we 

with God? thus dream? In the absence of light, they denied the 

truths they dreaded ; or in spite of light, followed the evil they 

loved, till they reaped the fruit of their practice, in diminished 

knowledge and grosser sin. 

159. (6.) The moral condition of the nations to whom the gospel 
Man's moral came ; was j us * such as their ignorance and the cor- 
condition. rupt tendencies in which that ignorance originated 
might lead us to expect. Paul has described it in the Epistle 
to the Romans; and Wetstein, Tholuck, and others, have shown 
from ancient authorities, that the picture of the apostle has not one 
touch too many, or too dark. 

These were the evils with which the gospel had to contend; and 
these evils it subdued. To the wants which these evils indicated, 
the gospel was adapted. These wants it relieved, and these wants 
it will at length for ever remove. 

160. Such everywhere is nature without revelation, man without 
These evils God. The evils thus traced in Greece, re-appear in 
universal. India, and in the midst of our western civilization. 
Man without the Bible, and man rejecting the Bible, tend (the 
latter most rapidly), to the same condition ; and it is that condition 
which the gospel is intended to relieve. Its essence is the life and 



GOSPEL ADAPTED TO THE GENTILES. 57o 

work of our Lord. He was Man ; sinless and holy, 
How re- 
moved by as man once was. He obeyed the law which we had 

tlie gospel. broken, and in obeying, expounds and enforces it. He 
died in our stead, shewing what our sins deserved, and how they 
fill may be cancelled. In our nature, and as our representative, he 
conquered death and ascended to God, a pledge and proof of our 
ascension, In heaven, he forms the bond of union between God and 
man, blending with his Divine nature, our own, and ready to employ 
the fruits of his ministry, both his power with God, and his fellow- 
feeling with our infirmities for our profit He was God, the 

brightness of the Father's glory, the express image of Ids person, 
the Eternal God in human form, thus realizing the yearnings of 
many for some object of reverence and of love. In his acts, he 
showed what Crod is, how tender, how holy; revealed those rela- 
tions which we already know that he sustains to man, and disclosed 
others even more adapted to impress our hearts. That he was 
Creator and Preserver, men had gathered from his works ; that he 
might become Judge they feared. But here he is seen as our 
Brother, our Redeemer, our Friend. The Law-giver becomes 
obedient to his own law, and bears its penalty; his position assuring 
to us the sufficiency of his sacrifice. None knew so well man's 
guilt, and none knew so well the requirements of his own govern- 
ment: the first is cancelled; the second honoured by his suffering. 
In effecting the great end of this mission, he has moreover per- 
formed a work, that has in it the elements of all power; over man 
and with God. " Lifted up," he " draws all" unto him; and 
ascending on high he receives gifts for men, repentance and remis- 
sion of sins, holiness and eternal life. The gospel is, in one word, 
a revelation of man, and of God; of new relations, and of a perfect 
morality; of eternal life, demonstrated not by ai^gument, but by 
facts, and above all, of a system of reconciliation, which harmonizes, 
enforces, and explains all its other disclosures, and fits it to become 
" glad tidings of great joy, unto all people." It is the utterance at 
once of infinite sufficiency, holiness, and love. 

1 6 1. It may be convenient to mark here the distinction between 
Eelation of the different books of the New Testament. In the 
Gospels, Evangelists we have the gospel incarnate : Christ came 

Epistles, to to be the gospel, and to do what should form the basis 
one another. f ^is church. In the Gospels, therefore, though much 
is revealed, much is wrapped up in dark sayings. His death, 
his resurrection, the gifb of his Spirit, the nature of his king- 
dom, the call of the Gentiles, his second coming, are all hinted at, 
or foretold, or done; but in the Gospels, we look rather for the 
facts which are to give significance to some future disclosures on 



571 THE BOOK OF ACTS. 

these topics, than for explicit teaching. There is no spiritual truth 
which may not be found in the narrative, but for the full meaning 

of that narrative we need the later revelations of the Spirit 

In the Book of Acts, we learn the meaning of much of our Saviour s 
teaching from the characters and lives of Christians, and the deal- 
ings of the providence of God. In the Epistles, we see doctrine and 
duty in their connections and tendencies, the whole explained and 
enforced as completely as the Spirit of God has deemed it necessary 
for our present state. In Revelation, we trace the history of these 
doctrines embodied in the church, till the end of time. The 
Epistles explain and apply what the Gospels describe; Revelation 
completes what the Book of Acts begins ; and each part is the com- 
plement of the rest, the facts of the life of our Lord being the foun- 
dation of the whole. 

Sec. 2. Introduction to the Booh of Acts. 

162. This book continues the early history of the Christian 
church, in two principal sections: the first relating the spread of 
Christianity in Palestine, chiefly by the instrumentality of Peter, 
chaps. 1-12; and the second, its diffusion through other countries, 
mostly by the labours of Paul (13-28). While the book is thus 
divisible into two portions, it describes a threefold condition in the 
church. The first described in chaps, i.-n. 18, in which the church 
is entirely Jewish, though at Csesarea, a Roman convert had been 
baptized by Peter, a. d. 30-41. The second period is found in 
chap. 11. 19, to chap. 15. The Jewish element still prevails, but 
Gentile converts are numerous, a. d. 42-50. The third is given in 
chaps. 16-28, and here we find the position of the Gentiles defined, 
and many churches formed from among the heathen, A. D. 51-63. 

It is not, however, to be considered as a regular or complete his- 
tory of the church. Many important transactions, referred to else- 
where, are omitted. It gives no account of the church at Jerusalem 
after the imprisonment and deliverance of Peter, or of the intro- 
duction of the gospel at Rome, or of many of Paul's voyages and 
shipwrecks mentioned in 2 Cor. 11. 25; while, respecting the 
extensive labours of the other apostles, besides Peter and Paul, 
there is hardly any information. 

As the Gospels are far from being a full account of all that our 
blessed Lord said and did, but are rather histories describing his 
character, works, and the chief events of his life, and the first 
introduction of the Christian dispensation; so the Acts are not a 
complete record of the labours of his apostles, but rather a narrative 
of facts, confirming the truth of the Christian religion, and illus- 



ACTS : LESSONS, 577 

trating its power and operation: and proving the claim of the 
Gentiles to admission into the church, objections to which were 
interposed by the Jewish converts. 

Some account of Luke, the author of this book, has been given in 
the preface to his Gospel, of which this book is evidently a continua- 
tion, as both are inscribed to the same person, and the history is taken 
up at the very point to which it had been conducted in the Gospel. 
From his frequent use of the word toe, it is clear that he was present 
at many of the transactions which he relates. He accompanied 
Paul from Troas to Philippi (16. ii)j and probably remained there 
till the apostle's second visit, two years afterwards, when he left 
that city in his company (20. 6); and from that time to the close 
of the narrative he appears as the companion of the apostle. He 
went with him to Jerusalem, and afterwards to Home; where he 
remained with him during at least the first part of his confinement, 
as appears from two Epistles written by Paul from that city, Col. 
4. 14; Philem. 24. As his name does not appear in the Epistle to 
the Philippians, written not very long afterwards, it has been sup- 
posed that he had then quitted Rome. But on Paul's second 
imprisonment at Rome, Luke is again by his side, 2 Tim. 4. 11. 

Where, or at what time precisely, this book was written, is not 
certainly known. As, however, the history is continued to the 
second year of Paul's first imprisonment at Pome, and there breaks 
off, without mentioning the issue of his trial, or his release, it may 
be supposed that it was written about a. d. 63; and the concluding 
words of the narrative would rather indicate that the writer was 
then at a distance from the apostle, and not in direct communica- 
tion with him. Antioch has therefore been assigned as the place 
where it was written, and Theophilus has been supposed, with 
much reason, to be a resident in that place (see Birks' Horse Evan.) 

The narrative of this book is highly instructive. 

163. ( 1 .) Mark how the Divine nature of our Lord is acknowledged. 
Prayer is offered to him by Stephen (7. 59, 60), and such prayer is 
affirmed by Peter and Ananias, to be descriptive of a Christian 
(2. 21: 9. 14; see 1 Cor. 1. 2). Peter speaks of Christ as Lord of 
all (10. 36, so again 14. 23: 20. 35), and this title is applied indis- 
criminately throughout the book, to the Father, and to the Son 
(10. 36: 9. 34, 35, 42: 11. 16. 20-23: 1^. 2, 7, 10-12, 48). Such is 
the teaching of a system which denounces idolatry, and claims for 
God alone, supreme regard. 

Hi3 office and work are no less clearly revealed. He formed the 
theme of apostolic teaching. Immediately after the ascension, 
Peter pointed to him as fulfilling the promise made to the fathers, 
as the seed in whom the nations were to be blessed (3. 20-26). And 

2 C 



578 ACTS : LESSONS. 

this truth they proclaimed daily from house to house (5. 42). 
When Paul was converted " straightway he preached Christ" Five- 
and-twenty years later, the last record which the book contains, is, 
that he taught " those things which concern the Lord Jesus" 
(9. 20: 28. 31). See also 2. 22-40: 10. 34-43: 13. 16-41: 17. 18, 22-31. 
.... Examining the inspired narrative on this topic more closely, 
we find that everywhere, at Jerusalem to the Jews, in the desert to 
the Ethiopian, to the benevolent and devout Cornelius at Caesarea, 
to the proud Greeks at Athens, there is but one message, and 
everywhere it is delivered fully, and without reserve (compare 
2: 8. 35: 10. 42, 43: 17. 31), faith in it being essential to salvation 
(4. 11, 12). Salvation involves the remission of sin, full justifica- 
tion before God, and holiness (2. 38: 13. 39: 26. 18), the whole 
purchased by the sufferings and death of Christ (17. 3: 20. 28), 
and given through the Spirit (5.31: 1.4: 2. 33); and as Christ is 
their Saviour and Lord, so is he Judge (10. 42: 17. 31). . . . If 
these be called Pauline doctrines, and not Peter's or Christ's, we 
answer the misrepresentation by appealing to the facts recorded 
especially in this book (10. 43: John 3. 16, etc.). 

(2.) Nor less clearly is the nature and office of the Holy Spirit 
revealed. Peter calls him God (5. 3, 4), and regards the sin of 
Ananias as a denial of his omniscience. He who is called by Isaiah, 
Jehovah, is called by Paul the Holy Ghost (28. 25: Isa. 6. 8, 9), 
while his personality (that is, his existence as an individual intelli- 
gent agent), is distinctly and repeatedly implied (8. 29: 10. 19: 
13. 2: 16. 7: 20. 28). 

His office was either miraculous, communicating gifts of healing, 
of tongues, etc. (2. 17: 1 Cor. 12. 10), or ordinary. On the apostles, 
his power was seen in opening their minds, removing their preju- 
dices, emboldening them for their work, and enabling them to con- 
firm their testimony, with miracles such as none could question or 
explain (3. 1-11: 4. 31: 5. 12-16). On the Jews who heard the 
gospel, he displayed his power, by convincing them of sin (2. 36, 
37; see John 16. 8), and changing the very murderers of our Lord 
into patterns of excellence. To the same power we are taught to 
ascribe the union of the first Christians (4. 31, 32); their consecra- 
tion and liberality (2. 45); their joy in the conversion of the 
Gentiles, though it seemed a mysterious arrangement (11. 23, 24); 
their stedfast-ness and faith. Stephen's wisdom and love, his zeal 
and peace, had the same origin; " he was full of the Holy Ghost'' 
(7. 55), and even whole churches shared the blessing (13. 5 2 )- 
How instructive and consolatory, that the dispensation of the 
Spirit should be introduced, not only with peculiar promises (Luko 
ri. 13. John 16), but with a history of rich manifestations of grace. 



THE EARLY CHURCH. 579 

If in the Gospels we see the work of our Lord; in the Acts we see 
the work of that blessed Agent, to whom, so far as man is concerned, 
the first owes all its success. We need but more of His influence, 
to complete the triumphs which this history begins. 

(3.) As we have the characters of individual believers described 
in this book, so we gather from it the character and order of the 
first churches of Christ. As the apostles gained converts, they 
taught them to meet statedly in Christ's name, on the first day of 
the week, instructed them in Christian ordinances, and appointed 
suitable ministers to feed and guard the flock, Acts 2. 42: 6. 1-6: 
14. 23: 20. 7, 18, 28-32. Compare on the character of those who 
were to compose the churches, the descriptions given of them in 
each Epistle, and on the character of the officers, the pastoral 
Epistles to Timothy and Titus. The church, it must never be 
forgotten, is a Divine institution, and combines the advantages of 
every form of society into which men have been gathered. It is 
not a caste, for it despises none, and rejects none; yet like caste, 
it preserves amidst human change a sacred order; all, kings and 
priests unto God. It is not a secret society, for it makes no reserve, 
and yet its members have a hidden life, and a joy with which 
the stranger intermeddleth not. It is not a nation, for it selects 
individual persons from among each of the nations, and will ulti- 
mately include all; yet is it as clearly defined, though more extensive. 
It is not a family, and yet its bonds are equally tender, only they 
are incomparably more expansive. One design of the gospel w T as 
to reveal Christ; another design, no less marked, was to form a 
people for his praise. Both designs illustrate the wisdom and love 
of God. 

(4.) Mark, as the gospel extends, the influences that oppose it, 
?md the excuses framed to justify opposition. The Jews resisted 
it as " contrary to their law." Among the Gentiles, as at Thessa- 
lonica, they affirmed it to be unfriendly to CGesar. Elsewhere they 
charged it with turning the world upside down. And though all 
of these charges were excuses only, they had in some measure the 
colouring of truth. The real reason of the opposition — of the Jew, 
was that the gospel taught a righteousness, not of works, but of 
faith, Rom, 10. 3: 1 Cor. 1. 21-25; — °f ^ ns Greek, that it pro- 
nounced the folly of much, and the insufficiency of all, his boasted 
wisdom; — of the Roman that it claimed exclusive homage, revealing 
not many gods, but one ; and of all, that it required humility and 
holiness. 

These influences, alas, differ but in form from those with which 
the gospel has still to contend. 

9 n O 

£l \J JU 



580 CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS, 

In the Epistles, as in our own day, we trace them at work, not 
only in opposing the gospel, but in corrupting and perverting it 
(Pt. ii. chap. 7). 



Sec. 3. The Chronology of the Acts and Epistles. Arrangement 

of the whole. 

164. The chronology of the Acts and Epistles is second in interest 

only to that of the Gospels. The whole period included 
Chronology a . * . x 

of the Acts m the Acts is about thirty-three years; a reckoning m 

of the which Winer, De Wette. Eichhorn, Davidson, and 

Apostles. ' ' ' . . 

Period in- Birks, concur. Usher and Michaelis make it thirty" 

eluded in the ^ wo . Q re swell and Schott, thirty-one ; and a few, two, 
or even four years less. The evidence, however, is 
strongly in favour of the highest number; though, as the dates 
depend chiefly on facts of profane history and minute coincidences, 
to which different weight will be given by different inquirers, cer- 
tainty can scarcely be attained. 

From Gal. 1. 18 : 2. 1 : Acts 9. 26, we gather that there elapsed 
between Paul's conversion and his first visit to Jerusalem a period 
of three full years (see Greek), and that in the fourteenth year (see 
Greek), after the same event probably, he visited it a third time (Acts 
15. 2); a second visit being paid just before the death of Herod 
Agrippa, (11. 30: 12. 23). After the third visit, we read of other 
two visits (18. 18, 22: 20. 6). In the interval, he had spent nearly 
three years in Ephesus (20. 31), a year and a half at Corinth (18. 
11,) three months in Greece (20. 3), and twice he had gone through 
a large part of Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece. After the fifth 
visit to Jerusalem, he was imprisoned two years. Felix was then 
recalled, and Paul was sent to Pome, where he lived and preached 
two whole years in his own hired house, " no man forbidding him" 
(28. 30, 31). 

These facts, with others of a minute and apparently trivial kind, 
Dates how fix the dates of the whole narrative. Herod Agrippa 
fixed. died, as Josephus states, A. D. 44. Felix lost his pro- 

curatorship, as may be gathered from the narrative of Josephus, in 
A. i>. 60. Paul, moreover," must liave reached Pome about the year 
61; for in a. D. 64 the persecution of the Christians, under Nero, 
began (Tac. An. xiv. 65); and after that time no such security as 
Luke speaks of could have been possible. 

■p s u 165. Reckoning backward, therefore, from a. d. 61 

we obtain the following results : — 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS. 



581 






59 
56 
56 



52 
44 

* 

3*3 
35 



3? 



33 






A.D. A.D, 
6j 6l 

60 



58 



57 



h3 



A.D. 
6l 

53 



57 



5i 

• 


53 

• 


5i 

• 


• 

50 

• 


44 


44 


• 


• 


31 


• 

39 


34 


36 


• 

33 


• 
• 



-- 
o 
o 



A.D 

6l 

53 



57 



54 



45 



43 



40 



30 



A.D 
6l 



53 



50 



54 



53 



5o 

5o 
45 

43 

42 

41 

40 

• 

37 

37 
3o 



> 



A.D 
6l 

53 



57 



54 



53 

52 



5* 
44 

4 1 

33 



CO 



« 



A.D. 
6l 

58 

57 
55 



Time 

of 
Year. 



Spring 
Tent 



• 



January. 
May . . 



Summer. 
Passover 



54 

52 

5i 

50 
45 

44 

4? 

4i 

40 

37 

36 

30 1 Passover 



Paul reaches Rome, leaving Syria in 

60. 
Paul visits Jerusalem, Acts 24. 27, 

being at Philippi at the Passover, 

20. 6. 
Paul spends the close of the year hi 

Greece, 20. 3, after leaving Ephesus, 

20. 1. 
Paul spends nearly three years in 

Ephesus (two years three months, 

or more), 19. 8, 10: 20. 31. 
Paul visits Jerusalem, 18. 22. 
Paul spends a year and a half at 

Corinth, 18. 11. 
Paul makes a second journey through 

Asia and Greece. 
Paul visits Jerusalem, 15. 2. 
Paul's first journey to the Gentiles, 

13. 14- 

Paul at Antioch and at Jerusalem, 

n. 30: 12. 
Paul at Antioch a year, 11. 26. 
Paul at Tarsus. 
Paul visits Jerusalem for the first 

time, 9. 26: Gal. 1. 18. 
Paul converted, Gal. 2. 1. See above, 

a.d. 50 
Death of Stephen. 
The Crucifixion. 



The last of these columns, which we deem on the whole the most 
satisfactory, is taken from the Horse Evangelical and does not ma- 
terially differ from Davidson and the author of the Literary History 
of the New Testament. The two principal dates, 44 a.d. and 61, 
are agreed in very generally; the other dates are dependent on the 
governorship of Aretas (9 24, 25), the presence of Gallio at Corinth 
(i3. 12), the decree of Claudius (18. 2), and other similar ques- 
tions; the whole too minute for specific inquiry in this place. The 
evidence may be seen briefly stated in Davidson's Introd., vol. ii. ; 
and more fully in the Literary History of the New Test., chap. vi. ; 
or in Birks' Hora3 Evan., p. 146. The general results are given in 
the dates of the appended Tables. 

166. Chronology of the New Testament from the crucifixion of 
our Lord (30 A. D.) to the close of the canon (97 a. d.), sixty-seven 



years. 

■7 



582 



CHRONOLOGY OF ACTS AND EPISTLES 



o. 



Year of Rome, 

of Emperor, 

and a. d. 



783-8. 

Caligula j 

4-7- 
Claudius 

10-14. 

Nero, 
1-6. 

814-6. 

Nero, 

6-9. 



30. 

30-35 ? 
35-40. 

40-43. 
43-46. 

46-54. 



55-60. 



60-63 • 

61, 

Jerusalem. 

62, 

Rome. 



63, 

Rome. 

63, 

Italy, while 

waiting for 

Timothy. 

63, ' 
Babylon. 
64. 



64, 
Syria. 

Rome. 



65. 

66, 

Rome. 



75? 
Syria. 

96, 
Patmos. 

97, 

Ephesus. 



Events. 



Introduction to the Acts, 1. 1-14. 

Events till the appointment of deacons, 1. 15-6. 6. 

Events till the conversion of Cornelius, 6. 7 10. 

Events till the spread of the gospel in Antioch, 11. 1-26. 

Events till the end of first missionary journey, 11. 27-14. 28. 

Events till the end of second missionary journey, 15. 1 :-i3. 22 

1 Thess. (a.d. 52), 2 Thess. (53), Gal. (53, so Tate, etc.), 

written during this journey. 
Events till end of third missionary journey and Paul's appeal 

to Caesar, 18. 23 :-26. 1 Cor. (57), 2 Cor., Gal. (57, so Hug, 

etc.), Rom. (58), written during this journey. 
Paul's voj T age to Rome, and residence there, 27, 28. 
James writes to Jewish Christians generally, 1.-5. 

Paul writes his Epistle to the Ephesians, 1.-6. Shortly after 
this Epistle was written, Timothy and Epaphroditus arrive 
at Rome ; the latter bringing tidings from Colosse. See 
Col. 1. 1-7. 

Paul writes to the Colossians, 1.-4. 

Paul writes to Philemon on behalf of Oneslmus, who, fleeing 
from his master to Rome, had been converted, Philem. 

Paul writes to the Philippians, 1.-4. 

Paul writes his key to the Old Testament, the Epistle to the 
Hebrews, 1.-13. Timothy liberated, Heb. 13. Paul visits 
Crete, 63, and leaving Titus there, goes to Macedonia, 64. 

Peter writes his first Epistle to Jews and Gentiles, scattered, 

and persecuted, 1 Pet. 1.-5. 
Paul writes to Timothy at Ephesus, 1 Tim. 1.-6. 
Paul - writes to Titus, 1.-3. 

Paul winters at Nicopolis, in Palmatia, and Troas, 
Jude writes his Epistle (see below). 

Peter, in expectation of martyrdom, writes to Jewish and 
Gentile converts scattered throughout Pontus, etc. Mar- 
tyrdom of Peter. 

Paul arrives at Rome, a prisoner, and is brought before 
Nero, 65. 

Paul writes second Epistle to Timothy, 2 Tim. 1.-3. Mar- 
tyred at Rome (Usher, 67). 

Destruction of Jerusalem (a.d. 70). 

John writes his first Epistle, 1.-5. (or 68 a.d.) 

John writes his second Epistle (or 68 a.d.) 

John writes his third Epistle (or 68 a.d.) 

Jude writer his Epistle (see 64 a.d., and Intro, to Jude). 

John writes the Apocalypse to supply the place of a succes- 
sion of prophets, 1.-22. 

John closes the canon by writing his Gospel (some think, be- 
fore his Epistles). 



a Those who question Paul's second imprisonment, and suppose him put to death 
In 64 a.d., place 1 Tim. after Acts 19. 41 or 20. 1, and Tit. after 2 Cor. See a.d. $7. 



STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 583 

CHAPTER VII. 
The Epistles and the Book of Revelation. 

Sec. I. On the Study of the Epistles. 

167. In the first fifteen chapters of Acts we have seen the gospel 
extend throughout the known world. In five and twenty years 
after the death of our Lord, churches seem to have been formed in 
Asia and Palestine, in Babylon and Egypt, in Greece and Italy; 
" so mightily grew the word of God and prevailed." Wherever the 
Aim of the truth had gone, it had found the same opposition, 
Epistles. though under different forms, and had produced the 
same peaceful and sanctifying results. A more permanent record 
of truth, however, than the " winged words" of speech could sup- 
ply was wanting. The spirit which had hitherto opposed the 
gospel had begun to pervert it; and evil seducers have a strong- 
tendency to wax worse and worse. To explain in writing, there- 
fore, what had been in a great measure taught orally, to preserve 
these lessons in "everlasting remembrance," and to give such in- 
direct corrections of incipient error as might, if prayerfully studied, 
keep the church from subsequent heresy, is the aim of the Epistles. 

To ascertain their meaning — 

168. (1). Observe by whom, and for whom, they were written. 

R , This rule is not so essential in the case of history or 

and for epistles as in the case of prophecy; for the former are 

whom, they generally self -interpretative ; bub it is nevertheless im- 
were written. ° J l ' 

port ant. 

Of the one and twenty Epistles, thirteen at least were written by 
Paul, and bear his name. As he was emphatically the apostle of 
the Gentiles, he treats largely of the mystery of their call to equal 
privileges with the believing Jews. He maintains their freedom 
from the Mosaic yoke, urges them to stand fast in it, and proves 
their subjection to the great law of faith and love. In defence of 
this doctrine, he resisted Peter to the face, endured the offence of 
the cross (Gal. 5, 11), falling at last a martyr to his attachment to 
this and kindred truths (see Introd. to 2nd Ep. to Tim.) His 
sentences are often long and intricate. His style is full of thought, 
prone to digression, but highly accurate, well guarded, and rich in 
allusion to the Old Testament. His Epistles should be illustrated 
from each other and from his history. In the Hebrews, he has 
shown most impressively how of the lav:, as elsewhere of law, Christ 
is the completion and end. 

Peter, the author of two Epistles, writes chiefly as the apostle of 
the circumcision. His writings also should be read in connection 
with those parts of the Old Testament to which, in almost every 



584 STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 

sentence, lie referred. James, pastor of the church at Jerusalem, 
wrote after the fervour of its first love had begun to subside. A 
cold negative faith seemed to threaten the destruction of all spi- 
ritual obedience. Hence the strain of his Epistle. Not dissimilar 
was the condition of the churches John addressed. His style is 
rich in aphorisms, and his strong affirmations need ?o be guarded 
by other parts either of his writings or by Paul's. Jude wrote but 
one Epistle, and that resembles the second of Peter, by which it 
may be illustrated. The Revelation, again, speaks in language* 
taken very largely from the Old Testament, and needs to be com 
pared with Ezekiel, Daniel, and the discourses of our Lord. 

For whom was each book written ? is also an important question. 
The Gospels were intended for the instruction of all classes, and 
much of what they contain was addressed to all. The Epistles, it 
must be noted, were addressed primarily to professing Christians 
exclusively, called out of the world and united in spiritual com- 
munion. Three are addressed to private disciples; three to evan- 
gelists; two, Hebrews and James, to Jewish converts exclusively; 
two more, ist and 2nd Peter, to Jewish converts chiefly; two more, 
ist John and Jude, to the disciples of Christ in general; the last 
live being called catholic or general Epistles ; the remaining nine are 
addressed to various churches, consisting chiefly of converted Gen- 
tiles. In each case, the author and the occasion often explain or 
illustrate the statements of an Epistle; though, as we have but one 
gospel for Jew and Gentile, the help thus afforded is in this respect 
less important than elsewhere. 

(2.) Mark the special design of each Epistle. 

It has pleased the Divine Spirit to instruct mankind not in 
The design formal treatises, but in letters written under his 
of each guidance, and so as to meet peculiar emergencies; 

and to the emergency of each case each Epistle is ad- 
dressed. Ascertain, therefore, what the obvious design of each 
Epistle is — the obvious design, for it is an abuse of learning to seek 
for some hidden design, and then to interpret each part in sub- 
ordination to it in violation of the natural meaning. For this pur- 
pose, the plan of Mr. Locke is deserving of all praise. Head 
through an Epistle at a sitting, and observe its drift and aim. " If 
the first reading (says he) gave some light, the second gave me 
more; and so I persisted on, reading constantly the whole Epistle 
over at once, till I came to have a good general view of the 
"writer's purpose,' the chief branches of his discourse, the argu- 
ments he used, and the disposition of the whole. This, I confess, 
is not to be obtained by one or two hasty readings; it must be 
repeated again and again, with a close attention to the tenor of the 



STUDY OF THE EPISTLES. 5fe5 

discourse, and a perfect neglect of the divisions into chapters and 
verses. The safest way is to suppose the Epistle but one business 
and one aim, until, by a frequent perusal of it, you are forced to 
see in it distinct independent matters which will forwardly enough 
show themselves." Let this plan be adopted by any humble pray- 
erful Christian, by one, that is, whose heart is on the whole in 
unison with the writer's, and the meaning of the whole will gene- 
rally appear. In the mean time, and as a present blessing, he will 
feel and appreciate individual promises and truths to an extent 
unknown before. Scripture is in fact a tree of life; its matured 
fruits infinitely precious, and its very leaves for the healing of the 
nations. 

To aid the reader in ascertaining the design of the Epistles, we 
have indicated the paragraphs and principal sections of each. In 
paragraph Bibles, the reader will find these sections indicated in the 
mode of printing. In the absence of such a help, an ordinary copy 
of the Bible may be marked, so as to indicate them with great 
advantage. 

(3.) Mark the prevailing errors against which the truths of the 
% gospel are specially directed, 
against which The first of these errors sprang out of the formalist 
they are an( ^ superstitious notions of the Jews. They still clung 

to their ritual law, and concluded that, if Gentiles were 
to be admitted to equal privileges, it must be through circumcision. 
"Except ye be circumcised," was their statement, "ye cannot be 
saved," Acts 15. 1. Out of this question, a serious controversy 
arose at Antioch, and though it was decided under the special di- 
rection of the Holy Ghost in the negative, it sprang up again and 
again, impeded the progress of the gospel, alienated and often 
divided the church. From the first, Paul took a bold decisive 
stand. He maintained that, while a Jew might, and probably 
ought to submit to that rite so long as the ancient law remained, 
for a Gentile to submit to it was to relinquish his liberty and deny 
both the universality of the gospel and the sufficiency of the Cross. 
Throughout his preaching, and in nearly all his Epistles, this view 
is maintained, Acts 15. 1-3 1: 21. 17-25: 2 Cor. 11. 3: Gal. 2. 4: 
3.-5: 6. 12; Col. 2. 4, 8, 16: Phil. 3. 2: Tit. 1. 10-14, etc. 

While the Judaizing tendency of earty believers did mischief in 
one direction, the spirit of unhallowed philosophy did mischief in 
another; proving more fatal to Christianity, as Burton has re- 
marked, than persecution itself. This spirit appeared under dif- 
ferent forms, but the essence was for the most part a proud ration- 
alism, that refused to receive as true any doctrine which could not be 
made to agree with a previous system, or that moulded into its own 

9, r. 3 



586 HERESIES OF TH*3 EARLY CHURCH. 

system whatever it received. The Greeks sought after wisdom. 
This tendency showed itself early in the various Gnostic (yvoocris, 
knowledge) sects which sprang up in the church ; a name very loosely 
applied, and including the advocates of very different views. 

One sect included under this general name were called, also, 
Docetse, or the Seemers; as they could not comprehend how a 
Divine person (which they maintained our Lord to be) could unite 
himself with that which was human. They contended that his body 
was an appearance only, and that he only seemed to live upon earth. 
This heresy denied both his brotherhood with our race and the 
reality of his atonement: see i John, Introd., and 4. 23. 

Another sect, called (from Cerinthus, their founder) Cerinthians, 
drew from the same principle an opposite conclusion. They denied 
the Divinity of Jesus, and supposed that the Christ was an emana- 
tion of the Godhead, who descended on the man Jesus at his bap- 
tism, and so continued with him till his death, when the Christ 
left him and ascended to heaven, 1 John 2. 22: 4, 15: Gospel of 
J ohn. 

In later times, and after the canon of Scripture was closed, these 
tendencies took even a more decided form. The school of Alex- 
andria, applying the doctrines of Plato to the gospel, broached the 
crudest notions on the Divine nature, on Christ, and on man. 
Later still, the schoolmen applied to the teachings of Scripture the 
logic of Aristotle, and claimed for their deductions (see Pt. i. § 463-5), 
the same authority as was claimed for the express statements of the 
Bible. All these attempts sprang from the same principle — that 
our reason is the measure of religious truth, and led to the same 
results, the corruption of truth and the division of the church. 
To us, they teach the wisdom of bringing up our faith to the 
level of God's revelation and the folly of bringing down his revela- 
tion to the level of our understanding. The world, by itisdom, 
knows not God. 

A third error prevailed among all sects, Jewish and Gentile —the 
formalist and the philosophic, It assumed various phases, though 
representing but one principle. Ritualism without spirituality, 
knowledge (gnosis) without practice, justification by faith without 
holiness. This was the creed which the apostles rebuke, and was 
received in their day with favour by the Jews. Many of the Gnostics 
held it, and in the persons of the Mcolaitanes it called forth the 
severe condemnation of the latest of the apostles. It is, in fact, 
the principle of licentious religionism in every age, and several 
portions of the Epistles are directed against it. The followers of 
Balaam (equivalent to Nicolaitanes), mentioned by Peter and Jude, 
were of the same class. 



STUDY OF IRE EPISTLES. 587 

The names of these sects (except the last) are not mentioned in 
Scripture, but their principles are. And herein is a double advan- 
tage. We are taught not to restrict the teaching of inspired men 
to then own times, and we are supplied with letters in which not 
sects, but principles — self-righteous formalism, rationalistic pride, 
and practical immorality — are for ever condemned. A knowledge 
of these sects, however, illustrates human nature, proves our need 
of a revelation, and Of humility in studying it, and gives clearness 
and force to the teaching of the Bible. 

.What a proof of human depravity is the history of Divine truth 
in the world. God's first revelation ended in the wicked imagina* 
tions that preceded the deluge ; his second, in the idolatry of Israel 
and Juciah, and again in the formalism and overthrow of the nation ; 
his third met with the bitterest opposition at the outset, and ever 
since, the world has sought, under various influences, to corrupt 
what it cannot otherwise subdue. 

4. The most important rule remains. Carefully compare the 
Comparison various parts of the Xew Testament, and especially the 

of New Tes- Epistles, and gather from the whole a consistent and 

tament of the x . ° . 

greatest im- comprehensive view both 01 truth and duty. 

portance. rp^g necessity of such comparison in the case of the 

New Testament will appear on comparing it as a composition with 
the law. The whole of the first dispensation was revealed through 
one person — Moses, and to one congregation assembled to receive 
it. The New Testament was composed by eight different authors, 
and was addressed to many congregations and individuals scattered 
over the earth. The law was written in the plainest style, with 
systematic fulness, was adapted to the weakest capacity, and re- 
quired submission only to such commands as were expressly en- 
joined. The New Testament, on the other hand, is composed of 
detached instructions, manv of them given incidentallv and indi- 
rectly, nearly all addressed to those who were already called out of 
the world, and had witnessed the ordinances or believed the truths 
they were directed to maintain. Obedience, moreover, is required 
to whatever was taught by word and example, as well as by Epistles ; a 
and the whole, though sufficiently plain that all may understand 
and be saved, is so rich and profound as to afford opportunity for 
the exercise of the holiest spiritual discernment. 

"We may conclude, therefore, that to make the New Testament 
our standard of faith and practice, it must be compared and studied 
with the utmost attention. The facts of our Lord's life, the prac- 
tical influence of them on the early church, and the inspired com 
ments of apostles, must all be examined; the principles and duties 

a 1 Cor. 4. 16, 17: 11. 2: Gal. 1. 6-9: Phil. 4. 9. 



588 TRUTHS DISCUSSED IN THE EPISTLES. 

they involve, explained ; and the whole cordially believed and prac- 
tised, in preference to all the suggestions and inventions of man. 

1.69. The following are among the more important of the trutha 
discussed in the Epistles. The passages in which they are most 
fully discussed may be found at the close of the introductions to 
the Epistles named. These passages must be carefully compared, 
and particular phrases in them, with similar phrases elsewhere* 
such as may be found in any Bible with marginal references. 

Man's need of salvation, Rom. Justification by faith, Rom. 

The fruits of faith in Christian experience, Rom. 

The fruits of faith in Christian character, Heb. 

The fruits of faith through the Gospel, 1 Pet. 

The fruits of justification and its consequent blessings, Rom. 

Man's connection with Christ, and man's connection with Adam, Rom. 

The source of redemption, Rom.; and the peculiar grace bestowed therein orr 

the Gentiles, Eph. 
The relation of the gospel to the Jews, Rom. (see Heb.) 

Morality, its true nature and vast importance, Rom. 

Morality, evangelic motives to, Rom. ; peculiar motives justly binding on the 

Jew, Heb.; and on heathen converts, Eph. 
Principal duties of Christians to God, Rom., Eph.; to themselves, Rom.; to 

relatives, Cor. ; to fellow-men, Rom.; to civil government, Titus; and to 

fellow-believers, Cor. 
Holiness essential to true religion, 1 John. Eminent holiness its appropriate 

fruit and best security, 2 Pet. 

T 'ae spiritual warfare, Eph. 

Persecution, its comforts and lessons, Phil. Apostasy, its danger and signs 
Heb., 2 Pet. 

Apostolic character and authority, Cor. False teachers, their character and 

end, Cor. 
Christian ministers, their character, qualifications, and duties, Tim. 
Christian ministers, duties of the church to them, Tim. 
Deacons, etc., their character and duties, Tim. 

The church, its members, discipline, divisions, ordinances, Cor. 

The church, its members, their duties, their gifts, the excellence oflove, Cor. 

Christ's dignity, essential and mediatorial, Heb. Christ's incarnation and its 

end, Heb. 
The superiority of his office, as prophet, leader, and priest, Heb. 
The superiority of his sacrifice, Heb. 

The significancy and inferiority of the ancient economy, Heb. 
Our spirituaL liberty in relation to it, Heb. 

The corruption of Christianity and prevalence of infidelity in " the last, 
time," Tim. How met, Tim. 

The resurrection of the body, Cor. The second coming of the Lord, 2 7%ess 
The judgment and its issues— eternal life, eternal death, 2 Pet 



GENUINENESS OF THE EPISTLES. 



5$S 



Sec. 2. The Genuineness of the Epistles. 

170. The general evidence of the genuineness of the Epistles has 
been already given. So far as particular Epistles are concerned, the 
evidence maybe given in a brief tabular form. For an explanation, 
see chap, v., § 137. 













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Sec. 3. Helps to ist Thesscdonic.ns, etc, to Jude. 
T/ie First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Thessahnians. 

Corinth, A.D. 52. 

171. Thessalonica was the capital of one of the four districts of 
Macedonia, and the seat of a Roman governor. Its position on the 
great Egnatian road, and at the head of an excellent harbour, aug- 
mented its trade and wealth; and brought to it a mixed population 
of Greeks. Romans, and Jews. It is still, as it has ever been, a 
nourishing commercial town, bearing the slightly varied name of 
Saloniki. Its geographical position and maritime importance fitted 
it to become one of the starting points of the gospel in Europe, 
and. explain the fact that from this city the word of the Lord had 
sounded forth "in every place," (1. 8). 

The gospel was first preached here by Paul and Silas, shortly 



520 FIRST EPISTLE TO THESSALONIANS. 

after their release from imprisonment at Philippi, Acts 17. 1-10. 
Paul addressed himself first, agreeably to his constant practice, to 
the Jews, and afterwards, with still more success, to the Gentiles. 
What time he spent here does not distinctly appear; but it was 
evidently more than the three weeks during which he reasoned 
with the Jews in the synagogue on the sabbaths. Compare Acts 
17. 4, 5 : 1 Thes. 2. 9: 2 Thes. 3. 8: and Phil. 4. 16. 

The church which he formed during this period was composed 
partly of Jews and Jewish proselytes, many of whom were women 
of rank and influence (Acts 17. 4), but chiefly of converts from 
idolatry (1. 9). 

Being driven away by the violence of the Jews, Paul left the 
newly-planted church in such difficulties as excited his anxiety 
respecting them, and led him to send Timothy from Athens, to 
encourage and comfort them under the persecutions to which they 
were exposed (3. j, 2). Timothy returned to Paul at Corinth 
(whither the latter had gone in the mean time), and brought him so 
good an account of the stedfastness of the Thessalonian Christians 
as filled him with joy and gratitude (3. 6-9), and reawakened his 
desire to visit them. But, having been repeatedly disappointed in 
his plans for that purpose (2. 17, 18), he wrote this letter from 
Corinth, a.d. 52. 

This, being the earliest of Paul's Epistles, was accompanied by a 
solemn charge that it should be read publicly in the church (5.27). 
i. In the first portion of this Epistle (1 1-3.), the apostle expresses 
his gratitude and joy on account of the manner in which the Thes- 
salonians had received the gospel, and for their fidelity and con- 
stancy in the midst of persecutions and afflictions; vindicates the 
conduct of himself and his fellow-labourers in preaching the gospel; 
and declares his affectionate concern for their welfare. 

ii. The remainder of the Epistle is taken up with practical admo- 
nitions ; warning them against the sin for which their city was 
notorious; and exhorting them to the cultivation of all Christian 
virtues, and particularly to a watchful, sober, and holy life, be- 
coming their happy condition and exalted hopes (4. 1-12 : 5). Special 
words of consolation are addressed to those who had been bereaved, 
who seem to have imagined that their departed friends would lose 
some important advantages, which, those would enjoy who should 
survive to the Lord's coming (which they expected speedily), and 
who had therefore indulged in excessive grief on their account. 
Speaking by express Divine authority, he assures them of the 
resurrection of the pious dead on Christ's coming, to be followed by 
a glorious transformation of the living; and exhorts them to take 
the comfort of this glorious hope, 4. 13-18. 



SECOND EPISTLE TO THESSALOXIANS. 591 

Connect and read 1. 1, 2: 2. 1, 13, 17: 3. 1, 6, 11: 4. 1, 9, 13: 5. 
1. 4, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, 23, 25, 27, 28. 

JYbfe.- — The modern figures here and subsequently indicate prin- 
cipal divisions; the others, smaller ones. The former may be re- 
garded as marking the beginning of new subjects. 

The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians. 

Corinth , a.d. 53. 

172. This Epistle was probably written, like the former, from 
Corinth, and not long afterwards (early in a.d. 53); Silas and 
Timothy being still in Paul's company (1. 1). Its chief object ap- 
pears to have been to correct an erroneous notion which had begun 
to prevail among the Christians at Thessalonica, that the appearance 
of the Saviour and the end of the world were at hand. This had 
been grounded in part upon a misconstruction of expressions in the 
former Epistle, and appears to have been supported by some who 
laid claim to inspiration. There were also persons who, on religious 
pretences, neglected their secular employments, and were guilty of 
disorderly conduct. 

The commencement and conclusion of the Epistle are occupied 
with affectionate commendations, mingled with encouragements to 
perseverance, exhortations to holiness, and directions for the main- 
tenance of discipline with regard to idle and disorderly members, 
1: 2. 13-17: 3. In chap. 2. 1-12, Paul exposes the error of antici- 
pating the near approach of the day of the Lord. Eeminding the 
Thessalonian Christians of what he had said when he was with 
them, he tells them that he had spoken rather of the unexpected- 
ness of the event than of its nearness, and that it must be preceded 
by a great apostasy, and by the temporary ascendency of the "man 
of sin," the spiritual usurper (which, however, could not take place 
until certain obstacles were removed), establishing a system of 
error and delusion by which many would be carried away. 

The agreement between the little horn of Daniel's prophecy and 
the man of sin in this Epistle is very striking. In Daniel, he does 
not rise till the Roman empire is broken; in Paul, he is not re- 
vealed till that empire — that which hindereth (2 . 7) — is taken out of 
the way. In Daniel, he weareth out the saints ; in Paul, he 
opposeth, or persecuteth. In Daniel, he magnifieth himself above 
every god; in Paul, he exalteth himself above all that is called 
God. In Daniel, he changes times and laws ; in Paul, he is the lawless 
(ver. 8, Greek) one. In Daniel, he causeth craft, through his policy, 
to prosper; and in Paul, he comes with lying wonders and all de- 
ceivabieness, which raany will believe, Dan. 8. 25: ir. 36. How 



592 HAN OF SIN : EPISTLE TO GALATIAN3. 

remarkable the connection of prophecy ! six hundred years before, 
Daniel foretold the rise of this power; Paul adds a few touches ; and 
by John, its history is to be more fully revealed. 

This prediction deserves grateful attention on another ground. 
It tells us that, while the coming of our Lord was then near, it was 
also remote : many events were to intervene ; and with all the light 
of prophecy it must ever be, as to the precise time, unknown- 
Comparing this passage with others, the servants of Christ are 
taught to contemplate the revolution of many succeeding centuries, 
without being stumbled by the delay of his appearance or dis- 
couraged by the prevalence of wickedness and delusion under the 
profession of his name, i Tim. 4. 1-3; 2 Tim. 3. 1-8: 2 Pet. 2: 
Rev. 11.-13.: 17: 22. 

Connect and read as follows: 1. 1, 3, 11: 2. 1, 5, 13, 15, 16: 3. 
1, 6, 16, 17, 18. 

The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Galatians. 
Ephesus or Corinth, A. D. 53 or 57. 

173. Galatia was a large province in the centre of Asia Minor. It 
derived its name from the Gauls, who conquered the country and 
settled in it, about 280 B.C.: it was also called Gallo-Grrccia, on 
account of the Greek colonists who afterwards became intermingled 
with them. About 189 B. c, it fell under the power of Rome: and 
became a Roman province, 26 b. c. The inhabitants were but par- 
tially civilized, and their system of idolatry was extremely gross 
and debasing. 

Paul and Silas travelled through this region about a. d. 5 1, and 
formed churches in it, which Paul visited again in his second journey 
three years afterwards. This Epistle was probably written soon 
after his first visit: see Acts 16. 6: 18. 23: Gal. 1. 6, 8: 4. 13, 19. 

It appears that, after having received the gospel with great joy 
and readiness from the apostle's lips, many of these converts, 
amongst whom were not a few Jews and proselytes, had been per- 
verted by some Juclaizing teachers, who had taught them that the 
observance of the ceremonial requirements of the law of Moses was 
essential to salvation. This party seem, also, to have questioned 
Paul's authority; insinuating that he was inferior to Peter and the 
other apostles at Jerusalem, from whom they professed to have 
derived their views and authority. To settle these important 
matters, in which the apostle evidently considered that the very 
life and soul of Christianity were at stake, he wrote this Epistle with 
his own hand (6. 11), contrary to his usual practice of dictating his 
letters. It may be divided into three parts. 

i. After his usual salutation, Paul asserts his full and inde- 
pendent authority as an apostle of Christ : he relates the history of 



EPISTLE TO GALATIANS. 593 

ids conversion and introduction into the ministry; showing that he 
had received his knowledge of Christian truth, not by any human 
teaching, but by immediate revelation; and that the other apostles 
had recognised his Divine commission, and treated him as their 
equal (i : 2.) 

ii. In support of his doctrine, that men are accepted of God by 
faith alone, and not by the rites and ceremonies of the law, he 
appeals to the experience of the Galatians since their conversion to 
Christianity, and to the case of Abraham, who had been justified 
and saved by faith, and shows that the design of the law was not 
to supersede the Divine covenant of promise previously made with 
Abraham, but to prepare the way, and to exhibit the necessity for 
the gospel (3.) He draws a contrast between the state of pupilage 
and the subjection of the people of God under the law, and their 
happier condition under the gospel, when, by the redemption of the 
Son of God, they were put into possession of the privileges and 
blessings of sonship : and addressing that portion of the Galatians who 
had been heathen, he reminds them that, having been rescued from the 
far more degrading bondage of idolatry, it was especially deplorable 
that they should fall back into the slavery of superstition (4. i-ri). 
He tenderly appeals to them as his spiritual children, reminding 
them of their former attachment to him: and then, addressing 
those who relied upon the law and the letter of the Old Testament, 
shows them that the history of Abraham's two sons afforded an 
emphatic illustration of the relative position and spirit of the two 
contending parties ; and of the rejection of the one, and the bles- 
sedness of the other (4. 11-31). 

hi. He exhorts the believers to stand firm in their Christian 
liberty, but not to abuse it ; shows them that holiness of heart and. 
life is secured under the gospel by the authority of Christ and tht 
grace of the Holy Spirit (5.); and enjoins upon them mutual for- 
bearance, tenderness, love, and liberality ; and, after again con 
derailing the doctrine of the false teachers, closes his Epistle with 
declaration which may be regarded as the sum of the whole (6). 

This Epistle resembles both the Epistles to the Corinthians and 
that addressed to the Romans. Like the first it defends Paul's 
apostolic authority, and shows that he was taught immediately by 
Christ. Like the last it treats of justification by faith alone, from 
which the Galatians very soon after Paul left them, and greatly to 
his surprise, had been seduced by false teachers, who insisted on 
submission to the Mosaic law as essential to salvation, and probably 
insinuated that elsewhere Paul himself had urged the same doctrine. 
Mark the sharpness and tenderness of his rebuke (3. 1: 4. 19; : the 
place assigned to holiness, not as the ground but as the fruit of 



594 FIRST EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS. 

salvation, and inseparable from it (5. 6, 22). Mark also how little 
we can depend on ardour of religious feeling as proof of the strength 
of religious principle (4. 15, 20). 

It is interesting to remark that the persons to whom this Epistle 
was addressed were Gauls (whose name in Greek is Galatians), "both 
in name and in character. a They manifest all the susceptibility of 
impression and fondness for change which authors from Caesar to 
Thierry have ascribed to that race. They received the apostle as an 
angel, and would have plucked out their eyes and given them to 
him; but were "soon removed" by false teachers "to another 
gospel/' and then under the influence of the same ardour began to 
" bite and devour one another" (4. 14, 15 : 5. 15). 

Connect and read as follows, 1. 1, 6, 11: 2. 15: 3. 1, 6, 10, 15, 
19, 24: 4. 1, 8, 12, 17, 21: 5. b 1, 7, 13, 16, 19, 22: 6. 1, 2, 6, 
11, 17, 18. 

The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians, 

Rhesus, a. D. 57. 

1 74. Corinth was a large city, the capital of the Roman province 
of Achaia, in the southern part of Greece. Its situation on the narrow 
isthmus between Peloponnesus (now called the Morea) and northern 
Greece, gave it the command of the land traffic from north to south: 
whilst, by its two ports on the Ionian and iEgean Seas, it received, 
on the one hand, the rich merchandise of Asia, and, on the other, 
that of Italy and the West. Possessing these advantages, Corinth 
became a place of very extensive commerce. It was also distin- 
guished for its sumptuous public edifices, and for the cultivation of 
the elegant arts and of polite learning. The Isthmian games also, 
(probably alluded to in chap. 9. 24-27), which were held near the 
city, had attained great celebrity, and attracted a vast concourse of 
strangers from all parts. From these causes, Corinth became re- 
markable for wealth and luxury; and equally so for profligacy and 
licentiousness, which were greatly fostered by the worship of Venus 
established there ; so that it became ultimately the most corrupt 
and effeminate city in Greece. 

The first entrance of the Christian religion into this stronghold of 
vice, is related in Acts, chap. 18. Paul was then on his way from 
Macedonia to Jerusalem. After passing some time at Athens, he 
came to Corinth ; and was there joined by Silas and Timothy. He 

a See Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of Paul, 1. 261. 

b On the maintenance of spiritual liberty, against those who 
taught that ritual observance was essential to salvation, and those 
who taught that, "will worship" was acceptable obedience, see 
3. 5, G: Horn. 7. 1-6: Col. 2. 16-23. 



FIRST EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS. 595 

preached the gospel in tliat city, first to the Jews; but, when they 
" opposed themselves and blasphemed/' he renounced all fellow- 
ship with them, and turned to the Greeks. Some, however, of the 
principal Jews believed. His fears and discouragements, while en- 
gaged in this work (see chap. 2. 3: Acts 18. 9, 10), were met by a 
special revelation, assuring him of the Lord's presence with him, 
and of his purpose to collect a church there. Paul continued his 
labours at Corinth more than a year and a half : and they were 
afterwards followed up by the teaching of Apollos, Acts 18. 27, 28. 
Thus a numerous and flourishing church was formed; teachers were 
set over them; and the ordinances of Christ were regularly ob- 
served. 

It appears, however, that, ere long, their peace was disturbed by 
certain individuals, who sought to ingraft on the doctrines of Christ 
the refinements of human philosophy . The factious teachers attempted 
to depreciate the apostle, representing him as deficient in the graces 
of style and the arts of oratory, and even calling in question his 
apostolic authority: they also pleaded for a licentious manner of 
life, under pretence of Christian liberty. Hence arose divisions and 
irregularities; and the church was fast declining from its original 
faith, purity, and love. 

This Epistle seems to have been written from Ephesus, after Paul 
had made one visit to Corinth, and when he was about to make 
another : see chaps. 2. 1: 4. 19: 16. 5. We learn from Acts 18. 1, 
and 20. 1-3, that Paul visited Achaia, and doubtless Corinth, twice; 
and that, on the second occasion, he went thither from Ephesus, after 
having spent two years in that city. That this Epistle was written 
during that period is further confirmed by various incidental re- 
ferences. See chaps. 15. 32: 16. 8; and chap. 16. 9 compared with 
Acts 19. 20-41: also the salutation from the churches of Asia in 
chap. 16. 19 (see Pt. 1. sec. 398); and, further, the salutation 
from Priscilla and Aquila, who were at Ephesus at that time, 
Acts 18. 26. 

The object of this Epistle seems to have been, partly, to reply 
to one which Paul had received from the church, requesting his 
advice and instruction on some points (see chap. 7. 1); and, partly, 
to correct some disorders prevailing among them, of which he had 
heard from some of their members (1. 11: 5. 1: 11. 18), which had 
occasioned him deep concern, and led him to send Timothy to 
Corinth (4. 17). 

The evils which Paul sought to correct among the Corinthians 
related to the following subjects: — 

Party-divisions (1. 10-16: 3.4-6). A fondness for philosophy and 
eloquence (1. 17, etc.) Notorious immorality was tolerated amongst 



596 FIRST EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS: CONTEXTS. 

them (5.) Law-suits were carried on by one against another before 
heathen judges, contrary to the rules of Christian wisdom and love, 
and sometimes even to the principles of justice (6. 1-8). Licentious 
■indulgence (6. 9-20). In their religious assemblies, the female mem- 
bers of the church, in the exercise of their spiritual gifts, had mani- 
fested an unfeminine deportment, laying aside the veil, the distin- 
guishing mark of their sex (11. 3-10). The Lord's supper had been 
perverted by the manner in which it was celebrated (11. 20-34) ; some 
having made it an occasion of jovial ty, and a source of humiliation 
to their poorer brethren, ver. 20, 21. Miraculous gifts, especially 
the gift of tongues, had been misused (14). And the momentous 
doctrine of the resurrection had been denied or questioned (15. 12). 

The matters upon which the Corinthians had requested Paul's 
instructions are, 1. Marriage, and the duties in regard to it in 
their circumstances (7.); 2. the effect which their conversion to 
Christianity produced upon a prior state of circumcision or of slavery 
(7. 17-24); and 3. their duty with reference to eating things offered 
in sacrifice to idols (8.). They had, probably, also addressed some 
questions to him respecting the employment of spiritual gifts, and 
the order to be observed in their religious assemblies. 

In no Epistle does Paul's own character appear more illustrious 
than in this. The assertion of his apostolic authority is beautifully 
blended with humility and godly jealousy of himself (2. 3:9. 16. 27). 
Means he diligently employs, yet is profoundly dependent (3. 6, 9: 
15. 10). Fidelity he combines with the utmost tenderness 
(3. 2: 6. 12: 4. 14); and with the noblest gifts, he prefers love to 
them all (r^. 1). Herein he is a pattern not only to ministers, 
but to private Christians of every age. 

For those who profess to have no sympathy with superstition and 
little respect for authority, these Epistles are peculiarly instructive. 
They combine, in the most striking way, the utterances of a liberal 
manly spirit with doctrines the most humbling. They cherish the 
loftiest hopes for man, and for truth, and they tell us how alone 
these hopes may be fulfilled. 

In other respects, moreover, these Epistles are of great interest. 
In their contents they are the most diversified of all the apostle's 
writings; and more than any other they throw light on the state of 
the early church, and on the evil tendencies with which the gospel 
had to struggle even among good men. 

Connect and read as follows, 1.1, 4, 10, r3, 17, 26: 2. i: 
3. 1, 10, 16, 18: 4. 1, 6, 8, 14: 5. 1, 9: G. 1, 9, i2:-7. 1, 17, 25, 29: 
8. 1 : 9, 1, 24: 11. 14, 23 :-ll. 2, 17, 23, 27: 12. 1, 31 : 13. 1. 13 : 14. i, 
34, 36:-15. 1, 12-20, 35, 5i:-16. 1, 5, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 2r, 23. 



SECOND EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS. 597 

The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians. 

Macedonia, A. D. 57. 

175. Not very long after writing the former Epistle, Paul left Ephe- 
sus, and went to Troas. Here he expected to meet Titus (whom he 
had sent to Corinth) ; and to receive from him intelligence of the state 
of the church, and of the effects of his former Epistle (2. 12). But, 
not finding him there, he crossed over to Macedonia, where his 
anxiety was relieved by the arrival and report of Titus. From him 
Paul learned that hi3 faithful reproofs had awakened in the minds of 
the Corinthian Christians a godly sorrow, and a practical regard 
for the proper discipline of the church. But, with these pleasing 
symptoms, there were others of a painful kind. The faction con- 
nected with the false teachers was still depreciating his apostolic 
authority, and misrepresenting his motives and conduct; even using 
his former letter to bring new charges against him, as having failed 
to keep his promise of coming to see them, and having adopted an 
authoritative style of writing, little in unison, as they alleged, with 
the contemptibleness of his person and speech. 

Under the strong and mingled emotions caused by this intelli- 
gence, the apostle wrote this second Epistle; in which the language 
of commendation and love is blended with that of censure, and 
even of threatening; and sent it by Titus and others, intending 
speedily to follow them, as it appears that he did. It was designed 
to carry forward the work of reformation, to establish still further 
his authority against the objections and pretensions of false teachers, 
and to prepare the Corinthians for his intended visit, when he 
desired to find their disorders rectified, and their promised contri- 
butions for their afflicted brethren ready (8. 18: 9, 3, 5 : 10. 2, 11: 
13. 1, 2, 10). 

Although this and the preceding Epistle are full of references to 
the peculiar circumstances of the Corinthian church, they are not 
the less important or instructive on that account. For they contain 
directions and admonitions suited to many of the ordinary circum- 
stances of life which could not have been so advantageously intro- 
duced in a more general discourse on the great doctrines and duties 
of Christianity. Principles and rules are laid down which are of 
general application, especially in opposing dissensions and other 
evils arising in the church, and in promoting the important duty of 
Christian liberality. 

The principal contents of this Epistle are as follows : — 

i. The apostle, after expressing his gratitude for the Divine con- 
solation granted to him under his sufferings for Christ, states the 
reasons of his delay in visiting Corinth : and refers to the case of 
the guilty person upon whom discipline had been exercised ; whom, 



598 SECOND EPISTLE TO CORINTHIANS: CONTENTS. 

being penitent, he exhorts them to restore to their communion 
(i. i2:-2. 13). 

ii. He alludes to his labours in the service of the gospel and 
their success, and to his own personal relation to the Corinthians ; 
and is thereby led to speak of the differences between the ministry 
under the Old Covenant and under the New; showing the superior 
glory of the latter (3). He describes the principles and motives by 
which he and his brethren were actuated in fulfilling their ministry 
in the midst of great trials and afflictions; and exhorts the Corinth- 
ians not to frustrate the great objects of the gospel by the neglect 
of Christian discipline and purity (4 1-7). 

iii. Then, resuming a subject referred to in his former Epistle, 
with persuasive earnestness he recommends to them the collection 
for the poor among the saints at Jerusalem ; and shows the manifold 
advantages of such services (8 : 9). 

iv. He virdicates his apostolic authority against the insinuations 
of false teachers; and (though with evident reluctance) contrasts 
his own gifts, labours, and sufferings, with the character and con- 
duct of those pretenders who opposed him (10 : 11): he refers, in 
proof of the Divine approval, to some extraordinary visions and 
revelations with which he had been favoured (12. 1-11): shows the 
openness, sincerity, and disinterestedness of his whole conduct: 
and, after a few affectionate admonitions to self-examination, and 
to love and holiness, closes the Epistle with prayer and benediction 
12. 11-21: 13). 

Connect and read as follows, 1. 1, 3, 8, 12, 15, 23: 2. 5, 12, 14: 

3. 1, 4, 12: 4. 1, 3, 1, 12: 5- 5> n> l6 > 2 °' 6. 1, 11, 14: 7- h *, 
5, 11, 13 : 8. 1, 16: 9. 1, 6: 10. 1, 7, 12: 11. 1, 5, 13, 16: 12. 1, 14, 19: 
13. 1, 5, 11, 14. 

176. (i.) Not the least instructive part of these Epistles is the 

, ,. light they throw on the motives and spirit of the 

Apostolic o j r 

authority and apostles. In i Cor., Paul shows that not man but 
Christ alone is the centre of union to the church, that 
ministers are but fellow-labourers employed and endowed by God, 
to whom all their success is owing. They are therefore neither to be 
overrated nor despised. The true minister of Christ may be known 
by his patience, his self-denial, his holiness, and the spirit in which 
he exalts his Lord, 1 Cor. 1. io:-4. 21: 2 Cor. 4 :-j: 1 Thess. 2. 1-12 : 3. 
2 Tim. Elsewhere, however, he insists largely on the dignity and 
authority of his office, 2 Cor. 10-12: Gal. 1:2:1 Cor. 15. 9, 10: 
Eph. ^. 'd. In the whole of these passages the object seems three- 
fold ; to confirm and prove his doctrine, and to refute false teachers, 
2 Cor. 11. 3 : to exhibit to Christians and to Christian ministers an 
eminent example, Phil. 3. 1 1-4. 9: Keb. 13. 7-14; and above all to 



CORINTHIANS : THE CHURCH. 599 

illustrate the power of Divine grace, 2 Cor. 12. 9: Gal. 1. 24: 

1 Tim. 1. 16. The Vv 7 hole supplies also important evidence of the 
truth of the gospel. a 

(ii.) The character of false teachers, against whom the church of 
Character of Christ is often warned, may be gathered from many 
false passages. Some were Judaizers, denying the sufficiency 

of the cross and the liberty of the church; some philo- 
sophizing teachers, corrupting the simplicity of the truth; and 
others, " dogs", turning the grace of God into licentiousness, 1 Cor. 

1, io:-4: 2 Cor. 11: Gal. 1. 1-12: 4. 9-20: 5. 7-15: Col. 2. 16-23: 
Acts 15. 13-31 :-2 Thess. 2. 1-12: 2 Pet. 3 : Jude4-i9: 1 Tim. 6. 20. 

2 Tim. 2. 16: 1 John 2. 18-24: 4. 1-6: 2 and 3 John. 

(hi.) The church is many and one, 1 Cor. 11. 16 : 14. 33 : Gal. 1.22: 
1 Thess. 2. 14: Acts 16. 5: 1 Cor. 12. 12-27: Eph. 4. 
3-5: 5.25-32: Coli. 18-24: Gal. 3. 28: Matt. 16. 28: — 
chosen (Eph. 1. 4: 1 Pet. 5. 13) : loved (Eph. 5. 25: Rev. 1. 5): — 
redeemed by Christ (Heb. 9. 12 : 1 Pet. 1. 18, 19), and subject to 
him (Rom. 7. 4: Eph. 5. 24). Christ is its Foundation and Head 
(Eph. 2. 20: 1 Pet. 2. 4, 6 : Eph. 1. 22 : 5. 23 : Col. 1. 18). The church 
is his body and bride (Eph. 1. 23 : Col. 1. 24: Rev. 21. 9 : 22. 7). 
(iv.) For the general character of its members, see the descrip- 
tions given at the beginning of each Epistle, and espe- 
cially 1 Cor.«3. 9-17: 2 Cor. 6. 14-17: 1 Thess. 1. 2-10: 

2. 13, 14: 3. 6: 4. 9, 10: Eph. 2. 13-22: Phil. 1. 7: Col. 1. 3-8: 
1 John. The whole and each member ought to be the image of 
Christ, 2 Cor. 3. 18: Rom. 8. 14, 29: Eph. 1. 4, 5: 4. 23, 24: 
1 Pet. 4. 1; and the temple of the Spirit, 1 Cor. 3. 16, 17: 2 Cor. 
6. 16: 1 Tim. 3. 15 : 1 John 3, 24: 4. 12, 15 : John 14. 23 : 17. 21-23. 

(v.) On the duties which Christians owe one to another Scripture is 
Their duties beautifully explicit. The justice and benevolence which 
motives, and as men they owe to their fellows (see Romans, Pt. ii. 
s? in • g j -^ they owe also to their brethren, but to them they 

owe other duties besides, and all are enforced by motives peculiar to 
Christians, being taken, in fact, from their mutual relation to one 
another through the love and grace of their Lord. 1 Cor. 16. 
13-16: 2 Cor. 13. 11: Rom. 12. 3-10: Gal. 6. 2: Eph. 4. i-j6: 
Col. 3. 12-15: Phil. 2. 1-16: 1 Thess. 4. 9: 5; 11-21: 1 Pet. 1. 22; 
4. 8-n : 5. 1-7: 2 Tim. 2. 22: James 2. 1-18: Heb. 10. 25 : 13. 7,17: 
1 John 3. 13-23: 4. 7, 11, 21: 5. 16, 17. 

(vi.) Relative duties of Christians. In relation to marriage, 

a It illustrates both the humility of the apostles and the priest- 
hood of the whole church to notice how they ask the prayers of 
their converts, 2 Cor. 1. 11: Rom. 15. 30: Eph. 6, 19: Col. 4. 3, 4: 
1 Thess. 5. 25: 2 Thess. 3 1. 



800 CORINTHIANS : CHRISTIAN DUTIES. 

Relative I Cor. 7: Gal. 3. 28: Eph. 5. 22-33: Col. 3. 16-19: 

duties. j Pet> 3> j. 7: Heb# t3< 4 . Tit> 2> 4 ^ 5# on the true 

dignity and becoming behaviour of Christian women, previous pas- 
sages, and 1 Cor. 11. 1-16 14. 34, 35: 1 Tim. 2. 9-T5. As parents, 
Eph. 6. 4: Col. 3. 21: 1 Tim. 5. 8: 3. 4, 5 : Tit. 2. 4: 2 John. As 
children, Eph. 6. 1, 2: Col. 3. 20: Heb. 12. 9: 1 Tim. 5. 1: 1 Pet. 
5. 5 (see Job 32. 6, 7). As masters, Eph. 6. 9: Col. 4. 1: Philem. 16: 
James 5. 4. As servants, 1 Cor. 4. 2: 7. 22: Gal. 3. 28: Eph. 6. 5, 6: 
Col. 3. 22, 23 : 1 Tim. 6.1, 2: Tit. 2. 9, 10: Philem. 11 : Luke 12. 41-43: 
16. 10-12. As men, see Rom. Examples: Parents, Gen. 18. 19: 42. 4. 
2 Tim. 1. 5. Children, Ruth 1. 14: Esth. 2. 20: 2 Tim. 3. 15. 
Masters, Gen. 17. 23: Josh. 24. 15: 2 Sam. 6. 20: Acts 10. 2. Ser- 
vants, 2 Kings 5. 2: Acts 10. 7. 

(vii.) Liberality; its motives, and measure, 1 Cor. 16. 1, 2 : 
2 Cor. 8:9: Rom. 12. 13 : 15. 26, 27: 1 Tim. 6. 17-19: 1 John 3. 
1 7- J 9 : James 1.27: 2. 8 : Heb. 6. 6 : in receiving fellow Christians, 
Rom. 12. 13 : Heb. 13. 1, 2 : 1 Tim. 5. 10 : Tit. 1. 7, 8 : 3 John. 

Hence it appears that though at first, the members of the church 
at Jerusalem " sold their possessions and had all things common," 
this was not intended as the rule; though all are enjoined to give 
as the Lord has prospered them. 

(viii.) That the love and comfort which this relation involves 

Ti ,. . ,. may be secure the church of Christ must be kept free 
Its discipline. J . . ■ x 

from impurity and disorder. Rebuke, encouragement, 
censure, exclusion, restoration — all are to be exercised for the good 
of the body. 1 Cor. 5: 2 Cor. 6. 14-18: 3. 17: 10. 8: 13. 10: 
Gal. 6. 1 : 2 Thess. 3. 6-15 : 1 Tim. 5:6: 2 Tim. 3. 1-5 : 4. 2 : • 
Tit. 1. io:-3. 10: Jude 22: Rev. 2. 14-16, 20- 23. 

(ix.) The sin and cure of divisions, 1 Cor. 1. 10: 4. 21 : 2 Cor. ui : 
Sin and cure -om. 16. 17, 18 : I Tim. 1. 3-7 : 6. 3-5, 20 : Tit. 3. 9-15 : 
of divisions. Heb. 13. 8, 9. See on Christian forbearance. 

(x.) The duty of Christian forbearance in relation to matters on 
which there may be difference of opinion among good men, 1 Cor. 
8:-ro: Rom. 14. n-15. 7 : Matt. 18. 10: Phil. 2. 1-7 : James 4. ±1, 12 : 
Acts 15. 8, 9 : 11. 17 : 1 Pet. 3. 8. 

(xi.) The right use of miraculous gifts, as prophecy, etc., is 
,,. . largely explained in these Epistles. These gifts were 

and other intended to confirm the truth of the gospel, promote its 
611 ts * rapid dissemination, and were essential to prove a new 

revelation. Now, we are referred for evidence and for spiritual 
knowledge to the Scriptures. Outward instruction, personal expe- 
rience, careful study, and a spirit of devout dependence on God's 
teaching in his word occupy the place of miraculous endowments. 
2 Tim. 2-1: 3. 3, 15, 16: 2 Thess. 2. 15: 2 Pet 1. 15-21: 3. [-4: 14-17: 



CORIXIHIAXS : VARIOUS TRUTHS. 601 

James i. 5. In these passages, however, we learn that the church 
of Christ ought to be edified by the willing and combined sendee, 
according to their gifts, of all its members. 1 Cor. 12 : 14: Rom. 12. 
4-8: Gal. 3. 1-5: Eph. 4. 7-13 : Heb. 2. 1-4. 

(xii.) Mark the nature, and superlative excellence of Christian 
On Christian love. 1 Cor. 13: Col. 3. 12, 14: Gal. 5:6:1 Tim. 
love - 1. 5: 1 John 3. 10-24. 

(xiii.) Mark the importance and consolation of the doctrine of the 
On the resurrection of the dead, and ho w it is insured by the 

resurrection, resurrection of our Lord. 1 Cor. 15 : Rorn. 8. 11, 19-25 : 
1 Thess. 4. 13-17: Rev. 20. 11-13: John 5. 21, 28. 

(xiv.) Mark also with what order and devotedness the Lord's 
Onobserv- supper is to be observed, and mark that it is not sacri- 
fice of the fi c i ?; l but only commemorative. 1 Cor. 11. 17-34: 
supper. 10. 15-18: Matt. 26. 26-30: Acts 2. 42-47: 20. 7. 

The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans. 
Corinth, a. D. 58. 

177. The Epistle to the Romans was addressed to the Christians 
residing in the metropolis of that great empire, whose dominion 
then extended over almost the whole known world. 

The way had been prepared by Divine Providence for the intro- 
duction of the gospel into Rome by the extensive settlement of Jews 
there. That the establishment of the Jewish worship at Rome had 
produced considerable effect on the general community, is clear 
from the statements of heathen writers. Ovid speaks of the syna- 
gogues as places of general resort : rind, still later, Juvenal ridicules 
his countrymen for becoming Jews, 

At what time or by whom the gospel was first preached in the 
imperial city is unknown. That it was at an early period may be 
inferred from the circumstance that, when Paul wrote this Epistle, 
the faith of the Roman Christians "was spoken of throughout the 
whole world," chap. 1. 8. It is probable that some of those 
" strangers of Rome, Jews and proselytes," who were present at 
Jerusalem on the great day of Pentecost (Acts 2. 10), carried back 
to that city the knowledge of the gospel. And it is not improbable, 
also, considering the constant intercourse between Rome and the 
provinces, that some of the numerous converts to Christianity in 
Judasa, Asia Minor, and Greece, might soon have found their way 
to the capital. That some of the persons concerned in the establish- 
ment of the church of Rome (two of whom Paul mentions as having 
been converted earlier than himself) were Paul's particular friends, 
with whom he had met while preaching in Asia and in Greece, is 
evident from the form of the salutations in chap. 16. 3-16. 

2 D 



602 EPISTLE TO ROMANS. 

The traditions of some of the ancient fathers, that Peter was the 
founder of the church at Rome, appears plainly inconsistent with 
the evidence derived from this Epistle, as well as from the book of 
the Acts, which shows him to have been at Jerusalem at the very 
time when he is alleged to have been at Rome. In this whole 
Epistle there is no mention of Peter as ever having been at Rome. 
low, if Peter had not only been there, but had actually founded 
the church, and had presided over it, it is impossible to suppose 
that Paul could have failed to advert to that fact. And, further, 
had Peter been at Rome when Paul wrote this Epistle, he would 
certainly have been included in the particular enumeration of persons 
to whom salutations are sent, in chap. 16. 

The date of this Epistle is very precisely fixed by the following 
facts. Paul had not yet been to Rome (1. u, 13, 15). Pie was 
intending to visit it, after first visiting Jerusalem (15. 23-28), and 
this was his purpose during his three months' residence at Corinth, 
Acts 19. 21. He was about to carry a collection from Macedonia 
and Achaia to Jerusalem (15. 26, 31) : and this he did carry from 
Corinth to Jerusalem at the close of his visit, Acts 24. 17. When 
he wrote the Epistle, Timothy, Sosipater, Gaius, and Erastus were 
with him (16. 21, 23). Gaius was his host, and resided at Corinth, 
1 Cor. 1. 14. Erastus was himself a Corinthian, and had been sent 
shortly before from Ephesus with Timothy on their way through 
Corinth to Macedonia, Acts 19. 22: 1 Cor. 16. 10, 11 ; and the 
first three are expressly mentioned in Acts (20. 4) as being with 
Paul at Corinth. Phoebe, moreover, the bearer of the Epistle, was 
a member of the church at the Corinthian port of Cenchrea (16. 1). 
As Paul, therefore, was preparing to visit Jerusalem one of his con- 
verts was also departing from Corinth in an opposite direction, for 
Rome, and by her this Epistle was taken to that city. Its date is 
thus fixed, a. d. 58. 

The character of the Roman church may be gathered from the 
Epistle itself. It contained several converts from Judaism (3. 4, 14. 
etc.); but the majority were clearly of Gentile origin (1. 13: 15. 
14,15). To all it was important that they should have a full and 
inspired exhibition of Divine truth ; and this is given. The doctrine 
of justification by faith had been employed to justify immoral 
practices (3. 8), and moreover dissensions had sprung up between 
Jewish converts and Gentile Christians (11. 17, 18: 14). The 
Jewish believer was unwilling to regard his uncircumcised Gentile 
brother as his equal in Christ's kingdom (3. 9: 15. 7-11); and, on 
the other hand, the more enlightened Gentile convert was inclined 
to treat the lingering scruples of the Jew with contempt (14. 3 J. 
Here, therefore, the doctrine of justification is shown to produce 



ROMANS : OUTLINE. 603 

holiness. To the Jewish Christian, truth and its claims are re- 
vealed; to the Gentile Christian, love and its claims; and both are 
taught that faith in Christ and subjection to him are the only con- 
ditions of a place in the church and of an interest in the covenant. 
In the whole of this discussion principles are laid down of the 
greatest value to the church in every age. 

The Epistle may be divided as follows (see § 171, note.) 
1. 1, 8, 13, 16, 18, 24: 2. 1, 17, 25: 3. 1, 5, 9, 21, 27, 29, 31: 
4. 1, 6, 9, 10, 13, 18, 23: 5. 1, 3, 6, 11, 12: 6. 1, 12, 15 : 7. 1, 7, 13: 
8. 1, 12, 18, 26, 28, 31 : 9. 1, 6, 10, 14, 19, 30: 10. 1, 14, 18 : it. 
1, 7, 11, 16, 22, 25, 33: 12. 1, 3, 6, 9, 14: 13. 1, 11; 14. 1, 13: 
15. i, 5, 8, 14: 16. 1, 17, 21, 25. 

178. As the Epistle to the Romans treats of the doctrine which 
has been regarded as the test of a true church, and is moreover the 
most full and systematic of all the apostle's writings, we append an 
analysis of the whole, showing the course of argument and illustra- 
tration. The significance of particular passages depends in a great 
degree, as will be readily seen, on their connection and tendency. 

(1.) Introduction (1. 1-17). 

(1.) The salutation (1. 1-7). 

(2.) Introduction, and Paul's estimate of the gospel (8-17). 

(11.) Doctrinal Exposition (1. 18 :-il. 36). 

(a.) Sinfulness of the human race. 
(1.) Condition of the heathen, — 

In relation to God (1. 18-23). 
In relation to human duty (24-32). 
(2.) Condition of the Jews, — 

Mere knowledge will not save (2. 1-11). 
It even aggravates guilt (12-29). 
(3.) Comparison of Jews and Gentiles, — 

Value of Old Testament dispensation not lowered (3. 1-8). 
Both guihy, and needing salvation (9-20). 
(6.) The gospel-plan of salvation explained, in itself, and in 
its results. 
(i.) This plan explained, a revelation of Divine justice and 
mercy excludes — 

All boasting (3. 21, 26-28), and — 
Saves all on the same terms (29-31). 
(2,) Holy men of old justified by faith,— 

Illustrated, Abraham (4, 1-5): David (6-8). 

2 D 2 



604 ROMANS : OUTLIKE. 

Circumcision the sign (9-12), and the theocracy (r3-i)), 
the result of the covenant : the result, therefore, of 
justification, rather than subservient to it. 
(3.) Abraham's faith described. Its results (4. 18-25). 
(4.) The fruits of faith in Christian experience, in imparting 
peace, joy, and hope (5. 1-11). 

(5). The excellence of faith shown by a comparison between 
Adam, the head of the fallen race, and Christ, the author of 
spiritual life, to all who are united to Him (5. 12-21). 

(c.) This way of salvation (%apis, SiKaioffvi/ri), favourable to 

holiness, (See 3. 8). 

(1.) We cannot go on in sin, that grace may abound; for we are 

one with Christ our Head, in his baptism, death, and life (6. 1-14); 

verses 12-14 illustrating the idea that Christ is our King, as well as 

Head. 

(2.) Nor can we go on in sin, because under grace and not under 
law. 

For the servants of another are bound to obey their 

master, and moreover — 
Men are increasingly swayed by that authority, which 
they heartily acknowledge. It becomes a yoke, which, 
however, if it be righteousness, is free, and has a 
glorious issue, (6. 15-23). 
(3.) He illustrates the same truth as in 6. 2, by an example 
founded on law (7. 1-7). 

Hence a twofold objection : 
(4). Either the law is sin — 

No ; for it reveals sin, and impresses it on the conscience 

(7. 7-I 2 ): 

(5.) Or being itself good, it has become death (7. 13-25). 

No; for we, (" our inner man,") admit it to be spiritual, 
even when not obeying it ; a fact admitted by the 
awakened and regenerate. 
Both facts meet the objection, and show our need of a new 

system. 

(d.) The law having failed to justify and sanctify, he repeats 
and expands the truth, that Christ for us, and Christ m us, 
is our justification and holiness, 
(r.) Christians justified in Christ and sanctified in Him, througli 
the Spirit; which sanctification will be complete (8. 1-11). 
(2.) Christian's duty and privilege (8. 12-17.) 
(3.) The connection between the perfection of creation, and that 
of the children of God (8. 18-25). 

(4.) Other blessings (8. 26-27, 28-30, 31-39). 



ROMANS : OUTLINE. 605 

(e.) As in chap. i. i8:-3. 2 °> the apostle lias explained the 
relation of Jews and Gentiles to the law, so in chap. 9. 
1 :-n. 36, he explains the relation of both to the gospel. 

That salvation is by Christ, and for all that believe, is the con- 
clusion to which the apostle has come; but if so, the great majority 
of the Jews perish, and the Gentiles have taken their place ; a result 
apparently severe, and to the Jew particularly startling. The apostle 
meets this feeling. 

(1.) He affirms, that he is himself greatly distressed at their state 
of rejection (9. 1-6). 

(2.) It cannot be said, however, that the promise is unfulfilled, 
or that this difference of treatment is without precedent; for — 

The promise did not extend to all the children of Abraham, but 
only to the descendants of Sarah ; nor to all her descendants, but 
only to Jacob (7-13), the ground of the difference being, riot the 
actual merit of the persons, but the election of God. 

Least of all does it follow that God is unjust, for all mercy on 
God's part is evidence of kindness, and is altogether undeserved. 

That God has a right to make distinctions in his dealings, and 
does make them, is further shown in the case of Pharaoh (14-18). 

(3.) But does not this idea of purpose on God's part, free us 
from blame? To which the apostle replies by affirming, first, that 
God has a right to do as he will; suggesting, that in the exercise of 
that right, there can be no wrong; and secondly, that in exercising 
that will, both the justice and the mercy of God will be the more 
illustriously revealed (19-24;, saving all on the same conditions, 
both Jews and Gentiles (24). 

(4.) Both this call of the Gentiles, and the salvation of a remnant 
only of the Jews, are foretold, or have their precedents in the Old 
Testament (25-29). 

(5.) The failure and rejection of the Jews, though in one sense 
in accordance with the Divine purpose, are really results of un- 
belief (30-33). 

Chap. 10. This last thought is expanded in chap. 10. After again 
expressing his distress at the unbelief of the Jews, he shows that 
their rejection is the result of unbelief; and that all who call on 
the name of the Lord, Jews or Gentiles, shall be saved (1-13). 

It is then objected, that the Jews could not call upon one of whom 
they had not heard (14-17), and the apostle answers by showing 
that they have heard, and that their rejection of truth was not 
owing to ignorance, but to disobedient unbelief ; a fact, which, in 
all aspects of it, their own prophets foretold (18-21). 

Chap. 11. The apostle proceeds to explain his statements. 



606 ROMANS : OUTLINE. 

(6). It must not be supposed that Israel, as a whole, have been 
rejected. 

It is not Jews, as Jews; but Jews as unbelievers; for 4 ' I myself,' 
says he, <( am an Israelite" (i), and, as in Elijah's days, there were 
thousands who had not bowed to Baal, so now there is a remnant 
according to the election of grace, chosen not for their works, but 
from free favour; while the rest have missed the blessing through 
unbelief (2-10). 

Nor, speaking of the Jews as a nation, is this utter rejection: 

Their unbelief gave occasion for the proclamation of the truth to 
the Gentiles, and their conversion will be connected with the 
general diffusion of the truth (ri-15), of all which the faith of their 
fathers is a kind of earnest (16). 

(7.) Humility, faith, adoring reverence of the justice and mercy 
of God, with hope in this general issue, become all Gentile converts 
(17-24), and— 

(8.) By-and-by, Israel as a whole, shall be converted to God 

(25-32). 

(9.) The whole scheme of salvation, an evidence of the unfathom- 
able wisdom and love of God (33-36), to whose praise all will ulti- 
mately redound. 

(ill.) Ethical development of Truth (12. -15. 14). 

(i.) In relation to general behaviour. 

(1.) All previous doctrine points to consecration of the whole life 
as the appropriate result, and with this consecration all holines3 
begins (12. 1, 2). 

This founded in humility, i. e., in a true and healthy view of our- 
selves, and of our position (12. 3). 

This consecration will include — 

(2.) The Christian's relation to the church (12. 4-13), includ- 
ing love, faith, and hope; and — 

(3.) The Christian's relation to the world (12. 14-21). 

(4.) Chap. 13. Especially is this spirit of consecration seen in 
submission to the ruling power, which has the force of a Divine 
law (1-7). — Obedience in such cases, is another form of the great 
law of love (8-10), which is especially incumbent under the gospel, 
as is all spiritual holiness, (11 -14). 

(ii.) In relation to our behaviour in things indifferent (14. 

11-15. 7). 

Here, forbearance is our rule. He who regards things indifferent 
as binding, may be the weaker Christian, but God has received him; 
he does all to Christ who is his judge; and in accordance with his 
own conscience, which is, subordinately, his law. 



ROMANS : VARIOUS TRUTHS. 607 

Therefore, neither is he the less welcome, nor is he to be tempted 
by ridicule or rebuke to violate what he himself believes (14. 2-23 '. 

The example of Christ, and the ultimate design of the Scriptures, 
teach this duty on even more comprehensive grounds — the common 
good (15. 1-7). 

The lesson is repeated, that Gentiles and Jews are one bodv. and 
that the salvation of each illustrates the faithfulness and mercy of 
God (15. 8-13). 

(iv.) Personal Communications. 

(r.) Explanation of the apostle's relation to the Gentiles, and of 
his earnestness on their behalf (15. 14-21). 

(2.) Xotice of his proposed journeys (15. 22-23). 

(3.) Salutations (16. 1-23;, with cautions in reference to such as 
caused divisions (17-20). 

(4.) Conclusion (24-27). 

179. Mark in this Epistle the following truths, doctrinal and 

moral. 

(i.) Han's extreme need of salvation, in consequence of his guilt, depravity, and 
wretchedness (1. 18.-5. 20, compare 6. 19-21 : 3. 6-3) : Gal. 3. 10-22: Eph. 2. 1-3-. 
4. i3, 19 : Col. 3. 5-10 : Hen. 9. 1-9 : 10. 1-11 : 1 Pet. 4. 3 : Tit. 3. 3: Psa. 130. 3 : 
145. 2. 

(ii.) The only way of justification — by the free favour of God through faith in the 
righteousness of Christ : explained and illustrated by reference to the history of 
Abraham and David {3. 21 :-4- 25 : 5. 16 : 8. 1) : tJaL 3- 6-29 : Eph. 2. 8-10 : Phil. 3. 
~-io: Titus 3. 4-7: Heb. 10. 11-18: Psa. 22. 30, 31 : Isa.42.21: Jer. 23. 5, 6. This 
faith is sanctifying, see James and Acts 26. i3. 

(hi.) Peace and reconciliation, hope and joy. the fruits of faith (5. i-n : 10. 15 : 
14. 17) : 2 Cor. 5. 18-21 : Eph. 2. 11-20 : Col. 1. 19-27 : 1 Pet. 1. 18-21 : Isa. 31. 71 : 
Psa. 85. 3-IO : 16. 9-11. 

'iv) As by the disobedience of one all are sinners, so are righteousness and 
etmal life through the obedience of Christ (5. 12-31): 1 Cor. 15. 20-23, 45-49: 
I Tim. 1-14: Gen. 3. 6 : 5. 3 : Isa. 53. 10-12. 

(v ) The evangelic motives of obedience ; deliverance from the dominion and 
condemnation of ancient law, living union with Christ, and submission to his 
authority, the constraining influence of his love, the efficacy of his death and resur 
rectiom the transforming power of his example, the promised aid of his Spirit, and 
the hope of an eternal reward : in one word, all the affections and desires of our 
new life (6. 1 :-7. 25) : 2 Cor. 5. 14-17 : 6. 14-18 : Gal. 2. 19, 20 : 5. 24 : 6, 14 : Eph. 
2. 4-10 : Col. 2. 6-17 : 3. 1-3 : Tit. 2. 10-14 : 1 Pet. 2. 20-25 : 4. 1, 2 : 2 Pet. 1. 4-9 : 
Phil. 3. 17, 18 : Psa. 116. 16 : Jer. 31. 31-34: Acts 26. i3. 

(vi.) The privileges consequent on justification — adoption, the inward presence, 
testimony and help of the Spirit, ihe certainty of complete salvation and a glorious 
inheritance (8. 1-27 : 5. 5) : 2 Cor. 1. 21, 22 : Gal. 4. 1-7 : Eph. 1. 14 : 6. 18 : 1 Pet. 
2. 3-9 : i John 3. 1-3, 19-21. 

(vii.) The source of redemption — God's sovereign love and eternal purpose 
(8. 28-39) : Eph. 1. 3-10 : 2 Thess. 2. 13-17 : 1 Pet. 1. 2-5 : 2. 7-10 : 2 Tim. 1. 9-12 
John 17. 9-24. 



60S ROMANS : VARIOUS TRUTHS. 

(viii.) The principal duty of Christians, individually, socially, as members of the 
church of Christ, and as subjects of civil government (12. 1 .--15. 7). Christian 
morality requires universal and permanent rectitude, a must proceed from a renewed 
hearty be based on religion, i. c, on the consecration of man in all his powers and 
affections unto God,c needs the sanctifying influence of the Spirit, d and can be 
offered with acceptance only through the mediation of Christ. 6 This morality is the 
believer's chief concern ; for his justification is complete, while his sanctifkation is 
not; and the attainment of it is the business of the Christian's life, as it was one 
end of the coming of our Lord.f 

a Compare the following passages, which all treat of morality, and it will be seen 
that no sin is excused, nor is any branch of righteousness excepted in the Christian 
code. Rom. 12. 1 ;-i5- 7 : 1 Cor. 6 : 11. 1-16 : 2 Cor 4 : 6. 14-18 : Gal. 5:6: Eph« 
4.-6: Phil. 1. 27 :-2. 16: 3. 18: Col. 3. 1 :-4- 6: 1 Thess. 4: 2 Thess. 3. 6-15: 
i Tim. 2. 9-15 : 6 : 2 Tim. 3. 1-9 : Tit. 1. 12 -.-3. 8: Philem. : Heb. 13: James all 
(see 2. 10) : 1 Pet. 1. 22 :-2. 3 '- 2. 11 ;-3- 17 : 4. 8-1: ; 5. 1-7 ; 2 Pet. 2 ; 3. 11-14; 
1 John 2. 3-11, 15-17, 29; 3- 3-i8, 24 ; Jude. 

b Eph. 4. 22-24 : Col. 1. 22, 13 : Phil. 2. 3-5 ; Rom. 12. 2. All the passages 
which speak of motives to obedience, and the very structure of the Epistles, 
addressed as they are to Christians, and basing precepts on doctrines, obedience on 
faith, Psa. 51. 10 ; Ezek. 36. 25, 27. 

e Rom. 12. 1 : 1 Cor. 6. 20 : 2 Cor. 5. 15 ; 6. 14-18 : 7. 1 ; 8.5 ; Phil. 1. 20 : 1 Pet. 
:. 24: 4. 2 : Eph. 5. 25-27 : 1 Thess. 5. 23, 24 : 1 John 3. 3. 

d Rom. 15. 16 : Phil. 4. 13 ; Heb. 9. 14 : 1 Pet. 1. 22. 

e Eph. 1. 6 ; Phil. 1. 9-1 1 : 1 Pet. 2. 5 : 1 John 3. 6-10 : Col. 3. 17. 

f Eph. 4. n-13 : 5. 25-27 : Phil. 2. 12 : J. 13 : Titus 2. 11-14. 

The various duties of morality are easily arranged. They refer to God— to our- 
selves—to others. All indeed, are enjoined by a Divine law, and 

., U e ^. a must be perfo lined from religious motives. Yet is the distinction 

convenient and Scriptural. We find it recognised in the 12th of 

•Romans, and elsewhere. Living devotedness to God is first enjoined, ver. 1, 2 ; 

then the personal virtue of humility, ver. 3, and lastly, the duties we owe to the 

church of Christ, and to the world. 

(ix.) In relation to God, it is incumbent upon us— to ascertain his character and will, 
especially as revealed in his Son ;g to exercise appropriate faith and 

in relation to j submission, and reverence ;h to imitate his moral perfections, 
to obey his commands,! and to express our feelings in acts of accep- 
table worship j The sum of our affection is reverential love, and of our service, 

living consecration.^ 

g 2 Cor. 4. 6 : 2 Pet. 1. 2, 3 : 1 John 5. 20 : John 17. 3 ; Psa. 9. 10. 

h 1 John 5. 10-12 : 1 Cor. 8. 3; 1 John 4. 9 : Heb. 12. 9: 1 Pet. 1. 10-21 : 5. 6 : 
lames 4. 7, 10 ; 2 Cor. 7. 1 : Eph. 5. 21 : Heb. 12. 28 ; Examples, Heb. 11 : Matt. 
8. 10 : Psa. 18. 1 : John 21 : Job 2. 10 : 2 Sam. 15. 26. 

i 2 Cor. 3. 18 : Eph. 4. 32 ; 5- 1 : Col. 3. 13 : Matt. 5. 44, 45, 48 : 1 John 4. 11 : 
1 John 2. 3-5 : John 14. 23 : Rom 16. 19 : Examples, our Lord, Eph. 5. 2 ; 1 Pet. 
2. 21 : Abraham, 12. 1-4. 

j Rom. 10. 9, 10 ; Heb. 10. 25 ; Phil. 4. 6 : James 1. 5, 6 : 1 John 3. 22 : John 14. 
13 ; Eph. 5. 19, 20 : Col. 3. 16, 17 : Mark 14.26 ; Ex., Acts 1. 14 : 2. 1, 2 ; 4. 24- Jt ; 
Luke 4. 15, 16 : Acts 18. 4. 

k 1 John 5. 2-5 : Mark 12. 29, 32 : Deut. 6. 5 ; 10. 12 : ?o. 6: Rom. 12. 1 : 1 Cor. 
t. 20 ; 2 Chron. 30. 8. 



ROMANS : CHRISTIAN DUTIES. 609 

(x.) In relation to ourselves, it becomes us to be humble, never thinking more 
highly of our gifts than we ought, and ever remembering that they 

ourselves 11 t ' are ^ ts ' A meek > restraining, within proper bounds all irascible 
passions, b contented with our lot,c temperate/* self-denying, e careful 

in preserving for God's service, our health and life, f diligent,g and pure.k 

a Rom. 12. 3 : i Cor. 4. 7 : 2 Cor. 12. 7 : Gal. 6. 3 : Phil. 2. 3, 4 : Eph. 4. 2 : Col. 
j. 12 : James 4. 6 : 1 Pet. 5. 5, 0. Ex., Gen. 18. 27 : 32. 10 : i3. 13 : 1 Cor. 15. 9 : 
Phil. 2. 5-3. False humility condemned, Col. 2. 18-2 J : 2 Chron. 12. 6 : 1 Kings 
21. 29. 

*> Eph. 4. 2 : Col. 3. 12 : Tit. 3.2; Gal. 5. 23 : James 3. 13, 17 : 1 Pet. 3. 4-15 : 
Ex., Numb. 12. 2 : Psa. i31.11 1 Thess. 2. 7 : Christ, 2 Cor. 10. 1 : Matt. 11. 29. 

c Keb. 13. 5 : Phil. 4. 6 : 1 Tim. 6. 6-3 : Matt. 6. 25 : Ex., Paul, Phil. 4. 11, 12. 

& Rom. 13. 11-13 : Gal. 5. 23 : 1 Cor. 7. 30: 9. 25-27: Tit. 2. 2, 11, 12: 2 Pet. 
1. 6 : Luke 21. 34. 

e Rom. 14, 20 : 15. 1 : 8. 13 : 2 Cor. 8. 9 : 6. 4, 5-10 : 1 Cor. 8. 13 : Col. 3. 5 : 
Phil. 2. 4 : 1 Pet. 4. 1, 2 : 2 Tim. 2. 4, 15 : Ex., Acts 2. 45 : 1 Cor. 8. 13 : Heb. 11. 
24, 25. 

1 Eph. 5. 29 : 1 Tim. 5. 2 : Acts 16. 27, 28 : 27. 34 : Matt. 10. 23 : Acts 14. 6. 7. 

g Rom. 12. 11 : Eph. 4. 28 ; 1 Thess. 4. 11, 12 : 2 Thess. 3. 11, 12 : Col. 4. 12, 13, 
see Prov. 6. 6-8 : 22. 13- Diligence in seeking our Scriptural improvement is an 
urgent duty, Phil. 2. 12 : 3. 14 : Heb. 6. 3, 4 : 2 Pet. 1. 5, 10 : John 6. 10 : 2 Cor. 
3. 7 : Heb. 6. 12 : Gal. 6. 9. An earnest character is clearly to be the aim of each 
Christian. 

h Rom. 13. 13 : 16. 8 : 1 Cor. 5. 11 : 6. 9, 13-18 ; 2 Cor. 7. 2 : Gal. 5. 19-21 : Eph.4. 
19 : 5- 3> 5' Phi 1 - 3- J 9 : Col. 3. 5-8 ; 1 Thess. 4. 3 : Heb. 13. 4 : 2 Pet. 2. 13, 14 : 
Tit. 3. 12. 

(xi.) In relation to others we owe justice and veracity — the virtues of reciprocity 
In relation to as tn °y are called— peace and love, the virtues of benevolence or good- 
others, will. 

1. "We owe them justice, i. e., the righteous fulfilment of righteous expectation.i 
Duties of re- ^ e naust respect their liberty, and neither oppress nor unnecessarily 
ciprocity, viz. condemn them ;j their property, and neither steal nor covet, nor de- 
1. Justice. fraud ;k their character, and neither slander nor misrepresent them ;1 
their happiness, and not envy their worth or rank;™ their lives, and neither quarrel 
with nor hate them :n their virtues, and withhold neither the gratitude, the admira- 
tion, nor the love which they may justly claim. 

i Rom. 13. 7 : James 2. 6 : 5. 4 : Mai. 3. 5 : Zech. 7. 7-10 : and frequently in the 
Old Testament. Ex. Job 29. 14 : Jer. 23. 25 (Josiah) : Luke 23. 51 (Joseph) : our 
Lord especially, Psa. 98. 9 : Isa. 11. 4. Injustice, a characteristic of the ungodly 
and of hypocrites, 1 Cor. 6. 1 : Matt. 23. 23. 

j Rom. 14. 4 : 2 Cor. 1. 24 : Gal. 2. 4, 5 : Col. 2. 16, 17, 20 : James 3. 1 : 4- n, 12 : 
1 Pet. 5. 3« 

k Eph. 4. 28 : 5. 3-$ : I Cor. 6. 10 : 1 Pet. 4. 15 : Col. 3. 5 : Psa. 10. 3. 

l Rom. 1. 29 : 2 Cor. 12. 20: 1 Tim. 3. 11: 5. 13: Tit. 3. 2. Ex. The levil, 
Job 1 : Rev. 12. 10 : Psa. 4. 20. 

m Rom. 13. 7 : Eph. 6. 5: 1 Pet. 2. 17, 18 : Matt. 22. 21 : Phil. 2. 3 : 1 Cor. 12. 21 ; 
1 Pet. 5. 5. 

n Rom. 12. 19: Gal. 5. 20: Col. 3- 21 : Eph. 4. 31 : 1 John 3. 15-17 : Lev. 19^ 
17, 18. 

The relative value of piety and rank is denned. Piety is not to be despised be- 

2 D 3 



GIG ROMANS : CHRISTIAN DUTIES. 

cause of poverty, nor is wickedness to be respected because of wealth, James 2. 1-9: 
Jude 16. 

2. To others we owe veracity or trathfulness. This is the basis of all confiden- 
v ., tial intercourse between intelligent beings, and is essential to virtue. 

Its opposites, hypocrisy, flattery, slander, lying, are either the parents, 
or the offspring of many vices. 

Eph. 4. 25 : 5. 4 : Col. 3. 9. See Psa. 51. 6 : Prov. 12. 19, 22. 

Mark the origin of lies, Gen. 3. 4 r John 8. 44 : Acts 5. 3 : and their end, Rev. 21. 
8. 27 : 22. 15. Natural to man, Psa. 58. 3 : Isa. 57. 4 : hateful to God, Prov. 6. 
16-19 : Isa. 59. 2, 4. Lies form one of the marks of the great apostasy, 2 Thess. 
2. 9 : 1 Tim. 4. 2 : 1 John 2. 22. 

3. To others in special relations, there are owing various duties, which we are 
bound in justice to discharge, see Cor. and Titus. 

And here, perhaps, heathen morality would end. The gospel, however, has pre- 
Duties of cepts of even a nobler kind. In addition to duties that spring out of 

benevolence ; what is due to man it enjoins others, the duties of peace and love, or 
Peace and of benevolence to all, irrespective of character or desert. Natural 
love. affection is a feeling which is due between those who sustain mutual 

relations. Gratitude is the least return which the recipient of kindness can pay to 
his benefactor. Admiration is the homage which is paid to virtue. But over and 
above these feelings the gospel inculcates universal good-will, in spite even of vice 
and hostility. 

Upon all it urges the exercise of a peaceful disposition, a calm, patient, friendly 
p temper in ourselves, and all proper effort to promote a kindred feeling 

in others. No duty is more solemnly enjoined, and from the descrip- 
tions as well as from the precepts of the Bible, it may be gathered that peace in 
our homes, in our churches, in nations, and throughout the world is the thing most 
needed to secure individual and social happiness, and that such peace is the fruit of 
the gospel. 

Rom. 12. 18 : 14. 19 : 2 Cor. 13. n : Gal. 5. 22: Eph. 4. 3 : 1 Thess. 5. 13, 14: 
Heb. 12. 14 : James 3. 16-18 : 1 Pet. 3. n : 2 Tim. 2. 22. 

Peace, like truth, is one of the attributes of God, Phil. 4.9: Col. 3. 15 : 1 Thess. 5. 
23 : 2 Thess. 3. 16 : and of the gospel, Eph. 6. 15. In value it is second only to 
truth and principle, Gal. 2. 11-16 : James 3. 17, 18. 

To preserve it, cultivate the tempers favourable to it, Eph. 6. 10-18 : Gal. 5. 
16-26 : Phil. 2. 2 : James 4. 1-11 : 1 Pet. 3. 4 : 1 Tim. 2. 2. Avoid all bitter con- 
tentious language, 1 Cor. 10. 32 : Eph. 4. 31 : and seek it of the God of peace, 1 Tim. 
2. 2 : Psa. 122. 6-8. If lost, copy Abraham, Gen. 13. 8 : or Abimelech, 21. 25-32 : 
or the Israelites, Josh. 22. 

Further, as religion begins in love to God, so it ends in love to man, universal 
j good-will. Its principle is, a desire for the good of others; in its 

operation it teaches us to avoid insincerity (which is to love what 
hypocrisy is to truth), flattery, censoriousness, to practise liberality, a spirit of 
forbearance and forgiveness, and secures when perfect the consecration of life itself 
to the welfare of our race. 

The neglect of this second class of duties has done irreparable mischief in tne 
world. Men have everywhere forgotten that bare justice is not the Scriptural rule ; 
Love is always just, but justice is not always loving, and Christian morality requires 
them both. The recollection of this truth might serve to humble us ; and it would 
certainly serve to illustrate the perfections of God, of which our good-will is a faint 
type, and commend the gospel to the admiration of our race. 

Rom. 12. 10, 19, 20 : 1 Cor. 4. 12, 13 : 13. 1-13 : Gal. 5. 14 : 6. 10 : 1 Thess. 3. 12 j 
James 2. 8 : 1 Pet. 3. 9 : Luke 6. 30-36, etc. 

(xii.) We have lastly in this Epistle a revelation of God's design in relation to 



ROMANS : LESSONS. 611 

the Jews, an i propagation of the gospel among the Gentiles, and the general 
conversion of ooth in the last days. Chaps. 9. to 11. : read the three toge- 
ther, and chap. 15. 8-12. Compare Eph. 3. 1-12 : Jer. 31.-33.: Ezek. 36.-39.: 
Zech. 12.-14. 

180. Rich as this Epistle is in passages formally discussing 
Christian truth, it is not less rich in incidental expressions abound- 
ing in spiritual significance. 

(1. 1.) The gospel is called with nearly equal frequency the 
gospel of God, and the gospel of Christ. It is God's, for it originates 
in his counsel and love, illustrates his righteousness, and is revealed 
by his Spirit. It is Christ's, for he is its theme ; it is preached by 
his servants, and in his name. See 1 Cor. 1. 24: Phil. 2. 11. 

(1. 3.) Christ's resurrection is the evidence and effect of the com- 
pleteness of his work; the commencement of his reign, and the 
earnest of our resurrection, Acts 2. 24: 17. 31: Eph. 1. 20: Heb. 
2. 14: Rom. 4. 25. Here the fact is made an evidence of his Divine 
nature. As man Christ could die ; as the Living God, the Quicken- 
ing Spirit, it was not possible that Death should hold him, Acts 2. 
24: John 20. 9. 

(1. 13-15.) To Paul's thwarted desire to visit Rome, we owe 
subordinately this Epistle, which is a blessing for all time. It pre- 
pared the way, moreover, for those cordial greetings with which 
Paul was afterwards welcomed to the imperial city, Acts 28. 14, 15. 
i ' Still out of seeming ill, educing good." 

(1. 17.) Christ died to justify God in exercising mercy. He lived 
to exhibit the Divine holiness, and honour the Divine law. He 
obeyed unto death, that he might lay the foundation of our accep- 
tance, i. e., of pardon and holiness. Hence the plan of justification 
is called the " righteousness of God." It vindicates God's holiness 
while illustrating his grace; and it gives to the sinner who believes 
the perfect title of our righteous Redeemer. 

(1. 19-21.) Ignorance is clearly not the primary cause of man's 
hostility to God. His hostility is rather the cause of his igno- 
rance. Atheism, practical or avowed, has its origin in the heart, 
Psa. 53. 

(1. 25.) The same heart that is averse to holiness is prone to reli- 
gious observance. Nature pointing to a Great First Cause; con- 
science, implying a Supreme Law-giver; taste, and sentiment even, 
suggesting the idea of Gne, who is infinitely fair and good, combine to 
make a God a natural necessity. . . . The progress of error we may 
mark, is ever downward (v. 23). Men first worshipped an image 
made like to corruptible man — and at last creeping things ! 

(1. 22.) So little did man feel his condition, that while his folly 
most clearly appeared, he was boasting of his wisdom. 



CI 2 ROMANS : LESSONS. 

(i. 26.) Man's depravity begins in Godlessness, and ends in moral 
corruption. The reason for each is given in verses 25 and 3 2 . These 
verses describe, not the Romans, but man. 

Nearly every word, sentence, and verse, is thus suggestive, either 
in itself, or when compared with other parts of the Bible. If in 
some respects, our study of Scripture cannot be too comprehensive, 
in others, it cannot be too minute. 

The General Epistle of James. Jerusalem, a. d. 61. 

181. There were two apostles named James or Jacob ; one of whom 
was the son of Zebedee and the brother of John, and was put to 
death by Herod, as related in Acts 12. 2; and the other, called 
James the Less, or the Little (Mark 15. 40), probably in allusion to his 
stature, was the son of Alphseus or Cleopas (see Matt. 10. 3 1 Mark 
3. 18: Acts 1. 13: Luke 24. 18); and being a near kinsman of the 
Lord, is called his brother, Gal. 1. 19, etc. The latter of these is 
commonly supposed to have been the writer of this Epistle. a 

After most of the apostles had gone to other countries, James 
appears to have resided permanently in Jerusalem, superintending 
the affairs of the church in that city and neighbourhood (see Acts 
12. 17: 15. 13-29: 21. 18-24: Gal. 1. 18, 19: 2. 9. 12); and main- 
taining such reputation for eminent sanctity as to acquire, even 
among his unbelieving countrymen, the honourable appellation of 
" the Just." It was, therefore, most appropriate that James should 
be directed to address this letter to his own people, exhibiting to 
them, not so much the peculiar doctrines, as the elevating and 
sanctifying influence of the gospel. For he knew well that they 
had become too much accustomed to a professed belief in God's 
word, whether spoken by Moses or by Christ, without allowing it to 
affect their hearts or conduct. Hence the apparent (though not 
real) discrepancy between him and Paul on the subject of justifica- 
tion by faith. (See Part i. §§ 285, 297, 511 c). 

It is a striking proof of the adaptedness of the gospel to our con- 
dition, and of our tendency to abuse it, that when the gospel was 
first introduced men were unwilling to be justified by grace alone : 
hence the Epistles to the Romans and to the Galatians. Now that 
the gospel has been established, men pervert it by overlooking the 
importance of works as an evidence and necessary result of 
saving faith. The gospel, however, has an appropriate message for 
both. 

ThS Epistle is supposed to have been written after the Epistle to 
the Romans, i. e., not before a.d. 58, and probably in 61, the year 

a See, however, Kitto's Cyc. Art., James. 



james: date: contexts. 613 

before the apostle's martyrdom. Xeander, Davidson, and others, 
give an earlier date, about a.d. 45 . The whole strain of the Epistle, 
however, indicates a state of degeneracy both degrading and exten- 
sive, such as could hardly have existed at the commencement of the 
gospel. 

As those whom the apostle addressed were in trying circum- 
stances, he begins with encouragements and counsels specially 
suited to their condition (1. 1-15). He then describes the nature of 
true religion, in its origin, and in its effects upon the heart and the 
conduct (1. 16-27); enjoins sincere and impartial love, without re- 
ference to outward condition and circumstances (2. 1-13); and ex- 
poses the hypocrisy of the man who pretends to have faith, while 
his works do not answer to his words ; quoting Scripture examples 
to show that the faith which God had approved had been always 
evidenced by works (2. 14-27). Then, to check some prevailing 
evils arising from a fondness for becoming teachers and censors, he 
gives cautions and rebukes on those subjects. He exhibits, in a 
series of striking metaphors, the evils of an unbridled tongue ; and 
contrasts the disputatious, envious, and angry spirit of the schools 
of earthly wisdom with the pure, peaceful, gentle, and beneficent 
character of that which is of heavenly origin (3). He exposes the 
effects of the spirit of the world, as exhibited in the conduct of 
those who are under its influence; and exhorts to submission to 
God and resistance to the devil. He calls sinners and hypocrites to 
repent, and to humble themselves before God; and warns Christians 
against speaking evil, censuring, or sitting in judgment upon each 
other (4. 1-12). He reproves the presumption of those who formed 
their worldly projects without any sense of their dependence upon 
God; and the covetousness and oppression of the rich (4. 13-17: 5. 
1-6). Then, returning to the suffering Christian?, he encourages 
them to patience by the prospect of the Lord's coming; cautions 
them against swearing; recommends prayer as the best resource in 
sorrow, and praise as the best expression of joy; gives special direc- 
tions to the sick; enjoins mutual confessions of faults and interces- 
sions for each other ; the efficacy of which he illustrates in the case 
of Elijah; and, finally, urges the duty of seeking to save an erring 
brother; and shows the blessed consequences of such an effort 
where successful (5. 7-20). 

How instructive are Scripture examples. The history of Abraham 
is quoted to prove that true faith produces holy practice. The his- 
tory tells us, moreover, that more than twenty years after Abraham 
had been brought into a state of justification, he was called upon to 
exhibit the influence of his principles, by his readiness to offer up 
even his only son, Gen. 15. 6 : 22. 9-12. This fact again is a lesson 



614 JAMES : EPHBSIANS. 

to us, and is a decisive proof that justifying faith, once exercised, is 
to be habitual. It is not so much an act as a state. 

Connect and read as follows: — 1. i, 2, 5, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22, 26 : 2, 
I, 12: 14. 21, 25: 3. 1, 13: 4. 1, 4, 9, 11, 13: 5. 1; 7. 9, 12, 13, 19. 

Tfte Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Ephesians. Rome, a.d. 62. 

182. That this Epistle was written by the Apostle Paul there is 
abundant evidence, both external and internal. But as the name 
Ephesus is wanting in chap. 1. 1, in a few ancient manuscripts, it has 
been doubted to whom it was addressed. Some have supposed it to 
be the Epistle to the Laodiceans, referred to in Col. 4. 16. Others 
have conjectured from the general character of its contents, and the 
absence of local and personal allusions, that it was a circular letter 
to the churches of Asia Minor. But it is most probable that the re - 
cerved reading in chap. 1. 1, is correct; and that the Epistle was writ- 
ten to the Ephesian Christians ; although probably the other churches 
in that district, of which Ephesus was the centre, were included in 
the apostle's intention and object. 

Such is the view taken by Usher, Hug, Michaelis, and others. 
Paley, Wetstein, and Greswell suppose, on the other hand, that this 
Epistle was addressed to Laodicea. Its circular character is sus- 
tained by most evidence. 

Ephesus was a large city in Ionia, the capital of the Roman pro- 
vince of Asia. It was chiefly celebrated for its temple of Diana, 
which was of extreme magnificence, enriched with immense trea- 
sures, and regarded as one of the wonders of the world. Its inha- 
bitants were noted for luxury and voluptuousness, and for the 
practice of magical arts. 

The book of Acts (18. 18-26: 19.) mentions two visits of Paul to 
Ephesus. The first time, on his way to Jerusalem, he preached on 
one sabbath in the synagogue, leaving behind him Priscilla and 
Aquila, who were shortly afterwards joined by Apollos. On his 
second visit, Paul remained there more than two years ; probably 
on account of the importance of the place, as a principal seat of 
idolatry, and a great centre of influence, and his labours were 
crowned with signal success, both among the citizens and the in- 
habitants of the surrounding country. About a year subsequently, 
when he was on his way from Macedonia to Jerusalem, he had an 
interview with the elders of the Ephesian church at the neighbour- 
ing sea-port of Miletus. 

This Epistle is supposed to have been the first of those written by 
Paul while he was a prisoner at Eome, about five years, therefore,, 
after his third interview with them; and, like the two which follow 



EPHESIANS. 615 

it, is remarkable for a peculiar pathos and elevation of thought and 
feeling. His whole mind seems to have been filled with the trans- 
cendent excellency of the privileges and hopes of believers in 
Christ, the all-comprehensive character of the Christian dispensa- 
tion, and its certain triumphs and glorious results. 

Anxious for the welfare of his Ephesian converts, the apostle was 
about to send Tychicus to them ; and he wrote this Epistle, one 
object of which was to remove any feelings of distrust or discou- 
ragement which the intelligence of his imprisonment might have 
produced in their minds; and to prevent that circumstance being 
taken advantage of by Jewish zealots to lower his apostolic autho- 
rity, or oppose the great truth in which he gloried — the unity and 
universality of the church as the body of Christ. 

This Epistle may be divided into two parts : — i. Doctrinal (1.-3) ; 
and ii. Practical (4.-6). 

i. After the opening salutation, Paul breaks forth into expressions 
of praise a to God for the blessings of redemption, and especially for 
the extension of them to the Gentiles, of which thev had an earnest 
in the baptism of the Spirit; dwells on the two wonderful displays 
of omnipotent grace, first in the glorification of Christ, and then in 
that of his regenerated people (1 : 2. 1-10), and reminds the Ephe- 
sians of their former heathen state of spiritual death and distance 
from God, and of the great change in their condition by being now, 
through his sovereign mercy, admitted to the fellowship of the 
saints (2. n-22) b . Then, describing himself as a prisoner in the 
cause of Christ for the sake of the Gentiles, he speaks of the special 
revelation and commission, granted to him in reference to them; 
grounds upon it an exhortation not to be discouraged at his suffer- 
ings ; and assures them of his prayers that they might be increas- 
ingly enlightened and strengthened, and have a full enjoyment of 
the benefits of Christ's redeeming love (3). 

ii. In the remaining chapters of the Epistle, which are chiefly 
practical, the apostle beseeches them to maintain a conduct and 
spirit worthy of the exalted privileges to which they had been 
called; reminds them of the great ends which the spiritual gifts 
bestowed upon them were designed to promote; enjoins upon them 
a course of conduct in direct contrast to that of the heathen around 

a Mark how prayers and thanksgivings are offered under the 
gospel, through the Spirit, and by the Son, Rom. 8. 26: 1. 13-23: 
3. 14-21: 6. 18: 1 John 5 : Jas. 1: Jude 20 : Phil. 1. 3-1 1 : Col. 1. 
9-12. 

b On the favour manifested towards heathen converts, see Rom. 
4: 5: Col. 2. 9-14: 1 Pet. 1. i8:-2. 10. 



616 EPHESIANS : COLOSSIANS. 

them and to their own former lives ; rt exhorts them particularly to 
unity, truthfulness, meekness, honesty, and industry; to purity of 
speech; to kindness and generosity, after the example of Christ; 
and to universal uprightness and holiness of conduct (4: 5. 1-20.) 
He then enforces, by motives peculiar to the gospel, an exemplary 
discharge of all relative duties (5. 21: 6. 9); concluding with ani- 
mated exhortations to fortitude, watchfulness, and prayer; followed 
by a commendation of Tychicus, the bearer of the Epistle, and by 
his apostolic benedictions (6. io-24). b 

In the circumstances in which this Epistle was written, and in 
the subsequent history of the Ephesian church, there is much that 
is instructive. The Epistle which dwells most on the unsearchable 
riches of God's wisdom and love, was written when its author was 
in bonds. A heart filled with thoughts most spiritual and hea- 
venly devotes attention to relative and moral duties (4. 28 : 5.6.1-9), 
and enforces them by appeals founded on our relation to Christ and 
the Holy Spirit (4. 32: 5. 2-25: 6. 5: 4. 30). The churches to 
which the Epistle was addressed, are not much censured here, but a 
few years later they were in a very different state, Rev. 2. 1-7: 3. 
14-19.; Their history is a solemn warning to Christians in every age. 

Connect and read as follows : — 1. 1, 3, 15 : 2. 1, 11, 19: 3. 1, 14: 
20 : 4. 1-7: 17. 25, 26, 28, 29, 31 : 5. 3, 15, 25 : 6. 1, 4, 5, 10 : 21. 

The Epistle to the Colossians. Rome, a.d. 62. 

183. Colosse was one of the chief cities of Phrygia, which, at the 
date of this Epistle, was a very rich and fertile country, though now 
under the Moslem yoke ; and is in a great measure uncultivated. Phry- 
gia was twice visited by Paul, Acts 16. 8: 18. 23, but whether he 
reached Colosse is doubted. The tenor of the Epistle favours the 
conclusion that he did not (see especially 2.1); but it is certain 
that he knew several of the Colossian Christians, of whom Archippus, 
their minister, and Philemon are expressly named. The Colossians, 
having heard of Paul's imprisonment, sent to him Epaphras, their 
minister, to comfort the apostle, and to inform him of their 
state. Epaphras, shortly after reaching Rome, was also imprisoned, 
Philem. 24. 

This Epistle was written during Paul's first imprisonment at 
Rome ( 1. 24: 4. 18) ; and probably at an early period of it, about 

a See Col. 3. 1-13. 

b On the warfare and armour of the Christian, see 6. 10-18: 
1 Thes. 5. 6-10: 1 Pet. 5. 7, 8: Heb. 4. 12: 2 Cor. 6. 7. 



COLOSSI ANS. 617 

tlie same time as those to the Ephesians and to Philemon ; as they 
appear to have been all sent by the same messengers, Tyehicus and 
Onesimus, the latter of whom was returning to his master, Phile- 
mon, at Colosse. The account given of the church by Epaphras 
was on the whole satisfactory. There appears, however, to have 
been some danger from false teachers, who aimed to combine with 
Christianity the speculations of the philosophers (2. 4-8), and su- 
perstitious observances (2. 16). 

The striking resemblance between this Epistle and that to the 
Ephesians, indicates some similarity in the tendencies of the two 
churches. 

The two Epistles must, in fact, be read together. " The one is," 
as Michaelis observes, " a commentary on the other." Both, more- 
over, are exceedingly rich in exhibitions of the glory of the gospel. 

This Epistle was to be sent to Laodicea, and the Colossians were 
to receive from Laodicea the Epistle he had directed to be sent on 
to them, probably the present Epistle to the Ephesians. 

The Epistle may be divided into two parts — doctrinal and prac- 
tical. 

i. After the usual salutation, the apostle expresses his thankful- 
ness for the effects of the gospel among the Colossians, and his 
prayerful anxiety that they might continue to advance in spiritual 
knowledge and in Christian virtues (1. 1-14) ; he sets forth the 
divine and the mediatorial glories of the Eedeemer, and gives a 
sublime view of the whole doctrine of reconciliation by Christ, both 
in its amplitude, as affecting all created beings, and in its individual 
application to believers in their personal conversion to God (1. 14- 
21). He then speaks of his own labours and sufferings as the apostle 
of the Gentiles, and expresses his intense solicitude for their sta- 
bility and perseverance (1. 21 : 2.5). 

He cautions them against particular errors; showing that no 
philosophical speculations, no human ordinances or traditions, 
no ascetic austerities, could raise the soul above gross pursuits, or 
enable it to realize unseen and eternal objects. But that, on the 
other hand, in Christ is perfect salvation; faith in him not only re- 
conciling us to God, but, by connecting us with an ascended Re- 
deemer, leading our thoughts and desires to things above (2. 6: 3. 4). 

ii. He then expands the application of the foregoing doctrine, 
points out the operation of this vitalizing faith, in subduing the 
propensities of the old sinful nature, and producing and sustaining 
the varied holiness of the new man; and, above all, brotherly love, 
which, is to be exercised in social worship and mutual edification 
(3. 4-16). He gives brief directions for the fulfilment of domestic 
duties (3. 18-25: 4. 1) ; exhorts the Colossians to constancy m 



618 colossi ans: Philemon. 

prayer and thanksgiving, and to consistent conduct before the world 
(4. 1-6) ; and, in conclusion, mentions Tychicus and Onesimus, 
who would give them full information of all his circumstances; and 
sends salutations from his fellow labourers and from himself, among 
others, to their minister : adding a touching injunction, at the 
moment of signing the letter, to remember his bonds (4. 6-18). 

Connect and read as follows : — 1. 1, 3, 9, 19, 21, 24: 2. r, 6, 8, 
16, 20: 3. 1, 5, 12, 16, 18, 20, 22: 4. 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 18. 

The Epistle of Paul to Philemon. Rome, a. d. 62. 

184. This inspired model of private Christian correspondence 
was addressed by the apostle Paul to Philemon, one of his converts 
residing at Colosse (compare ver. 2, 10, 19, with Col. 4. 9, 17), of 
whom nothing more is known than may be gathered from the letter. 
From this it has been supposed that Philemon was an elder or deacon 
in the church, and that Appia was his wife. Archippus seems to have 
been pastor at Colosse, Col. 4. 17. 

This Epistle was evidently written (see ver. 1, 10, 23), and sent 
at the same time as that to the Colossians (see Col. 4. 8 : compare 
also ver. 23, 24, with Col. 4. 10-14). Onesimus, the subject of this 
Epistle and the bearer of both, was a slave (probably a domestic 
servant) of Philemon, who, having fled from his master, had found 
his way to Eome ; and, while there, had been converted by the 
instrumentality of Paul, ver. 10. After a time, Paul, thinking 
it right that he should return to his master, wrote this elegant and 
persuasive letter in order to secure for him a kind reception. 

After an affectionate salutation from himself and Timothy, the 
apostle expresses his thankfulness at hearing of the good reputation 
which Philemon as a Christian enjoyed: and then gracefully intro- 
duces the main subject of his letter: requesting as " Paul the aged,'' 
now a prisoner for their common faith, what he might as an apostle 
have commanded. Acknowledging the fault of Onesimus, he men- 
tions the happy change which had taken place in him : and hints 
that his flight had been overruled for his master's benefit as well as 
his own; and entreats that he may be received back, no longer as a 
slave, but as a beloved Christian brother. He then delicately 
proposes to make good any loss Philemon might have sustained; 
whilst he intimates how great were his friend's obligations to 
himself. 

This short letter is invaluable, as offering an example of humility^ 
courteousness, and freedom, in the intercourse of Christian friend- 
ship: and we cannot but suppose that the gentleness and address of 
the apostle's pleading were effectual. 



PHILIPPIANS. 619 

Connect and read, 1. 1, 4, 8, 21, 23, 25. Compare on the whole- 
spirit of this Epistle, 1 Tim. 6. 1, 2: James 1. 9-11: Philip. 2. 3-8. 

The Epistle of -Paul the Apostle to the Philippians. 

Pome, A. D. 63. 

185. Philippi was a city of Macedonia, enlarged by Philip of 
Macedon, and afterwards colonized by Julius Caesar, who gave the 
people the privileges of a Roman city; and it is distinguished as 
having been the first place in Europe which received the gospel, 
Paul having been specially directed thither by the Holy Spirit, in 
opposition to his previous plans, Acts 16. On arriving at Philippi, 
Paul followed his usual custom of addressing himself first to the 
Jews ; who appear, however, to have been few in number. Those who 
met for worship at a place of prayer outside the city were chiefly 
women; one of whom, a pious stranger from Asia, was the first con- 
vert to Christianity. The successful labours of Paul and Silas, and 
the persecution raised against them, which led to their sudden, de- 
parture from it, are related in Acts, chap. 16. That Paul visited 
Philippi again, before his first imprisonment at Rome, is plain from 
Acts 20. 1, 2, 6. On his first visit he seems to have left Luke 
behind him (16. 12: 17. 1). Luke also, who was with him at the 
earlier part of his imprisonment (Acts 27: Col. 4. 14), seems now to 
have left him (2. 20, 21). 

This Epistle was manifestly written at Rome (see chap. 1. 12-14: 
4. 22), and, probably, during the latter part of the apostle's first 
captivity in that city. For Paul, at the time of writing it, antici- 
pated a speedy decision of his case, and hoped to obtain his release, 
(1. 25, 27: 2. 23, 24). It appears to have been written on the 
occasion of the return of Epaphroditus, whom the Philippian church 
had sent to Rome with a pecuniary contribution for the apostle's 
relief during his imprisonment, and who, while zealously performing 
this service, had fallen dangerously ill: the tidings of which so 
afflicted the Philippians, that the apostle was induced, upon his 
recovery, to send him back sooner than he had intended (2. 24-30). 

The church at Philippi appears to have been one of the most pure 
and generous of that age. Its members showed the tenderest 
regard for Paul. Twice while he was at Thessalonica, and once 
when at Corinth, they had generously sent him contributions for 
his support, which he accepted, to prevent the gospel being burden- 
some to more recent converts (4. 15, 16: 2 Cor. 11. 9). They 
had also cheerfully borne many sufferings for their adherence to the 
Saviour (1. 28-30). Their conduct had been uniformly so exem- 
plary that he had only to rejoice over them. Accordingly, in this 



620 PHILIPPIANS. 

Epistle, lie pours forth his heart in expressions of devout thankful- 
ness and hearty commendations, not unmingled, however, with 
exhortations and counsel. 

The Epistle may be divided into three parts : — 

i. After an affectionate introduction, Paul expresses his gratitude 
to God for the Philippians, and his earnest desire for the increase 
of their knowledge and holiness (i. i-ii). That they might not 
be dejected on his account he assures them that his imprisonment 
had not hindered but promoted the gospel ; some gathering bold- 
ness from his bonds, and others preaching Christ of contention. If 
Christ be but preached and magnified, whether it be by Paul's 
labours or by his martyrdom, he himself is more than content. 
The former he thinks most probable; and exhorts the Philippians 
at all events to maintain a conduct worthy of the gospel ; to be 
stedfast and courageous, united, generous, and humble, copying 
the example of their blessed Lord, and reminds them that their 
consistency and usefulness are his own highest rewards. He pro- 
mises to send Timothy to them, gives his reason for sending 
Epaphroditus, and adds the character of each (i. 12 : 2). a 

ii. He exhorts them to rejoice in their Christian privileges; and 
to be on their guard against Judaizing teachers, who prided them- 
selves upon distinctions in which he himself could more than com- 
pete with them; but winch, however he once valued, he now 
regarded as utterly worthless, in comparison with the surpassing 
excellency of the knowledge of Christ; and then, referring to his 
own holy ambition to strive after perfection, urges upon the Phi- 
lippians a similar spirit ; contrasting with this the conduct of some 
false professors, against whom he had previously warned them 

(3-4. 1). 

hi. Admonitions are addressed to individual members of the 
church; followed by exhortations to holy joy, moderation, prayer, 
and thanksgiving ; and to the study and practice of all that is true, 
just, pure, amiable, and praiseworthy (4. 2-9). The Epistle con- 
cludes with grateful acknowledgments of the repeated proofs of 
affection, care, and sympathy, which he had received from the Phi- 
lippians, in which he rej oiced for their sakes ; intimating, however, 
with noble delicacy, his contentment with either poverty or abund- 
ance, and closes with salutations and a benediction (4. 10-23), 

Connect and read as follows: 1. 1, 12, 15, 21, 27: 2. 1, 5, 12, 17, 
19, 25: 3. 1, 2, 12, 15: 4. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 21, 23. 

a Persecution endured with stedfastness conforms us to Christ, and is a token 
of coming judgment, 1. 27 : 2 Thess. 1. 5, 6 : 1 Pet. 1. 6-10: 3. 141-4. 7, 12-18; 
1 John 3. i$. 



HEBREWS : AUTHORSHIP. 62 L 



The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews, 
Rome, a. D. 63. 

186. As the Holy Spirit did not direct the author of this Epistle to 
insert his own name, or to specify the persons to whom it was 
addressed, the determination of these questions cannot be essential 
to its right use : nor is it surprising that there should have been 
much difference of opinion upon them. Whilst, however, many 
both in former and in later times have thought otherwise, it has 
always been the prevailing belief that the apostle Paul was its 
author. The following remarks will show how strong is the evi- 
dence in favour of this decision. 

(r.) Those to whom the Epistle was sent must have known the 
writer (see chap. 10. 34: 13. 18, 19, 23): and in preserving and cir- 
culating it could hardly fail to communicate their knowledge. ]S~ow 
the early fathers of the Eastern and Alexandrian churches, in the 
second and third centuries, tell us that the '-ancients' 5 (who must 
have been contemporarv with, if not the same persons as those who 
received the original) had handed it down to them as a writing of 
Paul's. And the most learned among them, Clement of Alexan- 
dria. Origen. and Eusebius. though sensible of some difficulties and 
doubts on the point, regarded this testimonv as conclusive. — (2.) 
This is corroborated by the author's intimate acquaintance with the 
Jewish system — so worthy of the disciple of Gamaliel; and his 
sympathizing interest in the salvation of the Jewish people — so like 
that which is expressed in Rom. 9. ic. 11., and Phil. 3 — (3.) The 
few personal allusions found in the Epistle, are ail perfectly com- 
patible with what we know of the history of Paul. — (4.) Nor is 
there anything in the peculiarities of style and treatment of the 
subject that cannot be satisfactorily reconciled with Paul's other 
Epistles. If it differ from them in the rhetorical length of words 
and finish of sentences, it is only the more like his speeches re- 
corded by Luke. So regular a composition would naturally vary 
in manner from letters of a different character, written under dif- 
ferent circumstances. Yet the careful reader mav sometimes find 
the concise expressions, abrupt transition, reasonings addressed to 
the latent thoughts and objections of the readers, and the occasional 
involutions and long parentheses resulting from the kindling of soul 
and exuberance of feeling, which characterize the apostle's other 
writings. So that the internal as well as external evidence appears 
to support the opinion of the early father?, that the Epistle is sub- 
stantially Paul's'; though he may have adopted occasionally, as 
some critics suppose, the phraseology of his companion Luke. 



622 HEBREWS . CONTEXTS. 

Why this Epistle, like the First of John, was anonymous, it is 
impossible to say. Perhaps the apostle wished that its first hearers 
or readers should feel the force of its contents before knowing from 
whom it came, as the Jews generally were greatly prejudiced 
against him 

The Epistle was clearly addressed to Hebrew Christians: who 
appear to have been inhabitants of some particular city or region ( see 
chap. 13. 23): and to have formed an organized society or church 
which had existed some time; having had pastors who had been 
removed by death (13. 7): and having now teachers, whom they 
are exhorted to obey (13. 17). It has been generally supposed that 
they were resident in Palestine, either at Jerusalem or Cassarea. 

To this class the Epistle is peculiarly adapted: exposed as they 
were to the danger of falling back into Judaism, or of attaching 
too much importance to the ancient lav/. The writer sets before 
them the supreme authority, the peculiar sanctions, and the 
transcendent glory of the Christian dispensation, as concurring to 
render unbelief the more inexcusable, and apostasy the more cri- 
minal and fatal. 

It is worthy of remark, how the whole reasoning was fitted to those 
for whom the Epistle was written. Addressing Jews, the writer 
exhibits with due prominence all that they justly venerated; and 
draws all his illustrations (12. 16, 18: 13. 2, 10, 12, 14:) and ex- 
amples of what is noble and excellent (11.) from their own records 
and history. When about to make a statement at variance with 
Jewish views and feelings, he cautiously prepares their minds for it 
(5. 11); and he constantly reasons upon their own principles. The 
Jews had looked upon themselves as especially favoured, in pos- 
sessing a Divine revelation which appointed Moses as the lawgiver, 
Aaron and his race as the priests, and all the temple rites as the 
worship of God. The apostle does not overlook this peculiarity; 
but, accommodating to it his line of proof, shows that the Christian 
faith is but the completion of their own. 

This Epistle may be divided into two principal parts : the first, 
intended to explain the meaning, and prove the inferiority of the 
Jewish dispensation: the second, to confirm and comfort Jewish 
believers in their religious profession. 

i. Having noticed that the Mosaic and the Christian dispensation 
both proceed from the same Divine author, the sacred writer shows 
the surpassing excellency of the latter, as being introduced by the 
Messiah. — 1. Greater than prophets, and even angels; notwith- 
standing his humiliation unto death, which, so far from diminishing 
his glory, was the very means of accomplishing his great work ef 
redemption (1. 2). — 2. Superior to Moses, their venerated law- 



HEBREWS : CONTEXTS. G23 

giver, who nevertheless was but a servant. Here the apostle 
solemnly warns the Hebrew Christians, lest they should lose 
through unbelief that present rest and final glory, of which the 
Canaan into which Joshua had led their forefathers was but a type 
[3.: 4. 1-13). — 3. Then, as the Jews rightly attached the highest im- 
portance to their priesthood and sacrifices, he expatiates at length 
upon the superior excellence and efficacy of the priesthood and sacrifice 
Christ ; shows that the necessary qualifications of a high priest, 
namely, that he should be appointed by God and able to sympathize 
with men, were found in the Lord Jesus (4. 16:5. IC ) : anc ^ having 
cited from the prophetic Scriptures a declaration concerning the 
supreme and eternal priesthood of the Messiah as typified by ZVTel- 
ihisedec, he interrupts his argument with a reproof to those whom 
he addressed for then- small proficiency in Christian knowledge; 
adding warnings and encouragements (5. ii:-6). Then, return- 
ing from this digression, he compares the priesthood of Christ 
with that of the Jewish high priests in several particulars (7.: 8), 
He next illustrates the emblematical and temporary nature of the 
Levitical services, which are realized in Christ ; compares the 
ministrations of the high priest in the worldly sanctuary with the 
intercession of Christ in the presence of God above: and contrasts 
the merely typical virtue of the oft-repeated Jewish sacrifices wixh 
the intrinsic and perpetual efficacy of the one perfect and ail-suffi- 
cient propitiation (9.: 10. 1 -1 8). 

ii. Upon this reasoning the apostle grounds his practical applica- 
tion. After a general exhortation to stedfastness in faith, hope, 
and mutual encouragement, he points out the aggravated guilt and 
awful issue of apostasy. Then, having reminded the Hebrew be- 
lievers of then- fortitude and faithful adherence under former trials, 
he points out the indispensable necessity, in order to their perse- 
verance and salvation, of maintaining the life of faith (10. 19-25). 
After describing the nature of faith, he shows it to have been the 
main principle of religion in every age; and illustrates its pow- 
erful operation and triumphant efficacy in a long line of heroes, 
martyrs, and confessors, from Abel to the close of the Old Testa- 
ment dispensation: and above all in Jesus Christ himself, whose 
temptations and sufferings were far beyond theirs (n.: 12. 1-3). 
He further encourages them by reminding them that their afflictions 
were but the discipline of a Father's hand, and designed for their 
ultimate good (12. 4-11): enjoins upon them tender mutual consi- 
deration and watchfulness ; warns them against bartering, like 
Esau, spiritual privileges for present gratifications (12. 12-17 : 
stimulates them, by contrasting the terrific material splendours of 
the Mosaic law with the solemn but cheering spiritual glories of 



624 HEBREWS : VARIOUS TRUTHS. 

the gospel; and infers that, in proportion to the magnitude of their 
privileges, would be the danger of neglecting them (12. 18-29). 

In conclusion, he gives specific precepts on various practical 
duties, and closes with salutations and a benediction (13. 1-25). 

187. Mark in this Epistle the following lessons: — 

The dignity of Christ, as the express image of the Father, the 

Creator of all things, the restorer of fallen man, the righteous King, 

the object of angelic worship: 

1. i:-2. 9: Col. 1. 13-19: 2. 10: 2 Cor. 4. 6: 1 Pet. 3. 22: 1 John 

1. 1, 2: Rev. 4. 11 : 5. 6-13: 19. 11-21: John 1. 1-18: 3. 13-21, 
31. 36: Zech. 9. 9: Psa. 2.: Isa. 12. 2: Acts 10. 40-2. 

His incarnation and its objects: He gives a complete revelation, 
suffers, sympathizes, aids ; and as Captain of our salvation conducts 
to glory. The plea that men need saintly intercession is mere than 
met by the humanity and sympathy of our Lord : 

2. 10-18: 4. 15: 5.: 2 Cor. 5. 18-21: Phil. 1. 5-11: 2. 7, 8: Gal. 
4. 4-7: Eom. 8. 3: Gen. 3. 15: Isa. 7. 14: John 1. 14. 

His superiority over Moses, Joshua, and Aaron; and the conse- 
quent duty of hearkening to his voice, with the fearful sin of unbe- 
lief and apostasy : 

3. i:-4. 13: see Xumb. 12. 1-10: Josh. 11. 15-23: Rev. 7. 9-17: 
Isa. 9. 6, 7: John 6. 32-58. 

4. i4:-6. 20: 2. 17, 18: ic. 19-23: Eph. 2. 18: 3. 12: Exod. 
28: 29.: Psa. no. Compare 2 Pet. 2. 15-22. 

The peculiar excellence of Christ's priesthood/ of the new cove- 
nant, and of Christ as Mediator, 15 and of the sacrifice offered by 
our Lord, c with the sentiments and responsibilities appropriate to 
each. d 

The apostle gives the significance of the ancient economy and its 
various ordinances. The whole was a shadow or type of good things 
to come (10. 1): but the significance of particular parts only is here 
explained. 

The holy of holies, as entered by the high priest, may represent 
heaven into which Christ enters, 9. 1-14, 21: Lev. 16. The sanc- 
tuary, as dwelt in by God, may represent our Lord (John 2. 21: 
Col. 2. 9), or the church, Eph. 2. 19-22: 1 Pet. 2. 5, 9: the golden 

a 7. i:-8. 6: Rev. 5. 6-13: 1. 5, 6: Eph. 1. 7: Col. 1. 14: 1 John 

2. 2 : Matt. 20. 28. 

b 8. 7: 9. 1-22: 2 C01V3.: 1 Cor. 11. 25: Rom. 3. 19 31: 5. 2: 6, 
John 14. 6: Exod. 34. 28: 20. 1-17, 

c 9. 23:-io. 18: Eph. 5. 2: Tit. 2. 14. 

d i°. 19-37 ^ 2 - I - r8: 4- l6: Ronu 8 « 28-39: 15-17: 1 Cor. 10. 
I-12: Rev. 3. 1-4: Rom. 11. 21. 



HEBREWS : I PETER. 625 

candlestick, the church as enlightened by the word and Spirit of 
God, Rev. i. 20: 4. 5: Phil. 2. 15, 16: Matt. 5. 14-16: the incense, 
the prayers and praises of saints, Heb. 13. 15: Rev. 8. 3, 4: Exod. 
30. 1-8, 34-36: the second vail, Christ's flesh, rent to allow access 
unto God, ic. 19, 20: Mark 15. 37, 38: Exod. 26.31-33: the pot 
ofinanna, the true bread, Rev. 2. 17: John 6. 48-51: Exod. 16. 32-34: 
and the mercy-seat, the throne of grace, to which the penitents have 
free access by the blood of Christ who is the propitiation for sin, 
9. 5, compared with 4. 16: Col. 2. 10-17: Rom. 3. 25: Psa. 4c. 6-3; 
Exod. 25. 10-22. 

The inferiority of this ancient dispensation is repeatedly an 
nounced, Heb, 7. 22: 9. 9: Gal. 3. 1-5: 4. 9, 10: 2 Cor. 3.: John 1. 

As faith is the grand duty of the gospel, enforced by the facts 
already examined, ■ so here the apostle illustrates it by Old Testa- 
ment examples. In spite of mystery, difficulties, trials, and delay, 
ancient saints confided in the Divine word, and acted in accordance 
not with what they saw but with what they believed. So must we. 
Faith is the principle both of our pardon and of our stedfastness. 

11. i:-i2. 13: Rom. 4. 13-25: 5.1,2: 8.24: 2 Cor. 4. i3:-5. 8: 
1 Pet. 1. 8. 

The practical lessons of this Epistle are remarkable for the 
peculiarly appropriate motives to which the inspired writer appeals. 

Be thankful, stedfast, and obedient, for the darkness and terror 
of the ancient law have ceased, and a kingdom that cannot be 
moved is revealed, 12. 18-29: 1 Pet. 2. 4-10. 

Be content, though no earthly inheritance is set before you. 
There still remain Joshua's promise and the care of Joshua's God, 
13. 5, 6. Note the beauty, to a Jew especially, of the reason given 
for exercising hospitality, 13. 1. 

Follow faithful teachers, hold fast the unchangeable doctrine of 
Christ, discountenance vain traditions and ritual observance, joining 
Christ without the camp, and look for the Xew Jerusalem, in return 
for what is lost, 13. 7-14. 

The closing benediction (ver. 20, 21) is beautifully comprehensive 
and rich in allusions to the chief doctrine of the Epistle, the Xew 
Covenant, and the dignity and grace of the Mediator. 

The First Epistle General of Peter. Babylon, a.d. 63. 

188. Peter, whose original name was Simeon or Simon, was a na- 
tive of Bethsaida, on the sea of Galilee ; and the son of Jonas 
('whence he is called Bar-j<ma } Matt. 16. 17.) At the time of his 
first appearance in the gospel history he was married, and living afc 
Capernaum, Mark 1. 29, ^0; and, like the sons of Zebedee, fol- 

2 E 



626 1 PETER. 

lowed the occupation of a fisherman. He was "brought to Jesus by 
his brother Andrew, who had been a disciple of John the Baptist, 
but was led by his master's testimony to attach himself to the Di- 
vine Teacher. For some time after this, the two brothers continued 
to follow then" business, until they were summoned by our Lord to 
be in constant attendance upon him, Matt. 4. 18-20; after which 
they were his devoted followers. 

The numerous facts related of Peter during his attendance upon 
our Saviour, throw much light upon his character at that period. 
His sincere piety, ardent attachment to his Master, and zeal for his 
honour, seem to have been blended with some measure of rashness 
and inconstancy ; but, after his fall and restoration, and when 
"endued with power from on high," a great change is observable in 
him. So that he fully justifies the appellation which our Lord had 
prophetically bestowed on him, calling him Cephas or Petros ; the 
former a Syriac, the latter a Greek word, both signifying a stone or 
rock. Immediately after the out-pouring of the Holy Spirit, Peter 
was honoured by being commissioned to open the gates of the 
kingdom of heaven first to the Jews, and afterwards, in the case of 
Cornelius and his family, to the Gentiles. 

These facts do not imply that he had any supreme dignity ; while 
Matt. 23. 8: Gal. 2. 2, plainly prove that he had not — a conclusion 
which the testimony of antiquity confirms. 

Of the latter part of Peter's life nothing is known with certainty; 
but it is supposed that, after his visit to Antioch, mentioned Gal. 2. 
1 1, he remained at Jerusalem for some years, and then visited Syria 
and the countries mentioned in the inscription of this Epistle, which 
he wrote when he had gone into the Parthian empire. It is said by 
some that he afterwards went to Rome, and was there put to death 
by crucifixion, in fulfilment of the prophecy of our Lord respect- 
ing him, John 21. 18, 19. Others maintain that he died in Baby- 
lonia^ Both parties, however, agree that he was put to death early 
in Nero's reign, probably A. d. 64 or 65, and in the persecutions 
excited by that Emperor. The alleged visit of Peter to Rome in 
the days of Claudius is altogether without satisfactory foundation 
(see Introduction to Romans.) 

This Epistle is generally assigned to a.d. 63, though some give it 
an earlier date. It is certain that Mark, who was now with Peter 
(5* I 3)> was thinking of leaving Paul in 62 a.d., when the Epistle 
to the Colossians was written, Col. 4. 10, and was absent from him 
in 64 a.d., 2 Tim. 4. 11. These facts favour the later date. 

a See on -the one side, Gieseler's Eccl. History, i. § 27, Philadel- 
phia; and, on the other, Simon's Mission and Martyrdom of St, 
Peter, Lond., 1852. 



I PETER : CONTEXTS. 627 

This Epistle was addressed to the Jewish Christians scattered 
throughout the different provinces of Asia Minor ; yet not altoge- 
ther without reference to the numerous Gentile converts which those 
churches contained (i. 14: 4. 3). It appears to have been written 
from Babylon (5. 13), which some have supposed to be a mystical 
name for Rome. This notion has been favoured by writers of the 
church of Rome, in order to prove the contested point of Peter's 
residence in the imperial city. But there is no evidence that, at 
that early period, the name Babylon was ever given to Rome ; nor 
can any reason be assigned why such a name should at that time be 
applied to it ; or why Peter should choose a figurative name, which, 
though adapted to a symbolical style, is plainly unsuited to episto- 
lary writing. It appears, therefore, most reasonable to take the 
name in its obvious and natural signification, like all the other 
names mentioned in the apostolic Epistles, and to refer it either to 
the region of Babylonia, to Babylon, or to Seleucia, which had been 
built out of the ruins of the ancient city, and in its immediate 
neighbourhood. The Jews were very numerous in that district, 
and were not likely to be overlooked by the " apostle of the cir- 
cumcision ;" and among them it is probable that a Christian church 
had been planted. 

It is well described by Leigliton, as " a brief and yet very clear 
summary, both of the consolations and instructions needful for the 
encouragement and direction of a Christian in his journey to 
heaven ; elevating his thoughts and desires to that happiness, and 
strengthening him against all opposition in the way, both that of 
corruption within, and temptation and afflictions from without. 
The heads of doctrine contained in it are many; but the main that 
are most insisted on are these three, faith, obedience, and patience ; — 
to establish in believing, to direct in doing, and to comfort in suffer- 
ing; often setting before those to whom he wrote the matchless ex- 
ample of the Lord Jesus, and the greatness of their engagements 
to follow him." 

The general object of the Epistle is stated in 5. 12, and the 
whole may be divided into two parts, exclusive of the salutation 
(1. 1, 2), introduction (3-12), and conclusion (5. 13, 14). 
i. General exhortations to love and holiness (1. i3:-2. 10). 

ii. Particular exhortations on specific duties (2. 11 -.-5. 12). 

While the Epistle has thus a practical design, it is as evangelical 
as if it had been chiefly doctrinal. It points everywhere to Christ ; to 
his atonement foretold by prophets, contemplated by angels appointed 
before the foundation of the world ; to his resurrection, ascension, 
and gift of the Spirit; his example as a suffering Saviour, - and the 
awful solemnities of the last judgment. Like his beloved brother 
Paul, he urges the doctrines of the gospel as the great motives to 

2 E 2 



628 1 PETER : 1 TIMOTHY. 

holiness and patience ; like him he descends to the enforcement of 
every relative duty, while giving the most exalted view of our pri- 
vileges as believers in Christ. 

His humility, as illustrated by the Gospel of Mark, has been no- 
ticed already. His honourable notice of Paul, 2 Pet. 3, who had 
publicly reproved him, and then recorded that reproof in his Epistle 
to the Galatians, to whom Peter himself was now writing, Gal. 2. 
11: 1 Pet. 1. 1: 2 Pet. 3. 1, is a fresh manifestation of the same 
spirit, He illustrates in this way his own precept, 1 Pet. 5.5, and 
had clearly not forgotten the lessons of the last days of our Lord. 

189. Mark that the incorruptible word is the appointed means of 
the Christian's growth in holiness, 1 Peter 2. 3 : Col. 1. f, 6: 2 Pet. 
1. 8: 3. 18: John 17. 17: Psalm 119. 

Connect and read, 1. 1, 3, 10, 17: 2. 13, 17, 18: 3. 1, 7, 8, 18: 
4. 1, 7, 12: 5.1, 5, 8, 10, 11, 14. 

The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Timothy. 
Macedonia, a.d. 64 or 5 7. 

190. The two Epistles to Timothy and the Epistle to Titus have 
been called pastoral Epistles. They abound in instruction relative 
to the oversight of the church and other duties of the Christian 
ministry. They also abound in instruction suited for the churches 
themselves. 

Timothy was an inhabitant, perhaps a native, of Lyclia, Acts 16. 
1, 2. His father was a Greek, his mother and grandmother pious 
Jewesses, by whom he was carefully trained in a knowledge of the 
Scriptures, 2 Tim. 3. 14. He was probably converted by Paul on 
his first visit to Lydia, Acts 14. 6 (see 1 Tim. 1, 2: 2 Tim. 1, 2: 
1 Cor. 4. 17) ; and on his second visit was chosen to be the com- 
panion of the apostle in his journeys and labours. He is every- 
where spoken of in terms of high praise, 1 Thes. 3. 2: Phil. 2. 20. 
and is a noble instance of eminent gifts and grace in one young 
in years and feeble in health (4. 12: 5. 23). 

It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine when this Epistle- 
was written. It was evidently addressed to Timothy at Ephesus, 
and when Paul was either in Macedonia or on his way thither (see 
1. 3). From Acts 20. 1, we learn that Paul left Ephesus after the 
uproar caused by Demetrius, and went to Macedonia ; and some 
learned critics have supposed that this Epistle was written at that 
time. There are, however, several serious difficulties in the way of 
that supposition. 

(1.) Before Paul left Ephesus, he had sent Timothy and Erastus before him into 
Macedonia, proposing to follow them (Acts 19. 22), and it is very unlikely that 
Timothy returned from this long journey before Paul left Ephesus. 



1 TIMOTHY : TRUTHS. 629 

(2.) About the period supposed Timothy was with Paul in Macedonia (see 2 Cor. 
I. 1) ; whereas, when Paul wrote this Epistle, it appears that not only was Timothy 
at Ephesus, but Paul expected him to remain there for some time (see chap. 3. 15 : 
4. 13). Timothy was also with the apostle at Corinth afterwards, when he wrote 
the Epistle to the Eomans (Rom. 16. 21), and when he left Greece to return to 
Syria, Acts 20. 4. Although Paul may have remained some time in Macedonia, 
and have written the Second Epistle to the Corinthians shortly before his departure 
from that country, yet it can hardly be supposed that he could have been joined 
there by Timothy so soon if he had given him a charge to abide at Ephesus. (See 
chap. 1. 1). 

(3.) Further, in this Epistle, Paul expresses his intention of coming to Ephesus 
shortly (3. 15). But, at the period now in quesion, it appears from Acts 19. 21, and 
20. 3, that Paul had intended, after passing through Macedonia and Achaia, to pro- 
ceed to Jerusalem, and to go, not by the circuitous route of Troas and Ephesus, 
but direct from Greece to Syria. 

These and other considerations, have led many to the conclusion that this Epistle 
must have been written at a later period, after the apostle's first imprisonment at 
Rome, while upon a journey which he is supposed to have undertaken shortly before 
his final imprisonment. The chief difficult3 T in this hypothesis is the declaration of 
Paul to the elders of the church at Ephesus, when he met them at Miletus, Acts 
20. 25 ; but that this was an inference of his own appears from verses 22, 23, where 
he says that he dues not know what shall befall him, only that he is assured by the 
Hoty Spirit that " bonds and afflictions abide him."' (See also Phil. 1. 25, compared 
with chap. 2. 17, 23, 24). Upon the whole, this question must be considered as still 
doubtful. But the difficulties attending the later date appear less than those con- 
nected with the earlier. 

The Epistle appears to have two chief objects : 

(i.) To counteract the false doctrines of Jewish teachers, who, whilst professing 
adherence to the Law, taught doctrines at variance with its holy requirements. 
Their fallacies, and the contrary truths are forcibly exhibited in chap. 1 : 4. 7-10 : 
6. 3-5, 20, 21. Compare Acts 20. 27-32 : 2 Cor. 4. 1-7. 

(ii.) To guide and encourage Timothy in the duties of his office ; directing him as 
*° (O public devotions, chap. 2. 1-8 ; (2,) the duties and behaviour of Christian 
women, chap. 2. 9, 12: compare 1 Cor. n. 3-16: 14.34-40: 1 Pet. 3. 1-6; (3,) 
church officers, chap. 3. 1-13 ; (4,) his own teaching, chap. 3. 14 :-4 ; (5,) his per- 
sonal holiness, chap. 4. 11-16 ; and (6,) his church administration in the treatment 
of offenders, of widows, of good elders and bad, of slaves, of the rich ; and the 
duties of those several classes of persons, chap. 5, 6 ; compare Titus 1. 10 :-3. 10. 
With these are mingled many urgent and affectionate appeals, tender references to 
Paul's own conversion, and solemn anticipations of the coming of Christ. 

The object of the Epistle is stated in the following passages :-- 
1. 3, 4: 3. 15 : 6. 20, 21. 

Connect and read together: — 1. 1, 3, 5, 18 : 2. 1, 9: 3. 1, 8, 14: 
4. 1, 6, 12: 5. 1, 3, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24: 6. 1, 3, 6, 11, 17, 20. 

191. In the Epistles to Timothy and Titus — the pastoral Epistle* — we have the 
PI avprter clearest revelation given in Scripture of the character (a), qualifica- 
and duty of tions (&), and duties (c), of the Christian minister. Though the 
Christian whole are often described in the same passage, they may be thus 
ministers. arranged : 

(a.) 1 Tim. 1 : 2 Tim. 1.6-8: 2. 1-8, 14-26 : 2 Cor. 4. 1-7 : Acts 20. 27-32. 

(&.) 1 Tim. 3. 1-7 : Tit. 1. 5-11 : 1 Pet. 5. 1-3. 

(c.) 1 Tim. 4. 6 :-6. 21 : Tit. 1. 13 : 2. 1 :-3. 11 (see Rom. 16. 17, 18) : 2 Tim. 3. 
14 :-4- 5. 



630 1 TIMOTHY : TITUS. 

With all these passages compare Paul's description of his own experience, motived, 

and labours (see Cor.) ; a model of the gospel ministry. 

The qualifications of deacons are described in I Tim. 3. 8-13 ; Acts 6. 2-6: see 

also Phil. 1. 1, where ministers and deacons are addressed with all 
Deacons. ^ ^^ 

On the other hand, churches owe to their ministers support (a), affection and 
Correspond- res P ect G0> an< ^ wtthin proper limits, obedience (c). 

ing duties of r a y 1 Tim# 5> I?j l8 . G al. 5. 6, 7 : 1 Cor. 9. 4-14 : 2 Thess. 3. 8, 

cnurches. „ \ r ,, T , .„. M 

9 : Matt. 10. 10 : Luke 10. 7. 

(b.) 1 Tim. 5. 17 : 1 Thess. 5. 12, 13. 

(c.) Heb. 13. 17 ; for the limits see 1 Cor. 11. 1 : Phil. 3. 17 : Heb. 13.7: 1 Pet. 5. 3. 

These Epistles contain also the fullest account of the approaching corruption of 
Arroroachino- Christianity (a), and of the extensive prevalence of infidelity (&), in 
corruption of what Scripture calls the last times. 
Christianity. ^ l Tim< ^ ^ . 2 Tim> , w ^ . 2 Thegs> ^ M2 . 2 pet> 2; 

Jude 17, 18. 
(6.) 1 Thess. 5. 2 : 2 Pet. 3 : Rev. 13. 11. 14 : Luke 12. 35-38 : 18. 8. 
To correct these errors, inspired writers direct us to appeal to' apostolic doctrine 
and example, and to the Scriptures generally, 1 Tim. 4. 6-1 1 : 2 Tim. 
3. i4:-4.-5: 2 Thess. 2. 13-17 : 2 Pet. 1. 12-21 : Jude 20, 21. This 
Scriptural plan of checking error is highly instructive. 

The Epistle of Paul to Titus. Macedonia, a.d. 64 or 5 7. 

192. Of Titus nothing more is certainly known than we find in 
the Epistles of Paul. From incidental allusions to him we learn 
that he was a Greek by birth, Gal. 2.3, who had been converted to 
Christianity by the instrumentality of Paul, Gal. 1. 4. He went up 
with Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem, Gal. 2. r, and afterwards 
accompanied Paul on his travels ; and is repeatedly mentioned by 
him in terms of approbation and affection, 2 Cor. 2. 1, 2, 13 : 7. 5, 7 : 
8. 16-24 : 12. 17-21. 

Being the son of Gentile parents, and therefore in different cir- 
cumstances from Timothy, he was not circumcised. Circumcision 
in his case would have involved, as Paul reasoned, a compromise of 
principle, Gal. 2. 5. 

At the time when this Epistle was written, Titus had been left by 
the apostle in the island of Crete, that he might establish and regu- 
late the churches there (1.5). It is not easy to determine when 
this occurred; no opportunity for it having been afforded by the 
only visit to Crete, recorded in Acts 27. 7, 8; for he was then on 
his way to Eome as a prisoner, his stay was short, nor could he 
then expect to spend the ensuing winter in N~icopolis (see 3. 12.) 

Some have supposed that Paul may have been at Crete on his 
voyage from Corinth to Ephesus, mentioned in Acts 18. 18; and 
have written this Epistle subsequently from Ephesus, having formed 
the intention of spending the winter at a town named Nicopolis, 
between Antioch and Tarsus (see 3. 12). Others have placed Paul's 
visit to Crete between his leaving Ephesus for Macedonia and his 



TITUS : CONTENTS. 631 

second visit to Corinth, mentioned in Acts 20. 2. But the more 
general opinion is that the visit to Crete here referred to was upon 
a journey which Paul took after his first imprisonment at Rome, 
when he sailed to Asia, taking Crete in his way, and leaving Titus 
there ; and that he wrote this Epistle from Macedonia, when on his 
way to Xicopolis. 

It is further supposed that Titus, according to Paul's desire, 
joined the apostle at ISTicopolis, and afterwards accompanied him on 
his last journey to Rome, being with him there during part of his 
second imprisonment, 2 Tim. 4. 10; and having then gone into Dal- 
matia, probably to preach the gospel, or to visit churches already 
formed there. What became of him afterwards we are not informed. 
The tradition is that he returned to Crete, and died there at the 
age of 94. 

We know nothing of the first introduction of the gospel into 
Crete, but as there were Jews from that island among Peter's au- 
dience on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2. 11), and they were nume- 
rous there (Philo), it is probable that the Christian faith was carried 
thither by converts from among them. It appears also from this 
Epistle that Paul had laboured there, and probably with consider- 
able success; but that by some means he had been hurried thence 
before he could order the state of the churches in a regular 
manner. 

The commission intrusted to Titus in Crete appears to have been 
peculiarly difficult. Although nature had endowed this island with 
all that .could tend to render man happy, and the inhabitants had 
formerly been renowned for the wisdom of then- constitution and 
their laws, long before this time the state of law and of morals had 
sunk very low. The character of the people was unsteady, insin- 
cere, and quarrelsome : they were notoriously given to licentious- 
ness and intemperance. Some of the Jews who had settled among 
them seem to have been regarded by the apostle as more dangerous 
in many respects than the natives themselves. 

There is a striking resemblance between this Epistle and the First 
to Timothy; and they are generally supposed to have been written 
about the same time. This Epistle is particularly remarkable, as 
compressing into a very short compass a large amount of instruc- 
tion, embracing doctrine, morals, and discipline. Its contents are 
as follows : — 

After an apostolic salutation, declaring the object for which Paul 
had invested Titus with special authority, he describes the qualifi- 
cations required in those who were to be ordained to the ministry; 
and which were the more necessary on account of the dangerous 
principles of the false teachers whom they had to oppose, and the 



632 titus : 2 peter. 

general character of the Cretans (i). He next describes the in- 
structions which were to be given to various classes of persons, 
enjoining upon the aged and the young the virtues which ought se- 
verally to distinguish them; exhorting Titus (himself a young 
man) to set a pattern, in his own conduct, of the virtues he was to 
inculcate; teaching servants to be obedient and faithful; for the 
salvation of the gospel was designed for all orders and classes of 
mankind ; making them holy in this life, and preparing them for a 
higher and better (2). Titus is then instructed to enjoin obedience 
to rulers, and a peaceable and gentle behaviour to all men ; remem- 
bering their own former sinfulness, and their salvation through the 
free grace of God. The indispensable obligation which believers are 
under to excel in good works is insisted upon; cautions are given 
against engaging in frivolous inquiries and unprofitable disputations ; 
and after some other brief directions to Titus, the Epistle is closed 
with salutations and a benediction (3). 

It is very observable in this Epistle, that those of the Jiuniblest rank are exhorted 
to adorn the gospel (2. 10), and that while our salvation is ascribed exclusively to 
grace .(2. 11), to the " kindness and love of God our Saviour" (3. 4), this fact is 
made the ground of most urgent exhortations to holiness (2. 14 ; 3. 8;. 

On the duties Christians owe to civil government, Tit. 3. 1: See 
Bora. 13..1-10: 1 Pet. 2. 13-17: 2 Pet. 2. 10: Jude 8. 

The Second Epistle General of Peter, a.d. 64 or 65. 

193. The Epistle is addressed to all believers (1. 1), and espe- 
cially to the same persons as the former (3. 1). It was written not 
long' .before the apostle's martyrdom (1. 14), a circumstance that 
gives it a solemn interest. 

Ae in the earlier Epistle he exhorts to patience under persecution, 
so here he exhorts to perseverance in truth amidst prevailing error 
and. practical infidelity. The best preservative is, as he tells them, 
progressive piety (1. 3-11): decisive evidence of the truth of 
Scripture doctrine being given also by irrefragable testimony, and 
fulfilled prophecy (1. 16-21). In terms most energetic and awful he 
warns false teachers, and those who were beginning to yield to their 
seductions, of their guilt and danger (2. 1-22), and assures them 
that the second coming of the Lord, though long delayed, through 
long-suffering, is as certain as the fact of the deluge (3. 1-3.) He 
then exhibits the bright side of the same truth, and bids Christians 
be diligent and holy (3. 14-18). Appealing to Paul's teaching, in 
confirmation of his views, he marks how men had wrested his teach- 
ing so as to make it countenance most pernicious practices, an evil 
to be remedied not by neglecting those Scriptures, but by increased 
teachableness and humility (5. 15, 16). 



teter's last words : 2 timothy. 633 

What sect of heretics is here condemned is not certainly known 
Their licentious practices (2. 10-15), their covetousness, their denial 
of the Lord (2. 1), their promises of freedom (2. 19) are clearly- 
denned, and serve to connect the advocates of such views with 
those mentioned (in nearly the same terms throughout), by Jude 
and by John, Rev. 2. 14, etc. 

On the genuineness of this Epistle, and of the other antilego- 
mena (questioned Epistles), see § 170, and Part i. § 153, 155. 

How prone men seem to be to pervert truth ! The Thessalonians 
supposed that our Lord's coming was to be immediate; those of 
whom Peter writes supposed it to be indefinitely delayed. Amidst 
such tendencies nothing less than the Divine Spirit could have pre- 
served apostles in a watchful patient frame, nor could anything less 
than the energy of the same Spirit have taught poor fishermen to 
speak as they do of God, of sin, and of coming judgment. The 
sublimity, spirituality, and harmony of these revelations are among 
the most decisive evidences of a Divine inspiration. 

We treasure up the last words of great men. In the immediate 
prospect of martyrdom, holiness appears to Peter of the last im- 
portance, and stedfastness the greatest blessing. His last precept 
is " Grow in grace and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour, 
Jesus Christ/' and his last testimony is to the Divinity of his Lord, 
" To Him be glory both now and for ever, Amen," 2 Pet. 3. 18. 

Diligence and eminent piety enjoined from various considerations, 
1. 5-11: Heb. 3. 14: 4. 11: 6. 7-18: Gal. 6. 9: Col. 1. 23: Rev. 3. 
11: 1 John 3. 10-24. 

On the final judgment and its issues, see 3. 10-13: Rom. 2. 16: 

3. 5, 6 : 14. 10-12 : 1 Cor. 4. 5 : 2 Cor. 5. 10 : 1 Thess. 3. 13 : 
2 Thess. 1. 7-10: Phil. 1. 10: 2. 16: Heb. 9. 27: 2 Tim. 4. 1: Jude 
24 : Rev. 20. 11-15 : Matt. 13.40: 16. 27 : 25. 31-46 : John 5. 22-29 : 
Acts 10. 42: 17. 30, 31: Psalm 96. 13: Ecc. 12. 14. 

Connect and read, 1. 1, 3, 12, 16, 19: 2. 1, 4: 3. 1, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17. 

The Second Epistle of Pau the Apostle to Timothy. 
Rome, A. d. 65 or 66. 

194. This Epistle was apparently written when Paul was a prisoner 
at Rome (see chap. 1. 8, 16: 4. 6); and probably during his second 
captivity, not long before his martyrdom. That it was not written 
during his first imprisonment may be gathered in part from the 
absence of several who were with him then (see Phil. 1. 1 : Col. 1. 1 : 
Philem. ver. 1: Heb. 13. 23: compare also chap. 4. 10, 11, with 
Col. 4. 10, 14); and from the difference in the apostle's expecta- 
tions, which were now fixed upon a speedy decease (compare chap. 

4. 6, with Phil. 1. 25: 2. 24: Philem. ver. 22: Heb. 13. 23); as 

2 E 3 



631 PxUTL's last words : 2 timothy. 

well as from his circumstances of increased restriction and greater 
solitude (compare chap. i. 17, 18, with Acts 28. 30, 31, and Phil. 
1. 13). But more decisive evidence is afforded by several incidental 
allusions to events which had clearly occurred not long before this 
letter was written. Mention is made of a cloak and books left at 
Troas (4. 13), which Paul had not visited for five years before his first- 
imprisonment at Rome; of Trophinms, who had been left sick at 
Miletus (4. 20), but who had been with the apostle at Jerusalem at 
the time of his first apprehension, Acts 21. 29: of Erastus as having 
stayed at Corinth (4. 20), where Paul had not been since his visit 
there five years before, accompanied by Timothy, Acts 20. 4. All 
these circumstances seem to show that this Epistle must have had a 
latter date, probably about the year 65 or 66 : two years later than 
his First Epistle. The interval between his two imprisonments he 
seems to have spent in Asia, Philem. 22: Phil. 2. 24: 1. 25: Mace- 
donia, 1 Tim. 1, 3: wintering in Mcopolis, Tit. 3. 12. Why he 
returned to Borne we are not told, but he was soon imprisoned as 
an evil-doer, 2 Tim. 2. 9; and among his accusers was Alexander 
the Judaizing teacher of Ephesus, " who did him much evil," 

4- 14. 

If this view be correct, and this Epistle was the last which the 
apostle wrote before his martyrdom, it is invested with peculiar 
interest, as containing the dying counsels of one who was not 
<( behind the chiefest of the apostles." 

One object of writing this Epistle, was to request Timothy to 
come to him speedily (4. 9) ; because his other friends had left him 
(see 4 10-12). He desired the presence of Timothy and Mark, that 
they might both cheer him in his trials, and aid him in the work of 
the ministry (see ver. 11). The absence of all allusion to Peter 
throws light on the question raised (on p. 626), in reference to the 
place of his martyrdom. 

Commencing with strong expressions of affectionate regard, he 
addresses to his son Timothy a series of earnest exhortations to 
stedfastness, diligence, and patience in his work; to courage and 
constancy under persecutions; and to the exercise of all personal 
virtues : encouraging him by calling to mind his early training in 
piety and in the knowledge of the Scriptures: reminding him of 
some who had proved unfaithful in the hour of trial: warning both 
Timothy and his flock against false teachers, vain controversies, and 
false professors, the increase of whom is predicted : foretelling the 
grievous times which were yet to come : and enforcing his solemn 
charge to Timothy to be vigilant, faithful, and zealous in the dis- 
charge of his ministry, by the consideration that his own course was 
nearly run, and the time of his departure was at hand 



PAUL'S LAST WORDS : JUDE. 635 

Throughout this letter to his beloved friend, Paul manifests a 
strong conviction of the truth of the principles he had embraced, a 
happy superiority to all his past or future sufferings in support of 
them, and a triumphant assurance of his great blaster's approbation 
and reward. 

Connect and read, 1. 1, 3, 6, 8, 13, 15: 2. 1, 8, 14, 19, 22: 3. 1, 
ic, 14: 4. 1, 6, 9, 14, 16, 19, 22. 

This Epistle contains a noble view of the consolation which Chris- 
tians enjoy in the midst of suffering, and in the prospect of death, 
1. 9-18: 2. 9-13: 4. 6-8, 16-18. The holiest spiritual affection to 
God and Christ is not only consistent with human friendships, but 
productive of them, 1. 2-5 : 4. 9, 21. 1S0 where are privilege and 
duty, grace and holiness more closely combined, 2 Tim. 2. 19. In 
the approaching corruption of Christianity, Paul directs Timothy to 
the true conservative principle of its purity; not miracles nor a 
fresh revelation, but the doctrine in which Timothy had been in- 
structed, and those Scriptures which make the man of God perfect, 
thoroughly furnished unto all good works, 3. 14-17: 2 Thess. 2.: 
2 Pet. 1. 15-21: 3. 1-4, 14-17. Eow instructive that in the last 
writings of both Peter and Paul, nor less in the writings of John, 
(Rev. 22), and in the prospect of the heresies that were to prevail 
in the chinch, we should be directed to the study of the Bible, and 
that we are thus led to expect no additional disclosure of the Divine 
will. The Cross — our hope, our model, our motive : The Crow t n 
— its purity, certainty, blessedness : The Word — its promise, pre- 
cept, doctrine all complete — are among the last words of the sacred 
page. Only let these continue to be set forth, and the church need 
not fear. 

The General Epistle of Jude. Syria, A. D. 75 or 64. 

195. Jude, the author of this Epistle, was called also Lebbaeus 
and Tkaddaeus, Matt. 10. 3 : Luke 6. 15. He was the brother or near 
relation of our Lord, and one of the twelve apostles. We read little 
more of him in the Gospels than that he inquired of our Lord how 
he intended to manifest himself to his disciples and not to the 
world, John 14. 22. His Epistle is supposed to have been written 
to Jewish Christians in Syria and Arabia where he is reported to 
have laboured: as Peter's Second Epistle was written to persons of 
the same character in Asia. It is highly probable that one had 
seen the writings of the other. Compare 2 Pet. 2. Those who think 
that Peter had seen Jude's Epistle give to the latter the date of 64 
or 65 A. D., as does Lardner, or even an earlier date: while others 
conclude that it was written about 75 A. D., or even later. 



636 1st epistle of john. 

The design of the Epistle is clearly to guard the Christian church 
against those false teachers, who resolved all religion into specula- 
tive belief and outward profession, and sought to allure the disciples 
into insubordination and licentiousness. The whole may be divided 
into two parts: the first, descriptive of the punishment, 5-7: the 
second, of the character of these seducers, 8-19. To guard the disci- 
ples against being led astray by them, the apostle refers to the 
Israelites who had perished in the wilderness, to the angels who had 
fallen from their original dignity, and the cities of the plain which 
had been made an example of Divine vengeance ; and shows that a 
similar fate awaited those wicked seducers. He reminds them that 
it had been predicted that such persons should arise in the last 
period of the world; exhorts them to stedfastness and prayer, and 
to efforts for the salvation of others; and concludes with an ascrip- 
tion of praise to Him who alone could preserve them from falling. 
See 2 Pet. 2. 3.: 2 Thess. 2.: 2 Tim. 3. 

Ungodly men have many pleas to urge in arrest of judgment. 
"They had experienced deliverance:" but so had Israel, ver. 5. 
11 They had lived near to God, and his favour had exalted them:" so 
had the lost angels, 6. " They but yielded to natural propensity:" 
so did Sodom, 7. Thus may the Old Testament be used to illus- 
trate the New, and facts to prove principles. 



Sec. 4. Helps to 1. 2. and 3. John and Revelation. 

Tiie First Epistle of John. Towards the close of the 1st Century or 68. 

196. This sacred writing, though called an Epistle, has more of the 
character of a discourse on the doctrines and duties of Christianity. 
It appears to have been addressed to believers generally, especially 
to Gentiles and residents in Asia Minor, among whom John himself 
had laboured (2. 7: 2. 12-14, 20-27). The writer has not deemed 
it necessary to prefix his name ; but its remarkable similarity, both 
in matter and expressions, to the other writings of the apostle John, 
confirms the testimony of the early Christians, and affords satis- 
factory evidence that he was its author. It was certainly written by 
an eye-witness of the person and labours of our Lord (1. 1-4: 
4. 14). It is commonly supposed to have been written from Ephesus, 
but at what precise date is uncertain; a late date is highly probable 
from the errors which are here condemned. 

It was evidently one object of this Epistle to counteract errors 
already prevalent. Some questioned the Dioine dignity of our Lord, 
and denied Jrim to be the Son of God. These the a,postle calls de- 



1 JOHN : LESSONS. 637 

ceivers and antichrist a (2. 22: 4. 15: 5. 1). Others denied his 
humanity, thus contradicting the real fellowship of Christ with men 
(Heb. 2. 16: 4. 15), and the reality of his death and propitiation. 
His incarnation was, as they held, but an appearance, and the story 
of his life, a myth. This delusion the apostle strongly denounces 
(4. 3), and declares that he had himself felt with his hand the body 
of his Lord (1. 1). A third party seem to have held that it was 
enough to worship God with the spirit, and that the body might 
have all possible indulgence. This immoral creed the apostle 
refutes by showing that every sin is real transgression (3 . 4) ; that 
fellowship with God purines the Christian, and that by this purity 
only can we be recognised as His (3. 8-10: 2.5: 4. 13 : 5. n). 

The errors which are thus rebuked early ripened into heresy, and 
their advocates were known by different names (see § 191 (3)*). 
Whether they had made such progress as to have formed defined 
sects at the time this Epistle was written is doubtful; but its con- 
tents are such as refute these and similar errors, both of ancient 
and modern times, and in this respect it possesses peculiar value. 

While the correction of prevalent error was clearly one aim of 
this Epistle, it was not the only, perhaps not the chief aim. Other 
topics are introduced and discussed of the deepest interest, and to 
these the correction of error seems regarded as subordinate. 

i. We are taught the true nature of fellowship with God (1. 3 b ). 
He is Light (1.5) and Love; and fellowship implies conformity to 
Him: light, and therefore man must be purified and redeemed 
(1. 7:-2. 2): light, and therefore man must be holy (2. 3-7): love, 
and therefore we must love one another (2. 27). Let, however, 
Christ be denied, and all these blessings are lost (2. 22-24). 

ii. We are taught the blessedness and duties of sonship. Not 

a The word Antichrist occurs only in these Epistles. It means either one who 
claims to be Christ, or one opposed to him ; and such are all who deny that Jesus is 
Messiah (or Christ), or that the Messiah has come in the flesh. When the word is 
applied to the Great Apostasy (2 Thess. 2. 3-10), as it is in modern discussions, 
it means that that apostasy is supremely opposed to our Lord in his teaching and 
office. 

b Note the revelation here given of the theme of apostolic teaching (1.1,2), and 
its result (3). (1.) Christ's eternity and union with the Father, John 1. 1 : 16. 28 : 
17. 5. 24. (2.) Christ's manifestation in the flesh, and to each Christian, John 1. 14. 
(3.) Eternal life in him, John 10. 28: 1 John 5. n. In its results, this message 
brings fellowship with apostles, with God, and with our Lord ; with apostles, for we 
share, i.e., have "in common" with them (Acts 4. 32), forgiveness, love, and 
parental discipline, Rom. 5. 1: Rev. 1. 9 ; with God, for we share his holiness 
(2 Pet. 1 : 2 John 2. 29 ; 5. 18), and blessedness ; with Christ, for we share his jus- 
tification — sin has no more dominion over him, — his resurrection, adoption, and 
glory. This idea of " fellowship," of which pecuniary contribution is one and a 

lower form, being expressed by the same word, KQivavia, explains many passages. 



638 1 AND 2 JOHN. 

only fellowship, but adoption is our privilege in Christ : and again 
we are led to the same results. God is righteous : as his children 
we too must be righteous (2. 29 :-3. 3). Christ came to take away 
sin; and in him is no sin; to him we must be conformed (3. 4-10). 
He gave his life for us, and herein his love is our model (11 -18). 
Having his spirit we shall share his other blessings (19-24). Again, 
let Christ be denied, in his human nature especially, and these 
blessings are lost (3. 19 1-4. 6). 

hi. He had begun with the truth that God is light ; and thence 
shown what fellowship with him and sonship involve ; now he gives 
another view. God is love (4. 7, 8). Love is his essence, was mani- 
fested in the mission and character of his Son, and is the necessary 
condition of sonship (5. 21). Love to God and one another, faith 
in Christ, such confidence as casts out fear, are all among the 
results which this revelation secures. Only let us truly believe 
that God gives eternal life, and that life in his Son (5. 11 -13), and 
we become holy and happy; we are forgiven and sanctified. Reject 
this truth or any part of it, and we are left without hope. Like the 
world we lie in wickedness (5. 18). 

Very beautiful is it to mark how from the holiness (light) and 
love of God he gathers the doctrine of propitiation, and proves the 
necessity of holiness. Compare 1. 51-2. 11 : and 4. 7-13. 

197. The general character of this Epistle probably gave occasion to 
the opinion early entertained that John was of a peculiarly affec- 
tionate disposition ; and this opinion seems just. Yet none has 
spoken of false doctrine more sharply. The gentlest Christian may 
be a son of thunder (Luke 3. 13-19) when Christ's honour is at 
stake, and charity may be exercised in denouncing sin as well as 
in loving the brethren. 

The truth most largely insisted upon in this Epistle is the neces- 
sity of holiness, as the evidence and fruit of faith, 1. 6: 2. 3 -11, 
2 9- 3- 3-15, J9, 21, 24: 5. 18: Rom. 8. 16: James 2. 17-26: Tit. 
1. 16: 2. 11, 12: Eph. 2. 10: John 15. 2. 

The Second Epistle of John. 

198. Of the thirteen verses of this Epistle, eight are in substance 
found in the first, and it is concluded from the similarity of style 
and subject that both were written about the same time, and in 
reference to the same topics. It is addressed to a Christian lady 
and her children for the purpose of encouraging them to continue 
in the truth, and avoid giving any countenance to deceivers. He 
calls her Electa, possibly from her name, but more probably 
(see ver. 13), on account of the eminence of her piety. The opinion 



O v -v-n 3 



1ND 3 JOHN : REVELATION. 639 

that some clmrck or the church, at large is addressed under this 
title can scarcely he maintained. 

An Epistle so addressed shows with what vigilant affection the 
ministers of the gospel ought to cherish the piety of those whom 
they have gained, and it shows no less the importance in the sight 
of God of the station of a Christian mother, and the earnestness 
with which she should interest herself in the religious welfare of 
her children. 

The Third Epistle of John. 

199. That the Gaius or Caius, to whom this Epistle is addressed, 
was the person mentioned in Rom. 16. 23, and 1 Cor. 1. 14, though not 
certain, is highly probable; as he appears to have been an eminent- 
Christian, particularly distinguished for his hospitality to Christian 
evangelists or missionaries. The apostle expresses his affectionate 
joy at this and other evidences of his piety; cautions him against 
one Diotrephes, noted for his ambition and turbulence; and recom- 
mends Demetrius to his friendship; deferring other matters to a 
personal interview. 

lc The Elder," the name assumed by the author of this and the 
preceding Epistle, might probably be applied to John, when all the 
other apostles were dead, as a title of honourable distinction; for 
he was the senior of the whole church; or he might modestly, yef; 
as claiming authority, use it upon this occasion. 

Comparing these two Epistles with Philemon, it is evident that 
the apostles wrote as apostles even in their private letters, and that 
whatever the theme of their communications, they imparted to each 
a savour of Christ. 

TJie Revelation of John. Patmos, a.d. 96. 

200. This book is styled the Apocalypse, or Revelation (i. c. the re- 
vealing or unveiling of that which had been hidden), as consisting 
of matters chiefly prophetical, which were revealed to John by our 
Lord Jesus Christ. This took place w T hen he was in the isle of 
Patmos, in the ^Egean Sea, whither he was banished, as is generally 
supposed, by the emperor Domitian, a.d. 94 or 95. Some, indeed, 
are of opinion that this happened much earlier, during the persecu- 
tion of ISTero, A. D. 67 or 68; but the arguments adduced in support 
of this opinion are by no means conclusive. Irenaeus, Eusebius, and 
in the 3rd century Victorinus expressly refer the book to the age 
of Domitian ; a view favoured by the testimony of Clement of 
Alexandria, Origen, and Jerome, nor is there any other tradition in 
the early church. Internal evidence also confirms it, such as the 
preyalence of persecution, and the great declension which appears 



640 REVELATION: OUTLINE. 

to liave taken place in the Ephesian church, which as late as a. d. 62 
was warmly commended by Paul, for the fidelity and love ofits 
members. No book, it may be added, was earlier commented upon, 
nor is it surpassed in dignity and sublimity of composition. 

This book greatly resembles those of Ezekiel and of Daniel both in 
form and in substance. It appears, indeed, to be a continuation of 
the prophecies of Daniel; but given with greater fulness of detail; 
the principal topics being the same, and the termination exactly 
identical. It consists of two principal divisions: — 

Part i. (1.-3.) relates to " the things which are;" comprising a 
preparatory vision exhibiting the Divine perfections and the human 
sympathy of the Redeemer, and the Addresses or Epistles to the 
Seven Churches; each of which consists of three parts: 1. The 
introduction, referring in each case to some of the attributes of Him 
who addresses the church, taken from the preceding vision, in which 
a progressive order is observable, and an appropriateness to the 
general tenor of the epistle which follows; 2. A description of the 
characteristics of the church, w T ith suitable encouragement, admoni- 
tion, or reproof ; and 3. Promises of reward to those who overcome, 
which are addressed to all the churches. 

ii. The remainder of the book (4.-22.) is occupied with the pro- 
phecy of " the things which shall be hereafter." It consists of a 
series of visions, showing forth, by means of symbolical imagery and 
figurative language, the conflicts and sufferings of the people of God, 
and his judgments upon their enemies; and concluding with a re- 
presentation of the church of Christ, the New Jerusalem, after the 
final judgment. The principal contents of this prophecy are as 
follows : — 

An introductory vision, representing the Divine glory (4.), the 
sealed scroll, and the Lamb who alone is worthy to open it (5). 
The opening of the first six seals (6). The sealing of the 144,000 
of the tribes of Israel; the appearance and worship of the innu- 
merable multitude from all nations ; and the opening of the seventh 
seal (7. 8. 1). The vision of an angel offering incense at the altar; 
followed by the sounding of the first six trumpets (8. 2-13 : 9). The 
vision of a mighty angel, with a little scroll open in his hand; 
w T hich, after the seven thunders, and the angel's proclamation, 
John is directed to take and eat (10). The measuring of the temple 
and altar; the two witnesses; their prophesying, death, resurrec- 
tion, and ascension; the sounding of the seventh trumpet (11). 
The vision of the woman persecuted by the dragon; the conflict 
between Michael and his angels, and the dragon and his angels; 
preservation of the woman in the wilderness (12). The beast rising 
up out of the sea, and the second beast coming up out of the earth 



REVELATION : OUTLINE. 641 

(13). The vision of the Lamb and the 144,000 on Mount Sion; the 
proclamations of the three angels; the harvest, and the vintage (15). 
The pouring out of the seven vials of plagues (16). The angel's 
description of the woman sitting upon the beast (17). Another 
angel's proclamation of Babylon's fall and destruction (18.), fol- 
lowed by songs of praise and exultation (18.: 19. t-io). " The 
Word of God" attended by his faithful followers, by whom the 
beast and the false prophet, and the confederate kings, are over- 
thrown and destroyed (19. 11-21). The binding of the dragon, and 
his imprisonment for a thousand years, during which the saints live 
and reign with Christ; and at the end of which, Satan being again 
loosed, gathers the nations once more to battle against " the beloved 
city," when he and his rebellious hosts are finally overthrown and 
cast into the lake of fire (20. 1-10). Visions of the last judgment, 
the new heaven and the new earth, and the heavenly Jerusalem 
(20. io:-22. 5): followed by final addresses from the angel, from 
Christ, and from the apostle, declaring the Divine origin, the abso- 
lute certainty, and the speedy accomplishment of these predictions 
(22. 6-21). 

More briefly the whole has been summed up thus : — 

We have first, seven epistles to the seven churches (1.-3); and 
seventhly, towards the close, the New or heavenly Jerusalem (21. -22). 

We have secondly, seven seals (4.1 :-8. 1). 

thirdly, seven trumpets sounded (8. 2:-n). 

fourthly, three enemies, Satan, the beast, and the false 

prophet warring against the church (12.- 14). 
fifthly, seven vials are poured out (15. 16). 
sixthly, the three enemies of the church are overthrown 
(1 7.-20). 

With these central objects, seals, trumpets, vials, Satan, the 
beast, and the false prophet and other visions are interwoven as 
introductory and concluding scenes. 

201. In the interpretation of Kevelation we meet with many 
difficulties. The general meaning of the symbols is indeed com- 
monly clear, founded as they often are on resemblance, and used with 
uniformity, but the application of symbols to specific events is by 
no means obvious. A principle adopted by Dean Woodhouse 
seems deserving of general acceptance, namely, that unless the lan- 
guage and symbols of the Apocalypse require another mode of ap- 
plication, its predictions are to be applied to events occurring in the 
progressive kingdom of Christ, or the history of the Christian 
church from the apostolic age to the end of time. The Bible is the 
history of the church, and of other nations only so far as they are 
connected with it. And it seems but reasonable to look in revela- 



642 REVELATION : MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 

tion for the same general truth which we find elsewhere. The 
whole analogy of Scripture is in favour of this view. 

On the Prophetic Visions of the Revelation. 

As no other portion of sacred Scripture is more difficult; so of 
none have the explanations been more various. The different 
theories may be arranged under three heads. 

I. Some consider the greater part of these prophecies to have 
had their fulfilment in the early ages of the church. 

In this view Grotius, Hammond, Wetstein, Eichhorn, De Wette, 
Lee, Stuart, and Hug concur, and of course maintain the earlier 
date of the book. This is the preterist interpretation.* 1 

Professor Stuart, who advocates this view, divides the whole into 
three great catastrophes: the first (chap. 6-n), describing the des- 
truction of Jerusalem and the overthrow of the Jewish persecuting 
power by a series of Divine judgments ; and, at the same time, the 
deliverance of the Christians: — second (chap. 11 -19), the destruction 
of the Roman persecuting power and the triumph of Christianity over 
Paganism: — and third (chap. 20-22), the last great efforts (still 
future), of heathen antichristian powers, issuing in their entire over- 
throw; followed by the general judgment, the everlasting punish- 
ment of the wicked, and the glorified state of the righteous. 

II. A second class of expositors, comprising the greater number 
of Protestant writers, regard these prophecies as a delineation of 
the great features in the history of the world, or of the church, 
from the apostolic age to the end of time. 

This interpretation regards the narrative as a continuous history 
reaching on to the end of time, though some parts of the book are 
treated as synchronological. Its advocates are Mede, Sir I. Newton, 
Vitringa, Bishop Newton, Scott, Forbes, Frere, Cuninghame, Wood- 
house, Elliott, Keith, and Birks. 

While agreeing, however, in this general view, they display the 
utmost diversity of opinion as to the application of the different 
symbols; some extending them more or less to the events of secular 
history, while others restrict them entirely to the affairs of the 
church. 

According to the scheme of interpretation adopted by the late 

T. Scott, the first six seals (chap. 6), predict, first, the early progress 

of Christianity, and then the gradual undermining of the Pagan 

persecuting Roman Empire by successive judgments, till it was 

terminated by the conversion of the emperors to Christianity. In 

a These outlines are taken, as are portions of tbe introductions to several of the 
Epistles, from the Pocket Paragraph Bible, published by the Religious Tract 

Society. 



REVELATION I MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 043 

the first four trumpets (chap. 8), is foretold the gradual subversion 
of the Roman empire by the Goths, Huns, Moors, and Vandals; 
and in the fifth and sixth (chap. 9), the spread of Mohammedanism, 
first under the Saracens and then under the Turks. Chap. 11 is 
interpreted as predicting the corrupt state of the nominal Christian 
church, for a period of 1260 years; during the whole of which, 
however, there is a competent number of suffering witnesses for the 
truth who protest against these corruptions, till at length they are 
slain, and their testimony is silenced for a very short time. These 
last circumstances are considered as future. Chap. 12 refers again, 
in more detail than before, to the revolution by which the Roman 
empire became professedly Christian. Chap. 13 predicts the rise, 
establishment, and dominion of the papal Roman empire as the ten- 
homed beast ; the Romish clergy as the tico-horned beast; and the pope 
as the image of the beast. (These are supposed to be afterwards 
more fully described in chap. 17). Chap. 14 refers to the opposition 
made by true believers to this antichristian power. The seven vials 
(chap. 16), predict a succession of judgments (the whole, or by far 
the greater part, being yet unfulfilled), by which the papal empire 
and Rome itself will be utterly desolated, as declared in chap. 18. 

The elaborate work of Mr. Elliot (Horce Apocalyptical), proceeds 
upon similar principles, though in greater detail, and with many 
important differences in application. He supposes the first six 
seals (chap. 6), to depict six successive periods in the history of the 
Roman empire, between about A. D. 96 and 324 ; namely, 1st, an era 
of conquest and prosperity: — 2nd, Civil war and bloodshed : — 3rd, 
Fiscal oppression and grievous distress : — 4th, Wide-spread desolation : 
— 5th, Persecution and martyrdom of Christians: — 6th, Overthrow 
of paganism by Constantine. The " sealing of the servants of God" 
(chap. 7. 1-8), denotes the preservation of a faithful remnant during 
the long apostasy. The first six TRU3IPETS (chap. 8, 9), describe 
successive scourges upon the Roman empire, by the invasions of the 
Goths, Vandals, Huns, Saracens, and Turks. The " little book," 
and the following visions (chap. 10.: it. 1-13), are a supplementary 
revelation, having reference chiefly to the era of the Reformation; 
the measuring of the Temple denoting a separation of the true from 
the apostate church; and the tvco witnessess (chap. 11. 3-13), signify- 
ing the twofold succession of faithful Christian churches in Eastern 
and Western Christendom. In chap. 11. 14-19, the prophetic his- 
tory is resumed with the sounding of the seventh trumpet • but is 
again interrupted by a distinct series of visions in chap. 12, 13; 
tnat of " the woman clothed with the sun" (chap. 12), describing 
the struggle between the Christian church and the pagan dragon* 
the first beast with ten horns (chap. 13. 1-10), denoting the Roman 



644 REVELATION : MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 

power under its papal head; the second two-horned beast (chap. 13. 
1 1 -1 8), representing the Romish hierarchy, with its two orders or 
clergy; and the " image of the beast " signifying the general coun- 
cils of the papal church. After another series of intermediate 
visions in chap. 14, the prophetic history is earned on in chap. 
14-16, by the pouring out of the seven vials, which are applied to 
events arising out of the French Revolution, commencing in 1739. 
The sixth, which is interpreted as signifying judgments upon the 
Turkish empire, forms, according to this scheme, the boundary line, 
separating the past from the future. 

Dr. Keith interprets the first six seals (chap. 6), as representing 
the church of Christ, and the various forms of false faith by which 
it was to be assailed; namely, 1st seal, Descriptive of the Lord Jesus 
Christ and the Christian religion; 2nd, Mohammedanism ; 3rd, 
Popery in the dark ages; 4th, Infidelity; 5th, The depressed and 
persecuted state of the true church in past ages; 6th, " The great 
day of the wrath of the Lord," yet unfulfilled. The first six 
trumpets (chap. 8, 9), he explains as describing the series of events 
which ended in the extinction of the Roman empire. The visions 
in chap. 10, he refers to events in Europe, at and after the period 
of the Reformation. The two witnesses (chap. 1 1), he considers to be 
faithful churches of Christ; and their prophesying in sackcloth for 
1260 years not to have yet ceased. The woman clothed with the sun, 
etc. (chap. 12), represents the history of Christianity, and the con- 
flict of the church with its pagan and papal enemies. The first and 
second beasts (chap. 13), are imperial and papal Rome. The seven 
vials (chap. 14, 15), are the judgments of God on the papacy; 
the - first five of which were fulfilled in the French Revolution and 
the wars which followed it; the sixth vial signifying the wasting 
away and dissolution of the Turkish empire, now in progress of ac- 
complishment. 

Dean Woodhousc, adopting as a fundamental principle, the religious 
reference of all the symbols, views the seals as giving a general 
outline of the history of the Christian church ; — the first three reach- 
ing to the middle ages; the fourth representing the papal tyranny; 
the fifth, the martyrs of the whole period; and the sixth, the 
triumphs of the Reformed churches, and the approaching over- 
throw of all the enemies of God. The trumpets, he supposes to go 
over the same ground, in more detail; describing attacks of here- 
tics and antichristian corrupters on the Christian religion; the first 
four relating to those to which it was subjected in its early ages from 
Jewish and pagan enemies, and from false teachers ; the fifth to the 
heresy of the Gnostics, and the sixth to the Mohammedan powers. 
The vials, he regards as designating successive inflictions of Divine 



REVELATION : MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 645 



if 



vengeance upon the enemies and persecutors of the church, not yet 
fulfilled. 

Another scheme of interpretation, proceeding on the same general 
principle as the preceding, but differing considerably in its applica- 
tion, proposed in a work entitled " The Book of the Unveiling, 
with Notes," is as follows: — That the seals (chap. 6), represent 
different periods in the history of the church; namely, ist, The early 
triumphs of the gospel; 2nd, Severe persecution; 3rd, Affliction, 
famine, and general distress, both temporal and spiritual; fulfilled 
in the invasions of the Eoman empire by the Northern nations, and 
in the darkness and decay of the church; 4th, Awful corruption, 
apostasy, and persecution; comprising the period from the esta- 
blishment of the papacy to the Reformation; 5th, A period of com- 
parative repose and revival, commencing with the Reformation and 
extending to the present time; 6th, Shaking among the nations, 
universal revolution, and great terror, still future, but near at hand. 
As, according to this scheme, the seventh seal, and the seven trumpets, 
and seven vials are still in futurity, no attempt is made to explain 
them; but the series of visions in chap. 12. -16. 16, are considered 
to be illustrative of, and to synchronize with those in chap. 6-9 : — 
chap. 6, being parallel with chap. 12, 13 ; chap. 7, with chap. 14, 15 ; 
chap. 8, 9, with chap. 16. 1-16; and chap. 11. 15-19, with chap. 16. 
17-21. 

According to another view taken of the plan of this Book, a more 
general meaning is given to many of the symbols; and the subjects 
are considered as not being arranged in strictly chronological order. 
For example, the scenes presented at the sounding of the first four 
trumpets (chap. 8. 7-12), are supposed not to refer exclusively to any 
particular places, times, or persons, but to predict scenes of devas- 
tation, each rising above the preceding in fearful signs of woe; the 
country, with its fertile fields, first suffering; then the maritime dis- 
tricts with the sea, then the rivers with the cities upon their banks, 
and lastly, the luminaries of heaven. It is urged that the presen- 
tation in these symbols of different departments of creation, the 
progress of the series to a climax, and the recurrence, in each, of the 
statement, that a third part of each was affected, indicate the general 
nature of the prophecy. In like manner, when, upon the pouring 
out of the first four vials (chap. 16. 2-9), the land, the sea, the rivers, 
and the sun, are in succession affected by the judgments of God, 
in a still more dreadful and extensive manner, those visions are re- 
garded as having no restricted or exclusive application; but as 
representing generally, in conjunction with those which follow 
(chap. 16. 12-21), the judgments of God, as coming with increasing 
terribleness upon such as persist in rebellion against him. 



646 revelation: modes of interpretation 

One scheme which has been proposed {Biblical Meview, 1847), P /0 " 
ceeding upon these principles, is in substance as follows : — That the 
first six seals (chap. 6), exhibit successive judgments of God on the 
Jewish nation, ending in its complete overthrow, on account of its 
opposition to the kingdom of Christ, and persecution of his people; 
while the visions in chap. 7, signify the preservation of the servants 
of God, first among the Jewish people, and then among the Gen- 
tiles : — That the trumpets (chap, 8, 9), which form the central 
subject of the next series of visions, are general symbols of universal 
devastation and of severe and extensive calamities upon heathen and 
idolatrous nations (see chap. 9. 20), which were fulfilled in part by 
the disasters which came upon the Roman empire, and led to its 
fall: — That the visions which follow (chap. 10., 11. 1-13), are de- 
signed to direct the mind forward from the judgments on the wicked, 
to the time when God's promises to his people shall be accomplished: 
— That the two visions of the temple and altar, and the two witnesses, 
present a general sketch of the office, condition, and prospects of 
the Christian church, —this series of visions being closed with the 
sounding of the seventh trumpet, when the judgments of God are 
completed, and the world is subjected to his government, chap. it. 
14-19: — That with chap. 12, commences anew series, the visions in 
chap. 13, representing two chief agencies employed by Satan in his 
opposition to Christ; the first beast (ver. 1-10), denoting tyrannical 
earthly power, opposed to the government of God, and persecuting 
his people; and the second beast (ver. 11- 18), which supports the 
first, representing the power of false priesthoods, founded on delu- 
sion, and exercised by means of social privation and popular vio- 
lence : — That, after introductory visions in chap. 14, 15, the seven 
vials, or vessels of plagues, in chap. 16, exhibit severe a?nd exten- 
sive calamities on the votaries of the world, and of power and su- 
perstition amongst professed Christians; and that the v;oman sitting 
vpon the beast (chap. 17), and Babylon (chap. 18), are a twofold 
representation of the same object, signifying all antichristian and 
persecuting systems, usurping the name and the place of the true 
church of Christ, supported by worldly power, and governed by 
earthly principles; and thus referring clearly to Rome and the 
papacy, but not to them only. 

III. Another class of interpreters, taking an entirely different 
view from any of those already mentioned, consider the greater 
part, if not the whole, of this series of prophecies, to belong, in its 
strictest and fullest sense, to the last days. 

This interpretation is the futurist, and has been advocated by 
Maitland, Burgh, and others. 

According to this scheme, all the prophetical part, of the Apo- 



REVELATION : MODES OF INTERPRETATION. 647 

i 
calypse is viewed as a representation of events, which are to take 

place shortly before the second advent of Christ, and the consum- 
mation of all things; the Israel spoken of here being the literal 
Israel, — the " two witnesses ' being two individuals, probably 
Closes and Elijah, — the days in the chronological periods, literal 
days, — and the antichrist or apocalyptic beast, under his last head, 
a personal infidel antichrist, who is to reign over the whole extent 
of the old Eoman empire, and to persecute and triumph over the 
saints for just three years and a half, until Christ's coming to des- 
troy him. Mr. Burgh considers the " sealed book " (chap. 5, 6), 
to be the book, or title-deed of Christ's inheritance which has been 
purchased (Eph. 1. 14), but is not yet recovered out of the hands 
of the usurper; — the opening of the seals being the unfolding of the 
acts of Christ, when he shall vindicate his inheritance, and assume 
his throne, — and the whole of the visions which follow being occu- 
pied with the events of that last great crisis. 

202. If in consequence of the difficulties of this book any are 
tempted to treat lightly all the prophetic Scriptures, let it be re- 
membered that ancient prophecy was probably as mysterious to a 
Jew as is Revelation to us. That a son of David should not see 
corruption, that that son should be numbered with malefactors, be 
put to an ignominious death, and yet sit for ever upon his throne, 
seemed profound mysteries. AH, however, were fulfilled, and they 
served the meanwhile to sustain the hopes of those who were waiting 
" for the consolation of Israel:" so of this book. 

203. Whatever difference of opinion may exist among interpreters 
with respect to the precise times and countries, events, and persons, 
to which it is supposed these visions refer, they are mostly agreed 
both as to its general character and design, and as to the lessons to 
be deduced from it — lessons more or less appropriate to every age 
of the church. a Thus all have learned from these symbolical repre- 
sentations that Christ is exalted to the highest dignity in heaven, 
and exercises universal dominion on earth — that the state of the 
church of Christ is for a long time to be one of trouble and conflict 
— that stedfastness and fidelity are our duty — that after the over- 
throw of its first adversaries the Jews, the great enemy would 
employ against it other agents — that worldly power and policy, the 
persecutor and the false prophet, would be allied in seeking to de- 
stroy or to corrupt it — that the marks of this unhallowed combi- 
nation are pride, worldly pomp, a persecuting spirit, a careless and 
luxurious life (13. 7: 18. 3-24) — that while exposed to the assaults 
of these foes, it would ever be under Divine protection — that what- 

a See Delta on Revelation, Msbet, 1850. 



648 revelation: the man of sin. 

ever was opposed to the kingdom of Christ would certainly be 
overthrown — that even now there is a constant and most intimate 
connection between the visible and the invisible world, prayer and 
praise ascending continually to the throne of God, and messengers 
of wrath and mercy descending thence — that the providence and 
government of God comprehend all subjects and events, and render 
them subservient to the best ends — that the church, after passing 
through a condition of abasement, warfare, and tribulation, will be 
brought to a state of honour, peace, and felicity — that the Saviour 
who redeemed his people by the sacrifice of himself, ever regards 
them with infinite tenderness and benignity, aids and defends them 
by his almighty power, and will receive them at last to his heavenly 
kingdom — and, finally, that the unholy being excluded, all the fol- 
lowers of Christ, of every age and country, will be united in one 
glorious society, exhibiting perfect holiness, and enjoying everlast- 
ing happiness, in the presence of their God and Saviour. These 
are some of the most important truths contained in this book : thev 
are presented with peculiar vividness and power; and they have 
contributed much to the faith and love, the fortitude and patience, 
the hope and joy, of all the followers of the Lord. 

204. Among the prophetic visions of the Apocalypse, there is one 
w r hich appears peculiarly prominent (17. 18); and which acquires 
the greater importance, as well as clearness from other prophetic 
intimations evidently referring to the same subject, 2 Thess. 2. 3-12: 
1 Tim. 4. 1-5. There is unusual agreement among the greater 
number of the best expositors in explaining these combined pro- 
phecies ; although some consider them to refer to events still 
future. They are regarded as predicting the rise and temporary 
ascendency of a great apostate power, in the midst of the Christian 
church, which should be distinguished by the following character- 
istics : — 

1st. Eminent corruption of religion, wilich corruption, by fraud as 
well as force, it spreads and maintains throughout the world, 2 Thess. 
2. 3, 8-10: 1 Tim. 4. 1, 2: Eev. 17. 2-5: 18. 3-5: 19. 2. 2nd. Gross 
immorality and licentiousness, combined with hypocritical and self- 
righteous asceticism, 1 Tim. 4. 2, 3. 3rd. Arrogant and blasphemous 
pretensions, usurpation of Divine prerogatives, opposition against 
God, and persecution of his people, 2 Thes. 2. 4, 5 : Eev. 17. 
6-14: 18. 6-20: 19. 2. 4th. Great wealth, magnificence, and lux- 
ury, Rev. 17. 4: 18. 7, 8, 11-19. 5th. Reliance upon the support 
and aid of worldly powers, whose tyranny it sanctions and upholds, 
Rev. 17. 1, 2, 15, 17: 18. 3, 9. 

Such is the picture drawn by the hand of prophecy, of this rival 
and enemy of God, seated in his temple ; and its counterpart is but 



REVELATION : ADMITTED TRUTHS. 649 

too clearly seen in the history of a great portion of Christendom* 
Oat of the abundant proofs furnished by the records of the church 
during the long dark night through which she has passed, and even 
by the present state of the world, it is sufficient to mention a few 
leading traits of character which mark that system of iniquity in 
which the fulfilment of these predictions is pre-eminently seen. 
Gross corruptions of Christian doctrine and worship ; — compulsory 
celibacy and uncommanded austerities, combined with meretricious 
splendour and a counterfeit Jewish ritual ; — blasphemous assump- 
tions of Divine titles and honours, claims of infallibility and supreme 
authority over the conscience, — dispensations and absolution of 
sins, pretended prophecies and miracles, — oppression and persecu- 
tion of the people of God, carried on with the concurrence and aid 
of earthly rulers ; — all these have been found more or less de- 
veloped in those antichristian systems which have so greatly pre- 
vailed both in Eastern and Western Europe, to the hindrance of 
the spread of Divine truth, and the ruinous delusion of myriads, 
who, being blinded by error, perish in their sin. 

The fearful errors of this apostasy are not, however, the closing 
scenes of this book. The (i wicked" or " lawless one" "the Lord 
shall consume with the spirit of his mouth," 2 Thes. 2. 8. She 
that did corrupt the earth shall be judged, Rev. 19. 2. And this 
great event, which will cause mourning to some on earth, will occa- 
sion great joy and thanksgiving in heaven, Eev. 18. 9-19: 19. 1-6. 
Again, and again, and again, theory is heard there, "Alleluia;" 
and the servants of God on earth are summoned to join in the 
song. 

205. Our work is done. The first chapters of Matthew 
show us Christ in his weakness ; of royal descent indeed, and 
receiving the profoundest homage, yet poor and persecuted ; 
the last of Eevelation show him with memorials of his suffer- 
ing—for he is a Lamb still — but triumphant, " reigning for 
ever and ever." In Genesis we see Paradise lost, and man 
driven forth from the presence of God ; in Eevelation mwe 
than Paradise is regained, men are once more in fellowship 
with God (22, 3, 4, 5), a fellowship that shall know no end. 
Malachi had ended with " a curse," the last words of John 
are of blessing (22. 21). So characteristic are the various 
portions of the Inspired Volume throughout : so complete 
the whole. 

2 F 



( 650 ) 



INDEX. 



Abimelech, kings so called, 15-4. 

Abner more righteous than Joab, ex- 
plained, 164. 

Abraham, his wanderings, 395 ; pro- 
mise made to him, 396, 425 ; justified 
by faith, 337, 593, 603-4; now to share 
his blessing, 324. 

Acts, book of, 576-7 ; illustrates the 
deity and offices of the Son and of the 
Spirit, 577-9. 

A.D., the precise date of, 563. 

Adam, effect of his sin, 313, 393. 

Adoption,, two kinds of, 251 ; privileges 
connected with, 637-8. 

Adultery, figurative meaning of, 305. 

Advocate, meaning of, 57. 

Affliction, 363; sanctified, 367-99; 
teaching of Scripture on, with exam- 
ples, 36Q. 

Agag, different kings so called, 154. 

Alexander on the two economics, 109. 

Alexander s conquests, 541. 

Alexandrian Platonists, their influence, 
586. 

Allegory, kinds of, 146 ; rules for inter- 
preting, 273 -8 ; Jewish modes of allego- 
rizing on words and letters ; rational- 
istic mode, on facts so as to deny 
them, 283 ; works on allegorical inter- 
pretation, 295. (See Figures, Types, 
Parables.) 

Almond, a symbol, meaning of, 223. 

Alphabetical psalm, 388, 498. 

Ambiguous words in English version, ^$. 

Amnion, prophecies on, 476. 

Ammonian sections, 23. 

Amos, book of, 481. 

Analogy, the source of most language 
on spiritual truth, 140 ; use of, in 
fixing meaning of words, 1 86-7 . 

Analogy of faith, meaning of, and rules 
on, 174-9. 

Ancestors for posterity, 152. 

Angel of Jehovah.. 125, 401. 

Ananias, sin and death of, 578. 

Anselm, on knowledge and experience, 
148. 

Antichrist, origin and meaning of, 657. 

Antilegomena, 10, 77 ; Garnbier on, 65. 

Antioch, different cities so called, 155 

Antiochus subdues Judaea, 542 ; foretold 
by Daniel, 501. 

Apis, the Egyptian idol, 402, 520. 

Apocrypha, non-canonicity of, 82 ; histo- 



rical value of, 83 ; when declared 
canonical by Rome, 208 ; Augustine 
on, 65. 

Apostles, their sufferings and travels, 
91, 207-8 ; their candour, 104. 

Arabia, divisions of, 254 ; prophecies 
on, 476. 

Arabic language, 15 ; versions, 37 ; words 
in modern maps, 267. 

Aramaean dialect, 14 ; words in New Tes- 
tament, 20. 

Aristeas, story of, 31-2. 

Arnold on the progressive love of Scrip- 
ture, 116; on the practical reading 
of Scripture, 360. 

Ascensions to heaven under different 
dispensations, 394. 

Asia, meaning of, in ISTew Testament, 
266. 

Asmonaans, their history, 542. 

Ass in the east, passages explained, 221. 

Astronomy aids chronology, 218. 

Assyrian empire, silence of Scripture 
on, 119; its history, $33 ; prophecies 
concerning, 476. 

Atheism springs from the heart, 611. 

Athens, idolatry in, 207. 

Atonement, idea of, how imparted, 144 ; 
meaning of, 19^-6; importance of, 
315 ; day of, 418. 

Augustus, who ; different kings so called, 
154. 

Authenticity of the Scriptures, what, 
65 ; proofs of its claim, 66-9 ,- evi- 
dences of, 85, ct seq. (See Genuineness ; 
Evidences.) 

Authority, double meaning of, 180. 

Azazel, meaning of, 415. 

Babylon, prophecies fulfilled, 99 ; cap- 
tivity in, 506-8 ; deliverance from, a 
type of redemption, 291 ; its condi 
tion in the days of Isaiah, 487 ; pro 
phecies concerning, 476. 

Bacon, on seeking philosophy in Scrip- 
ture, 116; on interpretation, 273. 

Balaam, his character, 171. 

Balm of Gilead, 222. 

Baptism, its signification, 166. 

Barnabas, history of, 1 10 ; his conduct 
towards Mark, in 

Baxter's rule for the removal of doubts, 
115. 

Beasts, their symbolical meanings, 305. 



INDEX. 



651 



Beersheba, lessons connected with, 256. 

Belief, how controlled, 123. 

Benson on Scripture difficulties, 359. 

Bereans, their study of Scripture and its 
results, 124 (ref. Acts 17.) 

leverage, eastern, vinegar, etc. ; affect- 
ing illustration of our Lord's firmness, 

244-5- 

Bible, reasons for studying it, 1 ; spirit 
in which it should be studied, 2, 148-9 ; 
meaning of the word, 2 ; Scriptural 
names of, 3 ; scope of. 167 ; writers of, 
circumstances in which it was written, 
1 39 ; how to be studied, 356 ; its great 
purpose ; influence of, on holiness, 
106; harmonies of, 109, 112; pecu- 
liarities of, as a revelation, 116: gene- 
ral view of its books, 375-6; how di- 
vided, 377 ; as a history, biography, 
389 ; its threefold revelation, 390 ; to 
be studied by all; opinion of early 
Christians, 208 ; has Divine authority ; 
the only Divine authority, 69 ; the 
book for the young, 138. (See Testa- 
ment, Division, Evidence, Interpreta- 
tion, Genuineness, Authenticity, Ca- 
non.) 

Bible or Testament, editions of, by Alter, 
25 ; Athias, 30 ; Bengel, 25 ; Beza, 5 ; 
Birch, 25 ; Boothroj'd, 30 ; Curcellasus, 

25 ; De Rossi, 30 ; Elzevir, 5 ; Erasmus, 
5, 24 ; Fell, Griesbach, 25 ; Hooght 
(Van der), Houbigant, 30 ; Jahn, 30-1 ; 
Kennicott, 5, 30-1 ; Koppe, 204; Lach- 
mann, 26 ; Mattha?i, Mill, 25 ; Scholz, 

26 ; Stephens, 5 ; Tregelles, etc., 26. 
Bickersteth's View of Scripture Pro- 
phecy, 299. 

Bind and loose, 203. 

Birch's Auctarium, 84. 

Birks on the Chronology of the Acts, 

581; on the harmony of different 

parts of the Gospels, 109-11. 
Bishop, universal, when applied to the 

pope, 208. 
Bitumen, what, 233. 
Blood, different meanings of, 158 ; why 

offered in sacrifice, 415. 
Boldness in the faith, 362. 
Bomberg's Bible, 547. 
Born again, 203, 
Botany of Scripture ; list of all plants, ■ 

223-33. 

Bottles, eastern, 253. 

Boyle on Scripture, 1 ; on Scripture de- 
velopment, 129. 

Bridges on Systematic Divinity, 309. 

Brown's Harmony of the Scripture Pro- 
phecies, 304. 

Burial, eastern, 252. 

Burnt-offerings, 414. 

Burton's Bampton Lectures, 546. 

Bushe on Evidences, 65. 

Business not to interfere with holiness, 
329 ; Nehemiah an example, 518. 

Butlers Analogy, 109; on Scripture diffi- 
culties, 352-3 ; on the account of Crea- 



tion, 117; on moral and positive pre- 
cepts, 320. 

Cabala, 548. 

Cabalists, 546-8. 

Ca?sarea, 155. 

Caiaphas, a Sadducee, 548. 

Cainan, bis place in genealogies, 213. 

Calendar of the Jews, lessons taught by, 
270-2. 

Canaan, meaning of, 152; its divisions, 
257 ; woman of, called a Greek, 266c 

Canaanites, their punishment, its lessons 
424 ; some spared, 428 ; the curse on 
them did not affect the righteous, 152. 

Candour of inspired writers illustrated, 
103. 

Canon, meaning of ; books of, 4 ; how 
preserved, 81 ; how settled, 75, 76, 79 ; 
catalogues of the books, 78, 80 ; Deu- 
tero-canonical, 77; or antilegomena 
10. (See Apocrypha.) 

Capellus, his services in Bibl. Grit., 30. 

Capernaum, its geographical position, 
109. 

Captivity, its causes and results, 506; 
prophecies on, 507 ; return from, 
508. 

Cecil and Jay, models of practical expo- 
sition, 372. 

Cecil on the Connection of the Two Cove- 
nants, 116 ; on the systematic study of 
Scripture, 137; on the richness of 
Scripture, 202. 

Cedar, a symbol of the righteous, 220. 

Celibacy, when made compulsory, 209. 

Ceremonial law, its origin and object, 
406-9. 

Cerinthians, 586. 

Chaida?ans, prophecies concerning, 495-8. 

Chaldee, 14 ; chapters in, 500-9. 

Chariots, meaning of, in visions, 513. 

Cherubim, 306. 

Christ, a chief theme of Scripture, 117; 
of prophecy, 295 ; his work, how fore- 
told, 287 ; particulars foretold, 95 ; 
preparations made for his coming, 391 ; 
his death and resurrection, 315 ; 
psalms on his character, 340 ; gradual 
revelations of, 125 ; mysteries con- 
nected with, 120 ; physical cause of 
his death, no; journcyings on the 
night of his betrayal, 265 ; his Divi- 
nity, the doctrine of the early church, 
208 ; proved from Old Testament, 337 
(see Angel) ; his incarnation and dig- 
nity, 624 ; his superiority to Mosc3 
and Aaron, 624 ; all truth in him, 552 ; 
in the Gospels, 555 ; his teaching, 551 ; 
his atonement, 315 ; duration of his 
ministry, 564 ; his sonship recognised ; 
his dea r h; his first miracle, discourse, 
and public act, 568. 

Christians, peculiar names in New Testa- 
ment, 1 10 ; their excellencies, how set 
forth in Scripture, 135 ; bound to spread 
the gospel, 328. 



652 



INDEX. 



Chronicles, books of, 434-5 ; relations to 
Kings and Samuel, 435. 

Chronology, peculiar difficulty in, from 
modes of writing, 54 ; of reckoning, 
216-17 ; of Old Testament, 212-15 ; 
comparative claim of Hebrew, Septua- 
gint, and Samaritan, 215 ; utility of, 
in teaching moral truth, 209 ; different 
epochs of, 211 ; rules for framing a 
system, 218 ; difficulties in, 344-5 ; an- 
cient, confirms the truth of the Penta- 
teuch, 381 ; of the Gospels, 563-9; of 
the Acts and Epistles, 580-2. (See As- 
syria, Egypt, Pentateuch.) 

Chronological arrangement of Scripture, 
127, 390-407 ; 458-60. 

Church, its character and members; 
its discipline, 579; described histori- 
cally in the Acts, 576 ; duty to minis- 
ters, 630 ; the Bible, a history of, 
118; Abraham's seed, 289. 

Classic usage as to New Testament 
words, 188-9. 

Claude's Essay, 372. 

Climate of Judsea, 267-9. 

Coasts, meaning of, 266. 

Codex, Code, meaning of, 21 ; Cod. Alex. 
Vati, etc., 6, 21, 27 ; readings of Cod. 
Alex,, 32, 42. 

Cognate languages of Scripture, 13 ; use 
of, in interpretation, 187. 

Colossians, Epistle to, 167, 616-17. 

Coming One, the, 192, 296, 301. 

Coming (second), of Christ, 301. 

Commandments, the ten, rules for inter- 
preting, 319 ; moral and positive, 320-2. 

Comparison, how expressed in Heb., 152 ; 
of Scripture with Scripture (see Paral- 
lels). 

Complutensian New Testament, 5. 

Concordance, Hebrew and Greek, 197. 

Conjectural readings and emendations, 
48. 

Connection (historical), of the two Tes- 
taments, 537-44. 

Constitution, the Jewish, described, 410. 

Context, use of, in fixing sense, 159-62, 
178 ; in suggesting lessons, 363-4. 

Contradictions (apparent), of Scripture, 
their origin, 54, 14;, 153, i*6, 169, 172, 
216-17, 250,316; how rp^onciled (the 
foregoing pages, etc.), 34*-5o. 

Controversy, difficulty of conducting, 387. 

Conversation, carriage, charity, meaning 

of, 55-7- 
Corinth, its character and importance, 

594- 
Corinthians (the), Epistles to, 594-601. 

Corruptions of Christianity, how met, 

630-5-6; whence originating, 585-99. 
Cosmogonies, ancient, compared with 

Scripture, examples of, 121. 
Counsel of God agrees with his promises, 

322. 
Covenant, meaning of, 2 ; the new the 

old unveiled and completed, 375. 
Covenants, different, mentioned in Scrip- 



ture, 396 ; with David ; himself refers 
them to the Messiah, 431. 

Covetousness condemned, 134. 249, 453. 

Creation, lessons in history of, 392-3. 

Cretans, their character, 632. 

Cush, 156. 

Customs explain texts, 238, 251; diffi- 
culties in, 344. 

Damascus, its character, 254. 

Daniel, book of, 376, 499 ; chronology, 
divisions, and spiritual lessons, 500-2 ; 
Daniel an example to young men, 502. 

Dates of English Bible, whence taken, 
212 ; discrepancies of, origin of, 216. 

Daubuz on symbolical language, 304. 

David, a man after God's own heart, 170 ; 
his righteousness explained, 164; his 
prophecies of Christ, 432 ; Christ spo- 
ken of under his name, 288 ; his cha- 
racter and reign, 436; his sin and its 
chastisement, 210. 

Davidson's Biblical Crit., 31, etc. 

Davison on prophecy, 97. 

Day, Jewish, how divided, 249. 

Deacons, their qualifications and duties, 
630. 

Dead Sea, 156. 

Dedication, feast of, 418. 

Deductions from Scripture, authority of, 

313-14- 

Delta on Revelation, 647. 

Depravity, human, in, 131, 209, 314. 

Deuteronomy, 384. 

Development in Scripture, 124-9 ; abuse 
of, 129. 

Devils, meaning of, 56; the devil, his 
personality, 393. (See Satan.) 

Difficulties of Scripture, how far to be 
studied, origin of, 332 ; in words and 
scope, 342-50; hi truths, revealed, 
351 ; utility of, 354 ; not all to be re- 
moved, 359. 

Discrepancies, apparent, of Chronicles 
and Kings, 433-4 ; of the Gospels, 566-7 
(See Contradictions.) 

Dispensations, successive, character and 
duration of each, 125-8. 

Divisions of Old Testament, 3, 61 ; of 
New Testament; Euthalian sections, 
23 ; into chapters and verses, 60 ; 
occasional inaccuracy and rule, 61. 
(See Ammonian, Eusebian.) 

Divisions among Christians, the sin and 
cure of, 600. 

Docetae 586. 

Doctrine, how illustrated by example, 
390. 

Doctrines of Scripture, the foundation of 
morality, 317 ; to be held consistently, 
312; comparative value of, 3 14-15 ; es- 
sential doctrines the same in all ages, 
130-3 ; interwoven with precepts, i?7 ; 
surnames, 150 ; passages proving (see 
Bom.) how systems are framed, 311. 

Dogmatic theology, what, 311. 

Domestic usages among the Jews, 240-3 



INDEX. 



653 



Dress, eastern, "naked" explained, 241. 

Duties of Christians to God, to man, to 
themselves, 608-9 i duties of justice, 
veracity, and love, 609 ; relative du- 
ties, 610. 

Eagle, habits of, illustrate Divine teach- 
ing, 220. 

Earths mentioned in Scripture, 233-4. 

Ebionites, 205-6. 

Ecclesiastes, book of, true key to, 455-7. 

Ecclesiastical writers, then' testimony on 
the genuineness of Scripture, 7 ; of the 
firsL four centuries arranged, 86. 

Edom, prophecies on, 476 ; fulfilment of, 
98. 

Economy, the old, 624-5. 

Egypt, history of, 119, 53? ; prophecies 
on, 476 ; its climate, 268 ; plagues of, 
204, 402; cuttoms of, 380; tendency 
of Jews to rely on, 486-95. 

Egyptian words in Pentateuch, 17 ; in 
New Testament, 20; Egyptian ver- 
sions, 34. 

Ekron, prophecies on, 493 . 

Election, how taught, 312. 

Eli, how punished, 209-10. 

Elihu's humility, 387. 

Elijah's miracles, 95, 522. 

Elisha's miracles, 93, 522 ; disinterested- 
ness, 248. 

Eminent piety enforced, 632-3. 

English versions : authorized, what, 63 ; 
general accuracy of, 50; corrections 
of, 51-9; history of, 62-3 ; Wy cliff e's, 
Tyndale's, Coverdale's, 62 ; Genevan, 
Douay, Rhemish, etc., 63. 

Englishman's Hebrew and Greek Con- 
cordances, 197. 

Ephesians, Epistle to, 167-8, 614 ; warn- 
ings suggested by history of the Ephe- 
sian church, 616. 

Epicureans, 205, 545. 

Epistles, how to be studied, 583-7. 

Era of Xabonassar, 487 ; various eras or 
epochs, 211. 

Error, its progress downwards, 398, 611 ; 
errors of the early church, 585. 

Esdraelon, valley of, 255. 

Essenes, 545, 549. 

Essential truths, what, 150, 315. 

Esther, book of, 515-16. 

Ethics, how taught in Scripture, 123. 

Ethiopic language, 15 ; and versions, 33. 

Ethnography, use of, 381. 

Etymology, how far a guide, 186. 

Eusebian canons, 23. 

Euthalian sections, 23. 

Evangelists, meaning of name, 554 ; 
candour of, 104. 

Evidences of the truth of Scripture clas- 
sified, 87-8 ; external and internal, 89 ; 
moral, 100: literary, 109; spiritual, 
in; want of faith in, how removed, 
115. (See Authenticity, Ecclesiastical, 
Genuineness, Pentateuch.) 

EviL how overruled, 399. 



Examples of Scripture, how to be used, 
325 ; applied to illustrate principles, 
390; intended to promote holiness, 
329. 

Excuses of the ungodly, 636. 

Exodus, book of, 383. 

Expiation, 193 ; how taught under the 
law, 414-15. 

Ezekiel, book of, 502-5. 

Ezra, book of, 508-10, 

Fables of Scripture, 146. 

Fabricii Codex Pseud., 84. 

Faith, defined, 160 ; various uses of the 
word, 157 ; produces good works, 169, 
317; the gift of God, 124; man's 
responsibility for, 312 ; how produced, 
124; the principle of obedience and 
success, 103 ; examples of, 135, 337 { 
admits increase, 368 ; taught in Old 
Testament, 337. 

Fall, history of, its moral completeness, 
118. 

False teachers, three kinds of, 637. 

Fanciful interpretations, 150, 282-4. 

Fasts, Jewish, 418. 

Felix, his character, 135, 207. 

Fellowship with Christ, 637. 

Festivals, Jewish, 270-1 ; 416-17. 

Figurative language, origin of, 140; 
cautions on, 142-3, 175 ; general 
nature of, 145-59 ; rules for inter- 
preting, 158-66-75. (See Allegories, 
Prophecy.) 

Flesh, meaning of, 157. 

Food, eastern, 244-5. 

Foreknowledge, consistent with human 
freedom, 469. 

Forty, peculiar use of, 153. 

Francke on practical reading of Scripture, 
361. 

Furniture, eastern, 240. 

Fiirst's Concordance, 197. 

Galatians, the, their origin and cha- 
racter, 592 ; Epistle to, 593 ; com- 
pared with other epistles, 168 ; various 
readings of, 11; iscope of, 168-9; 

Galileans, 548. 

Gaza, prophecy on, 493. 

Gehenna, origin of the name, 265. 

Gemara, 546. 

Genealogies of Scripture, use of, 394, 

4*5- 

Genesis, book of, 383. 

Gentiles, effect of Jewish rule, 544; 
their need of the gospel, 572-5 ; how 
met by the gospel, 572 ; preparation 
for receiving them into the church, 
474-6-84. 

Genuineness explained, 4; effect of 
printing on question of, 5 : evidences 
of, 5-13, 85 ; of Pentateuch. 378 ; of 
Isaiah, 487 ; of Gospels and Epistles, 
555-6. 

Geography, utility of, 253 ; difficulties 
explained by, 266 ; outline of, 253-64, 



654 



INDEX. 



Geology, 381. 

Gerard's Institutes, 188. 

Gibbon on the effects of the gospel, 
108. 

Gifts improved are increased, 315. 

Gilgal, lessons connected with; 256. 

Gill's Commentary, 204. 

Glory, the, 410. 

Glossaries, on Scripture, 191. 

Gnostics, 586. 

God, his nature, how revealed, 124; a 
Spirit, 174 ; his character; his govern- 
ment, 134 ; alone honoured in Scrip- 
ture, 103 ; illustrated in Genesis, 393. 

Gospel adapted to mans wants, 112; 
agreement between it and experience 
of Christians, 1 12-13 ; contrasted with 
false systems, 130 ; its chief excellence, 
13 3 ; influence of, among heathen na- 
tions, 107-8. 

Gospels, the, their canonicity, 76 ; 
authority, 66-7 ; meaning of, con- 
nection of the four, 554-5 ; chronology, 
563-4; verbal agreement, 565-6: 
harmony of, 564 ; apparent dis- 
crepancies, 566-7 ; topics to be noticed 
in studying, 570. 

Government, Christian duty to, 632. 

Gradual disclosure of truth in Old and 
New Testaments, 552. 

Graves on the Pentateuch, argument of, 
382. 

Grecian, 266. 

Greece, most civilized and most idola- 
trous, 107, 207. 

Greek language, its elements, 19 ; Hel- 
lenistic, 1 8 ; Lexicons and Grammars 
with special reference to New Testa- 
ment, 20, 182; Greek article, import- 
ance of, 52; rules of, 198; books on, 
202. 

Greek Scriptures, earliest versions of; 
the Septuagint, 9 ; history and com- 
parative value of; chief editions of; 
versions made from, 32 ; MSS. of, 

5, 27 ; quotations from, in Fathers, 

6, 7 ; use of, in interpretation, 191 ; 
history of the text of New Testament, 
25 ; textus receptus, 5. (See Aristeas,. 
Origen, Various readings.) 

Greeks, peculiar meaning of, 266. 
Grotius on Scripture Evidence a test of 

character, 115. 
Groves, worship in, 321. 
Growth, Christian, through the word, 628. 

Habakkuk, book of, 498-9. 

Habit, power of, 135. 

Habitations, eastern, described, 238-40. 

Hagenbach on the spirit in which the 
Scriptures must be studied, 148. 

Haggai, book of, 510; prophecies con- 
cerning Christ, 511 

Hagiographa, what, 3. 

Hales' Chronology, 219. 

Hall, Bishop, on virtue, 321 ; on Ruth's 
history, 429. 



Hand-book, aim of, 1, 2. 

Hands placed on sacrifice, meaning of, 
414. 

Harmony of the Gospels, how framed, 565 

Hatred, in what sense enjoined, 152. 

Head-dress, 242. 

Heathenism, influence of, 108 ; ignorance 
of man's guilt, God's character, and 
future life, 572-4. 

Hebraisms of Scripture, 151. 

Hebrew language, name, character, and 
history, 13, 16, 17 ; helps to the study 
of, 181. 

Hebrew Scriptures, earliest printed 
editions, 5; MSS. of, 5, 6; critical 
editions of, 30 ; Hebrew text modified 
by passages in the New Testament, 
334 ; difficulties in, 341-4. (See 
Targums, Masora.) 

Hebrews, Epistle to, 621. 

Hell, meaning of, 56. 

Hellenisms of New Testament, 18, 192. 

Hellenistic New Testament, 196. 

Herculaneum, MSS. found at, 22. 

Heresies in the early church, 586. 

Herod, persons so called, 155 ; date of 
death of Herod Agrippa, 580 ; Herod 
the Great, 543. 

Herodians, 548. 

High priest, 411. 

History, how to be studied, 390 ; pro- 
fane, its use hi interpretation, 206 ; 
ecclesiastical, its use, 207. 

History, natural, its use, 219. 

History of the Bible, on what principle 
written, 116; regarded as allegorical, 
144, 281 ; difficulties, 345-8. 

Historical books of Scripture, Jewish, an 
arrangement of, 419 ; by whom writ- 
ten, 420 ; on what principles, 421 ; 
religious character of Old Testament 
history, 436 ; chronological order of, 
422-3, 458-66. 

Hody on the LXX., 9. 

Holiness, idea of, how taught, 143-4 ; su- 
preme importance, 101, 315 ; promoted 
by the gospel, 107 ; the fruit of faith, 
103. 

Holy Spirit, needed in reading the Bible, 
148 ; how revealed in Old Testament, 
125 ; his personality and office, 578-9. 

Homologoumena. 10. 

Horeb and Sinai, 156. 

Horn, the little, of Daniel's pyophecy 
501-91. 

Home's Introduction, 31, etc, 

Horsley on the English Bible, 150. 

Hosea, book of, 482-4 ; marriage of the 
prophet, meaning of, 485. 

Houses, eastern, 239. 

Human nature, Scripture teaching on 
116-31 ; portraits of, 131; its tenden 
cies s< en in Jewish sects, 551. 

Humility, idea of, new to the Greeks, 
144 ; Peter an example of, 628 ; Elihu, 
387 ; honour put upon, 315-61 ; how 
taught by (Mir Lord, 315, 568. 



INDEX. 



655 



Idiom, Hebrew and Greek, importance 
of attending to, 5^. 

Idolatry, under the law, treason, 410. 

Idmxuea (See Edom). 

Immortality believed in by Old Testa- 
ment saints, 3 j 7 ; doubted by beathen, 

573- 
Importance of truths, how ascertained, 

J 14. 

Incense, 185. 

Inns, eastern, 252. 

Inspiration, Scripture teaching on, 72 ; 
theories of, 73 ; what it allows, 74 ; 
how it modifies interpretation, 355. 

Insults, different kinds, 251-2. 

Interpretation, rules of, 150-79 ; sanc- 
tioned by quotations in New Testa- 
ment, 388 ; helps to, 202 ; of Psalms, 
447 ; Song of Solomon, 448 ; Proverbs, 
452 ; Ecclesiastes, 456 ; Joel, 480 ; 
Zechariah, 513. (See particular books). 

Intoxication, meaning of, in figures, 175. 

Introduction to books of Scripture, best 
expositors, 377. (See different books.) 

Irony, examples of, 164. 

Isaiah, book of, 485. 

Israel and Judah, different histories of, 
466 ; spiritual meaning of " Israel," 
289. 

izthmian games, 594. 

Italic, the old version, 32. 

Italics, meaning of, in Scripture, 59. 

*Iva, meaning of, 343. 

Jacob's conduct to Esau and its results, 

357-3. 
Jahn's Archaeology, 249. 



Joshua, book of, 423 ; relation to the 
Pentateuch, 426 ; lessons taught in the 
life of, 424. 

Jubilee, year of, 419. 

Judaea, heat, seasons of, 267-71. 

Judaizing teachers, then' character, 585. 

Jude, Epistle of; connection with 2 Pet., 
635. 

Judges, book of, 427 ; moral condition of 
the Israelites under, 428. 

Julian era, 563. 

Judgment, the last, 633 ; qualities needed 
in, 315 ; shadowed forth in Old Testa- 
ment, 301. 

Justification by faith, Scripture view of, 
607 ; Paul and James compared, 167-9 ? 
blessings consequent on, 607. 

Karaites, 546. 
Keith on prophecy, 98, etc. 
Kennicott, his labours, 5, 30-1. 
Kingdom of heaven, or of God, 203. 

361. 
Kingdoms received from Rome, 253, 
Kings, bocks of, 433-4 ; to be compared 

with Chronicles, 4^5-64, 527. 
Kings, comparative view of reigns of 

those of Israel and Judah, 467-8. 

Lamentations, book of, 497-8. 

Lamy"s Apparatus Biblicus, 272. 

Lardner, 109. 

Latin words in New Testament, 20. 

Law, the, its true purpose, 383 ; outline 
of its provisions, 410-19 ; origin of ce- 
remonial, 406 ; how to be interpreted, 
319. 



James, Epistle of; his history, 612 ; re- j Lebanon, 254-60-1 ; smell of, 220. 



lation of his Epistle to other Epistles, 
169. 

Japheth, prophecy on, 96. 

Jehoshaphat, 521. 

Jephthah's vow, 350. 

Jeremiah, book of, 494-7 ; different ar- 
rangement of his predictions, 496-7. 

Jericho, prophecy concerning, 423-4 ; its 
history, 256. 

Jeroboam, his character, 466-7. 

Jerusalem, history of, 262-6. 

Jethro, his different names, 156. 

Jews, prophecies on, 97-8 ; their history 
and rites typical, 144, 289 ; God"s pur- 
pose in relation to, 610 

Job, book of, 384 ; lessons taught by, 
387; prophecies of Christ in, 394; dif- 
ficulties of, 343 ; peculiar words in, 17. 

Joel, book of, 479-81. 

John, Gospel of, 561-3 ; Epistles of, 636-9 

Jonah, book of, 478-9. 

Jones on the canon, 84. 

Jordan, 255. 

Joseph, his history and character, 367, 

399- 

Josephus on the canon, 3 ; his account 
of "Felix, 207 ; use of, in interpreta- 
tion, 189. 

Joshua, the high priest, 513. 



Leighton's summary of 1 Pet., 627. 

Leland on Revelation, 108. 

Leslie on Miracles, 92. 

Letters, how to be written, 639 ; pecu- 
liar, in Hebrew Scriptures, 547. 

Levites, 411-13. 

Leviticus, book of, 383. 

Lexicons, authority of; Hebrew, 181; 
Greek, 182. 

Liberality, 328; its motives and mea* 
sure, 600. 

Liberty, spiritual, in things indifferent, 
594. 6c6. 

Light, meaning of, 143-59 ; God ig 
light, 637. 

Lightfoot's Horae Heb., 204. 

Lion, habits of, 222. 

Lisco on the Parables, 280; on the 
Prodigal Son, and the rich man, 371-2. 

Locke on Theology, 147 ; on general 
truth, 311; his Common-place Book, 
372 ; on the Epistles, 584. 

Lord's Supper, commemorative not sacri- 
ficial, 6ci ; of two kinds, 17; ; primi- 
tive practices in, 331 ; how to be 
observed, 601. 

Love constraining motive of obedience, 
601 ; sum. of the law, 610 ; Christian, 
its supremacy, 601 ; God is love, 638. 



€56 



INDEX. 



Luke, Gospel of, 560-1. 
Luther, his version, 183 ; on studying 
Scripture history, 330. 

Maccabees, 543. 

Magog, 155. ' 

Malachi, book of, 518-19. 

Malice, 57. 

Man, how revealed, 116, 134-5. 

Man of sin, 210; 591. 

Manasseh, his repentaiue., 527. 

Manuscripts, oldest known, 212 ; age, 
how fixed, 20-4 ; materials of, 21; of 
classic authors, 6 ; number of, 5, 29, 
31 ; circumstances favourable to ac- 
curacy of Scriptures, 10 ; comparative 
value of, 25, 29 ; classification of He- 
brew, 3 1 ; of Greek, by Bentley, Tre- 
gelles, etc., 25-6 ; uncial and cursive, 
27-9. (See Codex, Genuineness, Greek, 
Hebrew, Masora.) 

Marginal glosses, 41 ; readings, 59. 

Mark, Gospel of, 558-9. 

Marks of the Lord Jesus., 171. 

Marriage, 393-6; ungodly, mischief of, 
133 ; its duties, 599 ; meaning of, in 
symbols, 308. 

Marsh's Biblical Criticism, 31, 139. 

Masora, 547 ; Masoretic text, 29, 31 • 

Matthew, Gospel of, 556-8. 

Meals, eastern, 243. 

Measures, Scriptural, 247. 

Media, history of, 535—7. 

Mediterranean Sea, 156, 254. 

Melchisedec, 13. 

Messiah, preparations for his coming, 391 . 

Mesopotamia, 254. 

Metals, 236-8. 

Metaphor, 145. 

Metonymy, 145. 

Micah, book of, 489^90. 

Michaelis' Introduction, 24. 

Mill's Symbology, 304. 

Minerals, 233-4. 

Minister, 185 ; Christian ministers, their 
qualifications and duties, 629. 

Miracles, evidence of, 89 ; number of, 
90 ; books on, 89 ; of our Lord, 569 ; of 
Elijah, 522. 

Miraculous gifts, their use, 600. (See 
Leslie.) 

Mishna, 546. 

Mizpeh, 155. 

Money, early, 238-48. 

Montfaucons Palaeographia Gra?ca, 24. 

Months, Jewish, tables of, 270. 

Morality.. Christian, its peculiarities, 608 ; 
founded on doctrines, 310* 

Moriah, Mount, 262. 

Moses, his candour, 104 ; how he honours 
God, 103. 

Mothers, their influence, 639. 

Mourning, eastern, 252. 

Myrrh, 222-9. 

Mystery, 58, 161. 

Nihum, book of, 491-2. 



Naked, meaning of, 241. 

Names, proper, their importance, 171 

185. 

Nathan, his character, 430. 

Nations taught their duties in the Old 
Testament, 436 ; heathen, how noticed 
in Scripture, 118. 

Natural history, utility of, 219 ; Botany, 
223-33 ; mineralogy of Scripture, 
233-8 ; particular examples, 220-2. 

Neander on the Parables. 279-80; on 
church history, 330 ; his motto, 148. 

Nebuchadnezzar, his dreams, 529-31. 

Nehemiah, book of, 516 ; a model of 
patriotism and piety, 516-18. 

Nero, by what name called in Scripture, 
154 ; honour due to him, 210 ; Paul 
beheaded by his order, 633. 

New Testament, books of, 376 ; the ful- 
filment of the Old, 338-75 ; set forth, 
in Christ, 551 ; to be studied with com- 
parison, 570-1 ; sense of doctrine, 314. 
(See Testament.) 

Newton, bisnop, on prophecy, 89. 

Newton, Jno., on systems of theology, 
455 ; on the practical reading of the 
Bible, 524. 

Newton, sir I., on times of prophecy 
303. 

Xicolaitanes, some account of, 586. 

Night, how divided among the Jews, 249. 

Nile, 156. 

Nineveh, its history, 534; predictions 
concerning, 100, 476 ; state, in the days 
of Nahum, 491. 

Numbers, book of; scope and contents, 
384. 

Numbers, mis- translations of, 54 ; liable 
to errors, 54 ; peculiarity in use of, 

Oaths, how far allowed, 327. 
Obadiah, book of, 505-6. 
Obedience, evangelical, motives to, 608. 
Obsolete words of English Scriptures, 

57-8. 

Offerings under the law, 413. 

Oil, value of; how used as medicine 
222; at feasts, 245. 

Old Testament — meaning of name, 2 ; 
various readings of, 12 ; our Lord's 
testimony to, 68, 74 ; a moral history, 
117; still instructive, 132; outline of, 
375 ; use of, 374 ; its importance and 
inferiority to the New Testament, 
377 ; is the New unveiled, 282 ; its 
temporal promises how far applicable, 

323. 

Olives, Mount of, 265-7, 
Oracles of God, what, 3. 
Ordain, various meanings of, 56. 
Origen's Hexapla, 32. 

Palestine, its names, 257 ; extent and 
divisions, 258-9; climate, 261 ; moun- 
tains, 260 ; population in ancient and 
modem times, 261 . 



INDEX. 



657 



examples of 



Paley on the Evidences, 86 ; Ms Hone 
Paulinas, no; on devotional virtues, 
136. 

Palm-tree, an emblem of the Christian, 
219. 

Papyrus, 22. 

Parables, defined, 146 ; how differ from 
figures, 273 ; when used, 274 : how 
far interpretation may be pushed, 
277 ; scope, 276 ; of Old Testament, 
279; of Xew Testament classified, 
279-81 ; of Good Samaritan and Prodigal 
Son, 276 ; rules on, 275-9 » hooks on, 
285 ; why used in our Lord's teaching, 
552. (See Lisco, Xeander, Allegory.) 

Paradise, meaning of, 20. 

Paragraph Bible, 389 ; Paragraphs, im- 
portance of noting, 61. 

Parallel passages, importance of com- 
paring ; verbal parallels, 170-2 ; paral- 
lels of ideas, 173 ; influence on text, 
text, 42 ; suggest important lessons, 
362 ; importance of studying, illus- 
trated, 170. 

Parallelism, use of, in interpretation, 
163 ; synonymous, 162 ; antithetic, 
163 ; constructive, 388. 

Parchment, 21. 

Parentheses, 165. 

Parents, their duties ; 
godly, 600. 

Pascal on the study of Scripture, 148 ; 
on Scripture difficulties, 359. 

Particles, importance of, 165 ; different 
meaning of, 51. 

Passover, 402-16-17 ; when held, 218 ; 
customs at, 251 ; type of Christ, 272-8. 

Patience involved in faith, 625. 

Patriarchs, their dispensation, 128 ; 
piety of, 396 ; their regard for a future 
life, 33.7. 

Paul, his character, apostolic authority, 
598 ; last words, 635 ; his Epistles — ' 
authority and canonicity of, 67, 76. 
(See Felix.) 

Peace, the fruit of faith, 607 ; how culti- 
vated, 610. 

Peace offering, 416. 

Penance, 209. 

Penny, 58. 

Pentateuch, its titles ; genuineness, 378- 
80; first questioned by Hobbes, 38c; 
authenticity, 380-4 ; various documents 
used in preparing, 382 ; peculiar words 
in, 17. 

Pentecost, 417. 

Perfection, meaning of, 160. 

Persian words in Scripture, 20 ; version, 
37 ; doctrine of evil, 205. 

Peter, honoured as the instrument of 
earliest conversions, 173 ; his humility, 
628 ; his last written words, 633. 

Petra, history of, 267. 

Pharaoh hardened by mercy, 316, 401 ; 
kings so called, 154. 

Pharisees, — Pharisaism, 545-6-8. 

Philemon, Epistle to, 618. 



Philippians, Epistle to, 619. 

Philistia, prophecy against, 476-7. 

Philosophy, its influence, 585-95; evil 
influence on the early church, 585-6. 

Phoenician language, 13 ; customs, 205. 

Pingre's tables, 219. 

Plagues of Egypt, 357 ; their signifi- 
cance, 401-2. 

Platonism, its influence, 586. 

Playfair's chronology, 219. 

Plural, how used, 152. 

Poetry, peculiarities of, 387-9. 

Policy, worldly, often destructive. 467. 

Polyglot, Complutensian, 5 ; London, 

25, 30. 

Popery, novelties of, 209 ; false interpre- 
tations of, 166-73, etc. ; adds to 
Scripture, 129 ; mischievous influence 
of, 136. 

Porter, Scott, 31, 50. 

Powel's summary of prophecies, 298. 

Practical reading of Scripture, suggestions 
on, 360-91 ; theology, what, 311. 

Praetorium, what, 265. 

Prayer of Christians asked for by 
apostles, 599 ; how offered under the 
gospel, 615 ; promoted by promise, 
321. 

Precepts, peculiarity of Scripture, 101-4, 
198; based on doctrines, 317 ; moral 
and positive, 320 ; rales on, 321. (See 
Law.) 

Precious stones of Scripture, 235-6. 

Presumptive evidence, 87. 

Priests, meaning of, 185 ; their duties, 
support, etc., 411-13. 

Promises, a revelation of God's counseL 
322 ; universal and particular, absolute 
and conditional, 3 23 : differ from 
invitations, 324; ought to guide to 
prayer and holiness, 325. 

Proper meaning of words, what, 145. 

Prophecy, revives in Samuel, 431 • 
gradual disclosures of, 432 ; moral lej~ 
sons of, 119, 303 ; peculiarities of, as to 
time and language, 286-9 ; the last of 
Old Testament, 519 ; last of the New, 
649 ; nature of, as evidence, 92 ; per- 
vades Scripture, 93 : all subordinate 
to one end, 94 : prophecies concerning 
Christ, 95, 295 : pagan nations, 96 ; 
moral and evangelical, 119 ; double or 
repeated applications of, 291-2, 339 ; 
rules of interpretation, 293-5 ; sanc- 
tioned by Xew Testament, 339 ; two 
systems, 296; agreement, 301, dif- 
ference, 297 ; prophecies in historical 
books, 304 ; symbols of, 305 ; time in, 
302 ; books as evidence, 89. 

Prophetical books, epitomized, 471-2; 
tabular view of 472-6. 

Propitiation, what, 193. 

Proselytes, 549. 

Proverbs, book of, 450-5 ; rules for study 
of, 452 ; examples of exposition, 452-5. 

Providence,— of God illustrated , 3 36, 5 16 ; 
lessons of, 538 : mystery of, 367 ; God 



G58 



INDEX. 



in histoiy, 103 ; requires submission, 
367. 

Psalms, name, Jewish division of, 439 ; 
value, 440 ; authorship, 439 ; arrange- 
ment of Townsend, Tholuck, etc., 
441 ; chronological arrangement, 
442-5 ; their titles, 446-7 ; rules for 
studying, 447 ; a manual of devotion, 
127, 432; arranged as such, 441. 

Ptolemy, common name, 154. 

Publicans, 246. 

Purgatory, on what passage it is sup- 
posed to rest, 167. 

Purification under the law, spiritual 
significance of, 416. 

Purim, feast of, 418. 

Qualities, how expressed in Hebrew, 
151. 

Questions in reading the New Testa- 
ment, 570. 

Quotations in the fathers, 7 ; influence 
of, on the text of LXX. 42 ; in New 
Testament classified, 332 ; number of, 
from Pentateuch, 333; variations in, 
reasons for, 33$ ; omissions in, 336 ; 
in Revelation, 336 ; truths taught in, 

337- 

Rahab, her faith ; an ancestress of the 

Messiah, 424. 
Rain under God's control, 269 ; unusual 

in harvest, 271 ; early and latter, 272. 
Rambach's, " lnstitutiones Hermeneu- 

ticse," 372. 
Rather, meaning of, 165. 
Rationalism, its evils, 546. 
Rebecca, lessons taught in her history, 

358. 

Reconciliation, meaning of, 193. 

Redemption, meaning of, 194 ; its source 
God's love, 607. 

Relative duties, how taught and en- 
forced, 552, 600. 

Religion, objective and subjective, 13 j ; 
meaning of the word in Scrip ture, 58 ; 
a natural necessity, 611. 

Repentance, two meanings of, 55 ; ap- 
plied to God, 142-3 ; a gift and a duty, 
312; needed but not efficacious, illus- 
trated by examples, 278, 329 ; by pa- 
rables, 370. 

Resurrection, doctrine of, 601 ; of Christ, 
its significance and importance, 315 ; 
an Old Testament type ; the first 
fruits, 272. 

Revelation progressive, 124; unity of, 
130. 

Revelation, date and contents, 639 ; its 
chief theme ; three theor.ies of inter- 
pretation, 642-3 ; lessons revealed in, 
647 ; closing chapters of, compared 
with other chapters of Scripture, 649. 

Revenue of Judaea in our Lord's day, 
260 ; different kinds of, how collected, 
245-6. 



Reverence needed in studying Scripture 
2, 148, 359- 

Rhemish Testament, 63. 

Rice, how sown, 344. 

Riddles of Scripture, 146. 

Ridley, the martyr, on Scripture myste 
ries, 314. 

Righteous, meaning of, 164. 

Righteousness of God, why justificatiox 
is so called, 611. 

Rock of the church, 173 ; rocks of Scrip- 
ture, 234. 

Roman empire foretold, 96, 501. 

Romans, Epistle to, scope, contents and 
argument, 601 ; character of ibe 
church, 602 ; various readings, 11 ; 
scope, 169; reconciled with James, 

349- 
Rossi, De, MSS. of, 5, 30. 

Rules of interpretation, 150-75, and 
utility of, 176. (See Prophecy, Parable, 
etc.) 

Ruth, lessons taught in hel- history, 429 ; 
book of, 428 ; place in history, 460. 

Ryan on the effects of religion, 108. 

Sabbath, when instituted; how to be 

observed, 393 ; law of, mixed, 320 ; 

sabbath-day's journey, 248. 
Sabbatical year, 416. 
Sacrifice, first mentioned in Scriptme, 

393 ; meaning of, under the law, 144, 

185, 416; essential to salvation, 132. 
Sadducees, their numbers, tenets, and 

immorality, 545-8. 
Salutation, eastern, 251. 
Salvation by law proved hopeless, 374 ; 

meaning of, 157-64-95 ; man's need of, 

607 ; by fire, 167. 
Samaria, the crown of pride, 267. 
Samaritan language, 15 ; Pentateuch, 15, 

35; chronology, 212. 
Samaritans, their origin and views, 468, 

550. 
Samuel, books of, 429-33. 
Sandals, customs connected with, 242. 
Sanhedrim, how composed, 549. 
Satan, his character and personality, 

39 j ; his agency, and our duty, 313. 
Satisfaction, doctrine of, 195. 
Schmidt's Concordance, 197. 
Schoetgenius Hora? Heb. 214. 
Scholiasts, Greek, use of, 191. 
Scholz, New Testament, 26. 
Schools of the prophets, 521. 
Science, agreement of Scripture with, 

122 ; exceptions, 123 ; not to be sought 

in Scripture, 120. 
Scope, importance of marking; how 

learned, 167 ; effect of, in fixing sense, 

168 ; in correcting discrepancies, 169 ; 

in teaching lessons, 362. 
Scribes, 549. 
Scripture, study of, 1, 148-9. (See Bible 

Old Testament, Written revelation.) 
Sea, meaning of, 266. 
Sealing, 253- 



INDEX. 



659 



Seasons in Judaea, 270. 

Sects, enumerated, 545-9 ; Jewish, illus- 
trate human nature, 551 

Self-deception illustrated, 135. 

Sense of Scripture, 138. 

Septuagint. (See Greek version.) 

Sepulchres, 252. 

Servants, their duties, 395 ; may adorn 
the gospel, 600. 

Seven; seventy, 153. 

Shall, double meaning of, 56. 

Sheep, tail of, why offered ; habits of, 221. 

Shepherds in Egypt, 206, 381. 

Shew-bread, 410. 

Shiloh, 257. 

Silence of Scripture, 121. 

Simon the Just, 541. 

Simoom, 268. 

Sin punished, as dishonouring God, 102 \ 
how described and illustrated, 134-5 ; 
the first, its destructiveness, 118, 393 ; 
results- 313, 398 ; how punished in 
nations, 467 ; referred to in Job, 385. 

Sinai, 156, 260. 

Sodom, guilt of, 209. 

Sohar of E. Simeon, 204. 

Solomon, his character and reign, 437-8 ; 
his sin and its results, 210 ; prophe- 
cies concerning, 431. 

Son, the word, how used, 151-3. 

Song of Solomon, canonicity and spiri- 
tual, 447-50 ; significance, abuse in in- 
terpreting, 449. 

Songs of degrees, 168, 446. 

Spirit, Holy, how revealed, 125, 488 ; his 
teaching needed, 148 ; given at Pen- 
tecost, 273 ; his personalitv and work, 

573 

Spiritual truth revealed in figurative lan- 
guage, 140. 

Spiritual illumination, limit of, 149. 

Spurious, meaning of, 5. 

Stoics, 205, 545. 

Substitution, 196. 

Sufis, 546. 

Synagogues, origin of, 411. 

Synecdoche, 145. 

Systematic divinity, how framed, 456- 
62 ; differs from interpretation, 458 ; 
evil of repudiating, 460 ; canons on 
forming, 464 ; examples of, 599, 607. 

Tabernacle, the, 410 ; feast of Taber- 
nacles, 417 ; custom at, 252. 

Tables of weights, etc., 247. 

Talbot's Bible. 372. 

Talmud, what, 546. 

Targums, various, 8 ; utility, 182, 204 ; 
origin of, 546. 

TarsMsb, 255. 

Taxation, 245-6. 

Taylor's Hebrew and English Concor- 
dances, 197. 

Temple, the, a type of Christ and of the 
church, 289 ; history of, connected with 
that of the Jews, 438 ; different names 
of, 56; brief history of, 262-3. 



and 
Di- 



148 



and 



I Ten, usage as to, 153. 
I Tenses, translation of, S3 • 
Tents, eastern, 238, 
Testament, New, 551; connection of books 

of > 376; peculiarities of, 375-7, 5>i; 

chief source of doctrine, 312. (SeeO'd. ' 
Textus receptus, 5. 
Thank-offerings, 415. 
Then, therefore, 165. 
Theodotion, version of, 9. 
Theology, what, 179; dogmatic 

practical, jii. (See Systematic 

vinity.) 
Therapeutic, 546. 
Thessalonians, Epistles to, 589-91. 
Thessalonica, its character, 589 
Tholuck on religious insigh 

grammatical analysis, 150. 
Thomson on relative importance of truth 

315- 

Tiberias, city of, 266. 

Time in prophecy, 302. 

Timothy, date and contents of Epistles 

to, 628-30. 
Titus, date, scope, and contents of, 630. 
Towns of Palestine, 240. 
Tradition, questions of, 546. 
Translation of Scripture, early, 8, 31, etc. 
Authorized version. 62 
Armenian version, 8, 34. 
Anglo-Saxon, 25- 
Dutch, 184. 
French, 184. 
Georgian, 34. 
German, 183. 
Gothic, 34. 
Italian, 184. 
Italic, old, 32. 
Latin, modern, 183. 
Sahidic, 8. 
Slavonic, 34. 
Spanish 184. 

(See also Arabic, English, Egyptian. 
Ethiopic, Persian, Greek, Script., 
Syriac, Vulgate.) 
Translations, utility of, for interpretation, 

184. 
Transubstantiation, 129, 209. 
Tregelles, principle of classifying aISS., 

26. 
Trespass-offerings, 415. 
Trinity, what, how revealed in Old Tes- 
tament, 124-5. 
Trommius Concordance, 197. 
Tropes, 145-7. (See Figurative.) 
Truth, summaries of, 131-50, 311,460. 
Types, 143-6, 274-5, 281-4, 411; di- 
visible into (1.) Person a I— Adam, 
Aaron, Joshua, Solomon, etc. ; (2.) 
Historical, — The Brazen Serpent; (3.) 
Religious Institutes, — Tabernacle, 
Mercy-seat, Sacrifice, Passover, etc. 
See on the general principle, 275, 85, 
88, 290. 

Unbelief a great sin, 312; illustrated 
in the parable of the rich man, 371. 



660 



INDEX. 



Uncharitableness, sin of, 387. 

Uncial MSS., 27. 

Untranslated words of Scripture, 59. 

Various readings, number of, 11, 12 ; 

origin of, 38-44 ; rules for ascertaining 

the value of, 44=50, difficulties created 

by, 342-5. (See Conjectural.) 
Verbs of action, how used in Scripture, 

154. 
Versions (see Translation). 
Vinegar, what, 244. 
Virtues have their counterfeits, 397. 
Visiting the sins of the fathers on the 

children, 317-49. 
Voltaire's abuse of Ecclesiastes, 457 ; 

objections to Scriptures, 58-128. 
Vulgate, history of, 9, 33 ; errors in 

text, n ; utility of, 182-3. 



on Scripture difficulties, 
616. 



AVarburton 

359- 
Warfare, the Christian 

Weights, 247. 

Wells, their value, 269. 

Wemyss' Key to the symbolical 

guage of Scripture, 304. 

Wetstein's New Testament, 204. 

Whirl winds, effects of, 263. 

White stone, 253. 

Will, double meaning of, 56. 



Ian- 



Wisdom, — is with the meek, 149; ofoiif 
Lord, 106, 552 \ man's to be distrusted, 
358-9 ; worldly, folly of, in Jeroboam, 
520 ; tested by affliction, 364 ; in Prov. ' 
and Eccles. 457. . 

Word of God, significance of title, 4. 

Words, common meaning of, 150 ; to be 
preferred, 178 ; lesson? taught by, 361 ; 
use of etymology in explaining, t86. 

World, 257 ; elements of: course of, 161. 

Worship, acceptable, first recorded act 
of, 393 ; public, among the Jews, 410; 
a duty, 608. 

Written revelation, advantage of, 63 ; 
caution respecting the use of, 64. 



Year, civil and ecclesiastical, 249 ; 
batical, of Jubilee, 418-19. 



sab- 



Zeal, instance of, 272 ; inculcated on 
all, 609. 

Zealots, who, 548. 

Zechariah, the son of Barachiah, 347. 

Zechariah, book of, 512-14 ; style of, 16 ; 
his name confounded with that of 
Jeremiah, 512; Psalms ascribed to, 
515 ; meaning of his predictions, 512. 

Zedekiah, remarkable fulfilment of pro- 
phecy on, 218. 

Zephaniah, book of, 492-3 ; style of, 16. 

Zerubbabel, an ancestor of Christ, 511. 



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